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University  of  Minnesota. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  No.  19. 


MARCH,  1892. 


DEHORNING  EXPERIMENT. 

CREAM  RAISING  BY  COLD  DEEP  SETTING. 
EXPERIMENTS  IN  CHEESE  MAKING — INCORPORATING  CREAM 
INTO  CHEESE,  ETC. 

THE  BABCOCK  TEST  AND  CHURN. 


The  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the 
State  who  make  application  for  them. 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK , RAMSEY  CO. 
MINNESOTA . 


University  of  Minnesota. 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis, 1896 . 

The  HON.  GREENLEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - - 1894. 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - 1894. 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  Alexandria, 1896. 

The  HON.  JOEL  P.  HEATWOLE,  Ngrthfield,  ....  1896. 

The  HON.  0.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth, 1896. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson, 1896. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  EMERY,  Lake  City, 1895. 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  Minneapolis,  ....  1&95. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  R.  MERRIAM,  St.  Paul,  - - - Ex-Officio. 

The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  DAVID  L.  KIgHLE,  M.  A..  St.  Paul,  - - - Ex-Officio . 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHROP,  LL.  D.,  Minneapolis,  ....  Ex-Officio . 
' ' The  President  of  the  University. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  EMERY. 


OFFICERS*  OF  THE  STATION : 

CLINTON  D.  SMITH,  M.  S., Director. 

Agriculturist. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S.,  - - - Horticulturist. 

OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  - Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S., Chemist. 

T.  L.  H^BCKER, Dairying. 

J.  A.  VYE, ....  Secretary. 


DEHORNING  EXPERIMENT. 


V\ 


VP  V- 


o 


CLINTON  D.  SMITH  AND  T.  L.  HACKER, 

Last  summer  it  was  decided  by  the  Regents  to  place  up- 
on the  station  farm,  a herd  of  good  dairy  cows,  selected  from 
natives,  thorough -breds  and  their  grades.  In  carrying  out 
this  purpose,  some  twenty-five  cows  were  purchased  during 
the  month  of  October  and  shipped  to  the  station.  When 
they  were  let  into  the  yard,  it  was  noticed  that  the  larger 
cows  drove  the  smaller  from  feed  and  water,  and  often  pre- 
vented their  drinking  unless  protected  by  the  attendant.  It 
was  apparent,  that  unless  some  means  could  be  devised  to 
prevent  this,  serious  losses  would  occur,  from  irregular  feed- 
ing and  drinking  and  by  premature  births. 

It  was  decided  that  the  quickest  and  most  effectual  rem- 
edy was  dehorning.  This  is,  by  many,  considered  a ques- 
tionable practice,  because  of  the  pain  inflicted  during  the  op- 
eration. In  order  that  the  immediate  effects  might  be  studi- 
ed, a comparison  was  made  of  the  daily  yield  of  milk  and 
per  cent  of  fat,  before  and  after  dehorning.  These  results 
were  compared  with  the  record  of  a number  of  cows,  not  de- 
horned but  which  saw  the  operation  and  smelled  the  blood. 

The  cows,  Franc,  Roxy,  Sully,  Gran,  Clara  and  Crossy 
were  over  five  years  old  and  Patsey,  Rossie  and  Bettie,  over 
four  years;  these  were  dehorned  on  the  ninth  of  November, 
1891.  They  were  fastened  in  a stanchion,  the  head  drawn 
forward  by  means  of  a halter  and  small  tackle  blocks,  until 
the  neck  was  extended  to  its  full  length,  so  that  the  horns 
were  sufficiently  far  from  the  stanchion  to  permit  the  free  use 
of  the  narrow  bladed  butcher’s  saw,  which  we  used. 

The  time  occupied  was  about  five  seconds  per  horn;  as 
soon  as  the  horns  were  removed,  pieces  of  cotton  cloth 
smeared  with  pine  tar  were  placed  upon  the  wounds.  Care 
was  taken  to  saw  the  horns  inside  of  the  outer  edge  of  the 
skin,  removing  with  the  horn  a narrow  strip  of  hair. 


4 


During  the  operation  the  cows  gave  every  indication 
of  intense  suffering;  but,  upon  being  released  no  sign  of 
pain  was  visible.  The  wounds  healed  rapidly  without  any 
other  application  than  the  tar. 

Table  I.  is  taken  from  the  regular  herd  record,  showing 
the  pounds  of  milk  given  by  each  cow  for  the  three  milkings 
before  they  were  dehorned,  the  per  cent  fat  and  total  fat. 


TABLE  I. 


First  Milking. 

1 

Second  Milking. 

Third  Milking. 

Lbs. 

Per  cent 

Total 

Lbs. 

Per  cent 

Total 

Lbs. 

1 

Per  centl 

| Total 

milk. 

fat. 

fat. 

milk. 

fat. 

fat. 

milk. 

fat. 

fat. 

Betty... 

11.5 

4.3 

.494 

11. 

3.8 

.418 

11.5 

4.1 

.471 

Clara... 

9.5 

4.6 

.437 

9. 

3.7 

.333 

7.1 

4. 

.284 

Crossy. 

6.5 

4.7 

.305 

6.5 

4.9 

.318 

6.5 

4.4 

.286 

Franc . . 

13.5 

3.9 

.526 

13.5 

4. 

.540 

15. 

3.6 

.540 

Gran.... 

10. 

3.8 

.380 

9.25 

3.4 

.314 

9.5 

4.3 

.408 

Patsey 

10.5 

3.5 

.387 

11. 

3.6 

.396 

11.25 

4. 

.450 

Rossie.. 

10.9 

4.2 

.457 

10. 

3.3 

.330 

10.9 

3.7 

.403 

Roxy... 

13.9 

4.1 

.569 

12.75 

3.5 

.446 

13.5 

3.9 

.526 

Sully.... 

21. 

4.5 

.945 

20. 

4.3 

.860 

20.75 

4. 

.830 

107.3 

4.5 

103. 

3.955 

106. 

4.298 

Total  milk  yield  for  three  milkings,  316.3. 
Total  pounds  of  fat  for  three  milkings,  12.753. 


Table  II  shows  the  pounds  of  milk  given  by  each  cow 
during  the  three  milkings  immediately  following  dehorning, 
with  per  cent  of  fat  and  total  fat. 


TABLE  II. 


First  Milking. 

Second  Milking. 

Third  Milking. 

Lbs. 

Per  cent 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Per  cent 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Per  cent 

Lbs. 

i 

milk. 

' 

fat. 

fat. 

milk. 

fat. 

fat. 

milk. 

fat. 

fat. 

Betty... 

10.6 

2.9 

.307 

11.5 

4.3 

.495 

9.25 

4.6 

.426 

Clara... 

12.25 

7. 

.857 

9. 

5.5 

.495 

9.25 

4.7 

.435 

Crossy. 

5.5 

5.5 

.302 

6. 

6.1 

.366 

6.5 

5.9 

.383 

Franc .. 

12.75 

3.4 

.433 

13. 

3.9 

.507 

13.5 

4.3 

.580 

Gran.... 

9.5 

2.7 

.256 

7.5 

3.8 

.285 

8.5 

4.7 

.400 

Patsey. 

10. 

4. 

.400 

10.5 

3.1 

.325 

10.5 

3.8 

.399 

Rossie.. 

9. 

3.2 

.288 

9.75 

3.8 

.370 

9.25 

3.7 

.342 

Roxy... 

11. 

4.6 

.506 

11. 

4.8 

.528 

11.75 

4.3 

.505 

Sully.... 

19. 

3.1 

.589 

19.75 

4. 

.790 

20. 

3.6 

.720 

97.6 

3.938 

98. 

4.161 

98.5 

4.190 

Total  pounds  of  milk  for  the  three  milkings,  294.1. 
Total  pounds  of  fat  for  the  three  milkings,  12.289. 


5 


Table  III  shows  the  pounds  of  milk  given  by  the  six 
cows  not  dehorned,  covering  the  same  period  as  Table  I, 
with  per  cent  fat  and  total  fat. 


TABLE  III. 


First  Milking. 

Second  Milking. 

Third  Milking. 

Lbs. 

Per  cent 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Per  cent 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Per  cent 

Lbs. 

milk. 

fat. 

fat. 

milk. 

fat. 

fat. 

milk. 

fat. 

fat. 

Gertie.... 

7.7 

5. 

| .385 

1 

| 7.75 

4.7 

.364 

8. 

4.8 

.384 

Houston 

15.5 

! 5.1  I 

| .790 

I 12.75 

4.8 

.612 

13.25 

4.9 

.649 

Maria.... 

13.  | 

4.7  1 

.611 

1 13.5 

. 4.7 

.634 

12.5 

4.6 

.575 

Pottie.... 

12.75] 

1 5.  | 

| .637 

| 12.25 

4. 

.490 

12.1 

4.5 

.545 

Pride 

6.4 

1 6.9 

| .441  | 

1 5.5 

| 5.6 

| .308  | 

| 5.75 

| 5 3 

.305 

Tricksey 

13.25 

51  ! 

.676  | 

| 12.25  | 

4.9  | 

.600 

1 

| 12.25 

5.5 

.674 

68.6 

| 3.540  | 

| 64. 

3.008 

63.85 

l 

3.132 

i 

1 1 

1 

Total  pounds  of  milk  for  the  three  milkings,  196.45. 
Total  pounds  of  fat  for  the  three  milkings,  9.68. 


Tabic  IV  shows  the  pounds  of  milk  given  by  the  six  cows 
not  dehorned,  covering  the  same  period  as  Table  II,  the  per 
cent  fat  and  total  fat. 


TABLE  IV. 


First  Milking. 

Second  Milking. 

Third  Milking. 

Lbs. 

Per  cent 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Per  cent 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Per  cent 

Lbs. 

milk. 

fat 

fat. 

milk. 

fat. 

fat. 

milk. 

fat. 

fat. 

Gertie.... 

7. 

3.9 

.273 

8.25 

1 

6. 

.495 

7.5 

4.9 

.367 

Houston 

11.5 

3.5 

.402 

15.5 

5.2 

.806 

13. 

5.3 

.689 

Maria.... 

12. 

4.3 

.516 

13.5 

4.8 

.648 

13. 

4.6 

.598 

Pottie.... 

11.5 

3.8 

.437 

$12.75 

4.3 

.548 

12.5 

4.2 

.525 

Pride 

6. 

4.8 

.288 

5.75 

5.4 

.301 

5.5 

5.8 

.319 

Tricksey 

11.5 

3.7 

.425 

12. 

4.3 

.516 

11.5 

4.8 

.552 

59.5 

2.341 

67.75 

3.314 

63. 

3.050 

Total  pounds  of  milk  for  the  three  milkings,  190.25. 
Total  pounds  of  fat  for  the  three  milkings,  8.605. 


6 


In  Table  V.  the  first  period  has  reference  to  the  time  cov- 
ered by  the  three  milkings  immediately  prior  to  dehorning 
and  the  second  period,  to  the  three  milkings  after  dehorning. 


TABLE  V. 

SUMMARY. 


Nine  cows 
dehorned. 

Six  cows  not 
dehorned. 

Milk  yield  first  period 

316.3 

196.45 

Milk  yield  second  period 

294.1 

190.25 

Shrinkage  of  milk  during  second  period 

22.2 

6.2 

Per  cent  of  shrinkage  in  milk 

7. 

3. 

Yield  of  fat  in  lbs.  first  period 

12.753 

9.68 

Yield  of  fat  in  lbs.  second  period 

12.289 

8.60 

Shrinkage  in  lbs.,  fat  

.464 

1.08 

Per  cent  of  shrinkage  in  fat 

3. 

11. 

By  comparing  the  yield  of  milk  of  the  cows  dehorned 
with  that  of  the  cows  not  dehorned,  it  will  be  observed  that 
the  former  gave  22.2  lbs  less,  during  the  three  milkings  after 
being  dehorned,  the  latter  losing  6.2  lbs.  The  dehorned 
cows  shrinking  seven  per  cent,  while  the  others  lost  three 
per  cent. 

Comparing  the  total  fat  products  of  these  two  groups 
of  cows  for  the  same  periods,  we  find  a much  greater  discrep- 
ancy, the  dehorned  cows  showing  a shrinkage  of  only  three 
per  cent,  while  the  six  cows  not  dehorned  lost  eleven  per 
cent.  It  would  appear  from  these  observations  that  while 
the  operation  of  dehorning  may  cause  a slight,  temporary 
variation  in  the  flow  of  milk  and  fat  content,  the  normal 
flow  and  per  cent  of  fat  is  quickly  recovered,  and,  that  cows 
only  seeing  the  operation  and  smelling  the  blood  show  a 
greater  shrinkage  in  fat  than  do  the  ones  dehorned. 


A DOUBLE  MONSTROSITY  OF  A CALF  TRACEABLE 
TO  INJURY  OF  ITS  MOTHER. 

PROF.  OLAF  SCHWARZKOPF. 

Early  in  October,  1890,  David  Porter,  in  charge  of  the  cat- 
tle-barn of  the  Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
called  me  to  see  a Holstein-Friesian  cow  which  was  hit  by 
the  horns  of  another  cow,  a noted  fighter,  while  passing  into 
the  stables.  I found  the  cow  very  nervous  and  excited  ; on 
the  right  flank  behind  the  last  rib  and  about  one  foot  below 
the  loins  was  a small  bruise,  about  as  large  as  a fifty  cent 
piece.  As  the  cow  was  with  calf  I auscultated  the  uterus,  but 
could  find  nothing  abnormal.  I instructed  the  man  to  keep 
the  cow  in  a quiet  place  and  to  watch  her  as  she  might  pos- 
sibly abort,  however,  she  soon  seemed  all  right  and  nothing 
further  was  thought  of  the  case. 

On  January  28,  1891,  the  cow  dropped  a calf;  as  it  did  not 
have  any  passages  within  two  days  the  cattle-man  gave  it  a 
dose  of  castor  oil,  which  had  no  effect.  He  then  reported  it 
to  me  and  also,  stated  that  the  calf  seemed  to  be  crippled.  In 
looking  at  the  calf  I observed  at  once  that  it  had  a curved 
spine  and  further  examination  revealed  that  there  was  no 
rectal  opening. 

I had  the  calf  sent  over  to  the  veterinary  hospital  and  on 
February  2,  1891,  examined  it.  An  incision  was  made  where 
the  natural  opening  should  be,  but  after  perforating  the  skin, 
no  rectum  was  found  but  a direct  entrance  into  the  abdomen. 
The  intestines  that  lodged  in  the  pelvic  cavity  apparently 
were  the  colon  or  coecum.  I tried  hard  to  find  the  rectum  but 
did  not  succeed.  On  February  3,  the  calf  which  was  greatly 
emaciated,  died.  The  post  mortem  examination  showed 
the  following : 

On  opening  the  abdomen  an  irregular  situs  of  the  intes- 
tines was  first  to  be  noticed ; in  removing  the  intestines  I 
found  the  rectum  near  the  liver,  ending  in  a blind  sack,  curv- 
ed and  possessing  a kind  of  nodule,  resembling  somewhat  a 


8 


FIG.  I. 

A,  Blind  end  of  rectum  ; a,  cicatrix;  B,  C,  D,  colon;  F,  ileum  ; G,  jejunum. 

cicatrix.  After  the  removal  of  the  intestines  the  the  curve  of 
the  spine  to  the  left  was  very  apparent  and  the  left  kidney 
was  very  small  and  situated  on  top  of  the  right  kidney.  The 
other  organs  were  normal.  The  calf,  certainly,  could  not 
liave  lived. 

The  practical  conclusion  that  must  be  drawn  from  this  case 
is  that  the  abnormalities  which  the  calf  presented,  were  pro- 
duced by  external  injuries.  Critics  may  object  and  say  that 


9 


10 


the  skin  and  the  membranes  of  the  nterus  are  so  thick  that 
a cow’s  horn  cannot  touch  the  foetus.  This  may  be  true  as  a 
rule,  but  by  anyone  that  had  examined  this  case,  together  with 
its  history,  no  other  conclusion  could  possibly  be  reached 
than  to  ascribe  the  cause  of  the  abnormalities  of  the  calf  to 
the  blow  which  its  mother  received  four  months  previous  to 
the  birth. 

I am  not  at  all  blindly  devoted  to  dehorning  cattle,  on 
the  contrary,  being  a lover  of  pure  types  and  natural  forms, 
I have  always  maintained  that  it  is  a violence  of  the  laws  of 
ethics  and  aesthetics  to  disfigure  a beautiful  Jersey  cow  by 
dehorning.  But  the  principles  of  ethics  are  often  out  of  place 
in  the  cow  stable  and  barn-vard  and  I confess  that  I am  now 
convinced,  that  it  is  a righteous  and  humane  act  to  take 
horns  off— at  least  of  those  cows  that  cannot  keep  peace  with 
their  fellow  creatures. 


CREAM  RAISING  BY  COLD  DEEP  SETTING. 


THE  RAPIDITY  OF  THE  PROCESS  AND  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE 
TEMPERATURE  OF  THE  SURROUNDING  WATER. 

HARRY  SNYDER. 

When  milk  is  creamed  by  the  cold  deep  setting  system 
with  the  temperature  of  the  tank  water  reduced  to  39°-44° 
Ft.  the  efficiency  of  the  creaming  process  is  well  known, 
but  the  changes  that  take  place  especially  during  the  first 
part  of  the  creaming  process  are  not  so  well  known.  When 
the  milk  is  set  in  the  tank  these  questions  are  naturally 
suggested : How  long  before  any  change  takes  place ; in 
which  section  of  the  can  (top,  middle  or  bottom)  does  the 
first  change,  in  either  temperature  or  fat  content,  occur; 
throughout  the  entire  process  what  relationship  exists  be- 
tween the  rate  of  creaming  of  the  different  sections  and  the 
temperatures ; and  at  the  time  of  skimming  how  do  the  dif- 
ferent sections  compare  as  to  the[peicentages  of  fat  remain- 
ing in  them  ? 

In  studying  these  questions  the  Jfirst  difficulty  that  pre- 
sents itself  is  the  method  of  taking  the  sample  from  the  can 
while  the  creaming  process  is  going  on  without  introducing 
a serious  factor  of  error  in  disturbing  the  natural  process. 

Various  methods  of  sampling  were  studied.  Small  glass 
siphons  were  at  first  made  use  of,  but  this  method  of  samp- 
ling removed  too  much  milk  from  'the  can,  since  a quantity 
of  milk  at  least  equal  to  the  capacity  of  the  siphons  must 
first  be  removed  before  taking  a sample.  The  method  that 
gave  the  best  results,  and  the  one  used  in  this  experiment,  is 
as  follows:  Two  holes  were  bored  in  a block  of  wood  and 
perforated  corks  fitted  into  these  holes;  through  these  per- 
forations of  the  corks,  glass  tubes  were  passed,  reaching  to 


12 


the  bottom  and  middle  sections  of  the  can.  The  block  of 
wood  rested  on  the  top  of  the  can  and  at  the  top  end  of  each 
glass  tube  a piece  of  rubber,  three  inches  in  length  was  at- 
tached, furnished  with  a pinch  cock  which  prevented  the  milk 
in  the  tubes  from  flowing  back  and  causing  unnecessary  cur- 
rents; the  samples  were  taken  by  attaching  a large  pipette 
to  the  rubber  at  the  end  of  the  glass  tubes  opening  the  pinch 
cock  and  applying  suction.  A small  measured  portion  equiv- 
alent to  the  capacity  of  the  tubes  was  first  removed  before 
sampling.  During  the  first  trials  another  can  of  the  same 
milk  was  set  under  precisely  the  same  conditions  and 
sampled  only  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  close  of  the  trial 
periods,  the  object  being  to  determine  the  effect  of  the  slight 
currents  caused  by  taking  the  samples  in  the  way  described. 
The  figures  given  in  the  following  tables  are  the  averages  of 
duplicate  analyses.  The  temperature  of  the  water  in  the 
various  trials  is  somewhat  higher  than  that  required  for  the 
very  best  results,  but  inasmuch  as  many  of  the  springs  of 
the  state  which  are  used  for  this  purpose  are  about  the 
temperatures  indicated , and  some  much  higher,  these  temper- 
atures were  adopted  so  as  to  conform  to  about  the  normal 
conditions  of  many  of  the  creameries  of  the  state.  The  sec- 
tion designated  as  top  was  taken  three  inches  from  the  sur- 
face, usually  just  below  the  cream  line,  but  occasionally  not, 
as  the  high  per  centages  of  fat  in  the  results  indicate. 

In  the  following  tables  I,  II,  III  and  IV  the  changes  that 
take  place  from  period  to  period,  under  the  conditions  named 
may  be  studied : 


13 


TABLE  I. 


Milk  divided  into  two  equal  portions  set  at  90°  in  water  at  40°;  5%  Fat  in  the 

original  milk. 

CAN  I.  CAN  II. 


Section 

Time 

Per 

Temp. 

Section 

Time 

Per 

Temp. 

of 

from 

cent. 

of 

of 

from 

cent. 

of 

can. 

setting. 

fats. 

sections. 

can. 

setting. 

fats. 

sections. 

Top 

15  minutes 

1 5.00 

78  deg. 

Middle 

do 

5.00 

72  “ 

Bottom 

do 

4.80 

57  “v 

Top 

30  minutes 

4.60 

60  “ 

Middle 

do 

4.45 

57  “ 

Bottom 

do 

3.40 

50  “ 

Top 

1 hour 

4.00 

54  “ 

Middle 

do 

3.85 

52  “ 

Bottom 

do 

1.30 

46  “ 

Top 

2 hours 

3.30 

52  “ 

Middle 

do 

2.10 

46  “ 

Bottom 

do 

0.75 

42  “ 

Top 

4 hours 

1.45 

46  “ 

Middle 

do 

1.35 

45  “ 1 

Bottom 

do 

0.75 

42  “ ; 

Top 

5Y2  hours 

1.40 

45  “ ! 

Middle 

do 

1.00 

44  “ j 

Bottom 

do 

0.35 

42  “ 

Top 

36  hours 

0.40 

44  “ | 

Middle 

do 

0.30 

44  “ 

Bottom 

do 

0.20 

44  “ ! 

Average  of  all  sections,  .30  fat.  Fat  in 
the  skim  milk,  .35%. 


1 Top 

15  minutes 

5.00 

72  deg. 

Middle 

do 

5.00 

69  “ 

1 Bottom... 

do 

4.95 

56  “ 

! Top 

30  minutes 

4.95 

60  “ 

Middle 

do 

4.90 

57  “ 

Bottom  ... 

do 

3.60 

49  “ 

Top 

1 hour 

3.40 

54  “ 

Middle 

do 

3.20 

52  “ 

Bottom ... 

do 

1.95 

46  “ 

Top 

2 hours 

3.60 

50  “ 

Middle..... 

do 

3.00 

47  “ 

Bottom ... 

do 

1.05 

42  “ 

Top 

4 hours 

1.55 

45  “ 

Middle 

do 

1.35 

45  “ 

Bottom  ... 

do 

0.65 

41  “ 

Top 

5V2  hours 

1.20 

45  “ 

Middle 

do 

1.10 

45  “ 

Bottom  ... 

do 

0.55 

43 

Top 

36  hours 

0.50 

44  “ 

Middle 

do 

0.45 

44  “ 

Bottom ... 

do 

0.20 

44  “ 

Average  for  36  hours,  38%  fat.  Fat  in 
skim  milk,  35%. 

In  Can  B the  middle  layer  was  taken 
1 y%  inches  higher  than  in  can  A. 


TABLE  II. 


Can  III.  Set  at  84°  in  waterat  47°. 
4.30  per  cent,  fat  in  original  set- 
ting. Temperature  at  close,  47°. 


Can  IV.  Set  at  92°  in  water  at  47°. 
4.2  per  cent,  fat  in  original  set- 
ting.  Temperature  at  close,  46°. 


section 

OF 

CAN. 


TIME 

FROM 

SETTING. 


PER 

CENT. 

FATS. 


NOTES. 


SECTION 

OF 

CAN. 


TIME 

FROM 

SETTING. 


PER 

CENT. 

FATS. 


NOTES 


Top 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle.. 
Bottom . 


1 hour 

4.1 

“ 

4. 

“ 

2.05 

2 hours 

2.45 

“ 

1.65 

“ 

.9 

3 hours 

2.05 

“ 

1.45 

“ 

.65 

4 hours 

— 

“ 

1.2 

** 

.60 

5 hours 

1.45 

“ 

1.00 

“ 

.3 

8 hours 

— 

“ 

.55 

“ 

.35 

11  hours 

.50 

“ 

.30 

* i 

.20 

The  average  of  all  sections  at 
the  11-hour  period  was  .33% 
fat.  The  per  cent  of  fat  in  the 
skim  milk  was  .30%  at  the  close 
ot  24  hours. 


Middle.. 

Bottom 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle.. 

Bottom 


20  minutes 
do 

40  minutes 
do 

1 hour 
do 

1 y&  hours 
do 

1%  hours 
do 

2 hours 

do 

3  y2  hours 
do 

5 hours 

do 

6 hours 

do 

7 hours 

do 

8 hours 

do 

10  hours 
do 
do 


4.6 

3.7 

3.60 

1.50 

3.40 

.70 

3.50 
.60 

2.05 

.50 

1.00 

.50 

.90 

.30 

.5 

.3 

.45 

.3 

.40 

.25 

.40 

.18 

.40 

.30 

.15 


Average  of  sections  at  close, 
,28%  fat. 


14 


The  points  to  be  noted  in  these  tables  are  as  follows : 

1.  The  first  and  most  marked  action  affecting  the  com- 
position and  temperature  takes  place  in  the  bottom  layer, 
and  within  fifteen  minutes  this  layer  will  show  a less  per 
cent  of  fat ; the  temperature  of  the  middle  section  is  affected 
more  slowly  and  suffers  a less  loss  of  fat. 

2.  The  top  section,  when  the  action  is  very  rapid,  may 
at  the  first  hour  period,  contain  more  fat  than  in  the  original 
milk,  but  as  the  period  increases  it,  too,  grows  poorer. 

3.  In  each  of  the  corresponding  periods,  the  top  layer 
is  always  richer  in  fat  than  the  middle  layer,  the  middle 
layer  is  richer  than  the  bottom,  and  the  bottom  layer  is  al- 
ways the  poorest.  During  the  first  five  or  six  hours  the  same 
relationship  exists  as  to  temperatures.  The  middle  section 
has  an  intermediate  temperature  between  the  bottom  and 
top  sections,  which  are  respectively  the  lowest  and  highest. 

4.  At  the  time  of  skimming  the  same  relationship  of 
the  different  sections  as  to  fat  exists.  This  emphasizes  the 


TABLE  III. 


Can  V.  Set  at  82°  in  water  at  48°. 
4.05  per  cent,  fat  in  original  milk. 

Can  VI.  Set  at  90°  in  water  at  43°. 

SECTION. 

OF 

CAN. 

TIME 

FROM 

SETTING. 

PER 

CENT. 

FATS. 

NOTES. 

SECTION 

OF 

CAN. 

TIME 

FROM 

SETTING. 

PER 

CENT. 

FATS. 

TEMP  OF 
SECT’NS 
IN  CAN. 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

Top  

Middle 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

15  minutes 
do 
do 

45  minutes 
do 
do 

2 Vi  hours 
do 
do 

41/2  hours 
do 
do 

6 Vi  hours 
do 
do 

8 Vi  hours 
do 
d.o 

10Vi  hours 
do 
do 

24  hours 
do 
do 

3.9 

3.9 

3.65 

3.15 

3.00 
1.20 

2.05 

1.05 

1.00 
.65 
.55 
.50 
.65 
.45 
.40 
.50 
.40 
.20 
.40 
.30 
.20 
.40 
.30 
.15 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

at  starting 
do 
do 

1 hour 
do 
do 

2 hours 

do 

do 

3 hours 

do 

do 

5 hours 
do 
do 

7 hours 
do 
do 

10  hours 
do 
do 

13  hours 
do 

j do 

3.70 

3.65 

3.65 

5.40 

3.30 

1.00 

4.00 

1.25 

.50 

1.80 

.75 

.45 

.75 

,45 

.30 

.45 

.45 

.30 

.45 

.40- 

.25 

.45 

.40 

.25 

90  deg. 
90  “ 

90  “ 

58  “ 

54  “ 

52  “ 

55  “ 

52  “ 

48  “ 

52  “ 

51  “ 

46  “ 

47  “ 

46  “ 

45  “ 

46  “ 

46  “ 

45  “ 

44  “ 

44  “ 

44  “ 

Average  of  all  sections  at  the 
close  of  10V4.  hour  period,  .30; 
24-hour  period,  .28. 

Average  of  all  sections  at  the  end  of 
10-hour  period,  .37  fat;  at  the  end  of 
13-hour  period,  .37  fat. 

15 


fact  that  samples  of  skim  milk  for  analysis  mnst  be  well 
mixed  in  order  to  obtain  a sample  that  will  represent  the 
average  composition,  and  at  no  time  can  a portion  be  with- 
drawn from  any  section  and  the  fat  in  the  whole  skim  milk 
calculated  from  the  sample  so  taken. 

TABLE  IV. 


CANA.  Set  at  93°  in  water  at  47°. 
5.00  per  cent  fat  in  original  set- 
ting. Temperature  at  close,  46°. 


Can  B.  Set  at  90°  in  Water  at  47°. 
4.15  per  cent,  fat  in  original  set- 
ting. Temperature  at  close,  46°^ 


SECTION 

OF 

CAN. 

TIME 

FROM 

SETTING. 

PER 
CENT,  i 
FATS. 

NOTES 

Top 

20  minutes 

5.00 

Middle 

do 

5.00 

Bottom 

do 

3.60 

d 

Top 

40  minutes 

2.55 

CO 

Middle 

do 

2.25 

<u 

Bottom 

do 

2.00 

two 

Top 

1 hour 

(6.50) 

OB 

u 

Middle 

do 

2.20 

<u 

Bottom 

do 

1.60 

Ton 

1^/3  hours 

(7.50) 

Middle 

do 

2.10 

O 10  l 

Bottom 

do 

1.50 

10  C*  1 

Top 

12A  hours 

(10.60) 

Middle 

do 

2.00 

ad  - 

Bottom 

do 

1.40 

d % c 

Top 

2 hours 

(10.00) 

Middle 

do 

2.00 

+>  ■ 

Bottom 

do 

1.10 

^ • 

Top 

2 */2  hours 

1.90 

'C  : 
Ju 

Middle 

do 

1.60 

ad 

Bottom 

do 

1.10 

g 0 

Top 

314  hours 

1.60 

cj‘C 

Middle*. 

do 

1.50 

«3  W 

a 

Bottom 

do 

.70 

P u 

Top 

414  hours 

1.50 

2 S3 

Middle 

do 

1.30 

•5 

Bottom 

do 

.60 

-Jm 

Top 

6 hours 

1.10 

Middle 

do 

1.00 

C h 

Bottom 

do 

.45 

to  v 

Top 

714  hours 

1.10 

-M  JC 

og  13 

Middle 

do 

.60 

u 

Bottom 

do 

.30' 

Uo 

Top 

9 14  hours 

.90 

3 <u 

Middle 

do 

.60 

Bottom 

do 

.20 

^3  to 

Top 

11^/2  hours 

.50 

Jh  <y 

Middle 

do 

.30 

X 

Bottom 

do 

.20 

12V2  hrs. — top  .50) 

do  — mid.  .30>Average  .33. 
do  — bot.  .20J 


SECTION 

OF 

CAN. 

TIME 

FROM 

SETTING. 

Top 

15  minutes' 

Middle 

do 

Bottom  ... 

do 

Top 

30  minutes 

Middle 

do 

Bottom  ... 

do 

Top 

45  minutes 

Middle 

do 

Bottom  ... 

do 

Top 

1 hour 

Middle 

do 

Bottom  ... 

do 

Top 

1 V±  hours 

Middle 

do 

Bottom  ... 

do 

Top 

1%  hours 

Middle 

do 

Bottom ... 

do 

Top 

234  hours 

Middle 

do 

Bottom ... 

do 

Top 

2%  hours 

Middle 

do 

Bottom ... 

do 

Top 

3%  hours 

Middle 

do 

Bottom  ... 

do 

Top 

4%.  hours 

Middle 

do 

Bottom  ... 

do 

Top 

5 % hours 

Middle 

do 

Bottom  ... 

do 

Top 

7%  hours 

Middle 

do 

Bottom  ... 

do 

Top 

9%  hours 

Middle 

do 

Bottom  ... 

do 

PER 

CENT. 

FATS. 


NOTES 


4.15 
4.10 
3.95 
3.75 
3.50 
3.45 
4.20 
4.10 

2.15 

4.3 

4.05 

1.00 

5.5 
3.8 

.8 

6.5 
2.65 

.45 

9.5 

1.3 
.40 

4.55 

1.3 

.40 

.75 

.7 

.4 

.5 

.48 

.40 

.50 

.40 

.30 

(Lost.) 

.30 

.15 

.40 

.30 

.15 


v>  u 

« t 

V. 

0 Vi 
<L> 

O U 
X to 
On 

P u 
'C  3 

to° 

x 


Average  of  Sections  at  Close  of  9% 
hours,  .28  per  cent. 


5.  The  temperature  of  the  water  at  the  time  of  setting 
is  of  far  greater  importance  than  the  temperature  of  the  milk. 
A reduction  of  10°  in  the  temperature  of  the  milk  does 
not  appreciably  affect  the  result,  while  a difference  of 


16 


less  than  half  of  this  amount  in  the  temperature  of  the  tank 
water  seriously  effects  the  creaming.  When  the  temperature 
of  th?  tank  water  is  reduced  to  40°,  about  5 hours  time  is 
required  for  the  different  sections  to  attain  a constant  tem- 
perature and  it  is  to  be  observed  that  during  this  period  the 
most  of  the  fat  is  brought  to  the  surface  and  that  during  all 
of  this  period  there  is  a constant'  relation  between  the  fall 
in  temperature  and  fat,  the  most  rapid  change  in  each  sec- 
tion being  observed  when  the  temperature  of  that  section 
reaches  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  water.  What 
the  cause  of  this  close  relationship  is,  no  satisfactory  explan- 
ation has  yet  been  given,  simply  the  fact  is  known  and  the 
dairyman  must  conform  to  these  temperatures  in  order  to 
obtain  the  most  beneficial  results. 

Since  this  is  the  season  of  the  year  when  ice  can  be  stored 
so  abundantly  and  at  little  expense  every  dairyman  is  urg- 
ed to  lay  in  a supply.  A running  spring  with  a tempera- 
ture not  higher  than  48°  will  do  effectual  work,  but  with 
temperature  from  50°  to  60°  the  creaming  of  milk  by  this 
process  is  attended  with  serious  losses  of  fat  in  the  skim  milk. 
By  the  use  of  ice  at  least  eight  pounds  of  butter  can  be  made 
where  less  than  seven  pounds  are  produced  without  it.  When 
milk  is  set  at  temperatures  as  indicated  in  previous 
tables  the  usual  practice  is  to  skim  at  the  end  of  eleven  hours 
in  order  to  use  the  pails  and  creamer  for  the  next  milking;  this 
is  a practice  entirely  safe  with  this  system  of  creaming,  un- 
der proper  conditions.  The  average  length  of  time  required 
for  the  practical  completion  of  the  creaming  of  the  above 
samples  was  only  nine  and  three-quarter  hours.  A similar 
study  of  milks  that  cream  less  perfectly  and  under  less  favor- 
able conditions  was  made  in  order  to  obtain  data  as  to  the 
length  of  time  necessary  for  the  completion  of  the  creaming. 


17 


HOW  LONG  BEFORE  SKIMMING  CAN  SAFELY  BE  DONE. 

In  the  following  table  is  an  example  of  a can  of  milk  set 
at  90°  in  a tank  of  water  at  60°,  which  is  a very  unfavor- 
able condition  for  creaming,  the  results  show  how  slow  and 
imperfect  the  action  when  compared  with  a lower  and  more 
favorable  temperature  and  also  how  the  rising  of  the  fat 
practically  ceases  at  about  the  eleven  hour  period. 


TABLE  V.  CAN  7. 


Section 

of 

Can. 


Top 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle  . 
Bottom 

Top 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle.. 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle.. 

Bottom 


Time 

From 

Setting. 

Per  Ct.  1 
Of  j 

Fat.  | 

Section 

of 

Can. 

Time 

From 

Setting. 

Per  Ct. 
of 
Fat. 

at  setting  1 

i 

Top 

614  hours 

3.00 

do  > 

4.45 

Middle 

do 

| 2.70 

do  j 

Bottom 

do 

2.25 

15  minutes 

4.48 

Top 

W2  hours 

2.78 

do 

4.5 

; Middle 

do 

2.65 

do 

4.48 

Bottom 

do 

2.20 

30  minutes 

4.5 

Top 

814  hours 

; 2.70 

do 

4.4 

Middle 

do 

2.45 

do 

4.45 

; Bottom 

do 

1.60 

45  minutes 

lost 

Top 

914  hours 

2.70 

do 

j 4.45 

; Middle 

do 

| 2.45 

do 

4.42 

Bottom 

do 

1.55 

1 hour 

— 

Top 

1014  hours 

2.50 

do 

4.5 

Middle 

do 

2.45 

do 

3.92 

Bottom 

do 

1.40 

114  hours 

— 

Top 

1114  hours 

2.60 

do 

4.25 

Middle 

do 

2.40 

do 

4.05 

Bottom 

do 

1.40 

1%  hours 

4.25 

Top 

1314  hours 

2.55 

do 

3.50 

Middle 

do 

2.40 

214  hours 

5.20 

Bottom 

do 

1.40 

do 

3.90 

Top 

1514  hours 

2.45 

do 

— 

Middle 

do 

2.30 

314  hours 

3.75 

Bottom 

do 

1.20 

do 

3.20 

do 

2.65 

With  this  milk  and  temperature  it 

414  hours 

3.55 

will  be  noted  that  there  was  but  lit- 

do 

do 

3.00 

2.30 

tle  change  after  the  1014-hour  period. 

514  hours 

3.00 

do 

2.95 

do 

2.18 

18 


In  the  following  tables  are  examples  of  milk  creamed  at 
higher  temperatures  ; the  results  are  given  simply  to  show 
the  effect  of  prolonged  setting  in  such  cases.  They  are  not 
given  to  show  the  incompleteness  of  the  creaming  by  this 
process,  but  simply  to  determine  if  any  benefit  can  be  derived 
by  a prolonged  setting  when  the  temperature  of  the  water  in 
the  tank  is  above  49°  or  50°  at  the  time  of  setting. 


TABLE  VI. 


Can  VIII.  Milk  set  at  70°  in  water 
at  52°. 

Can  IX.  Milk  set  at  86°. 
49°.  3.80%  Fat  at  setting. 

Water 

Section 

Time 

Per 

Section 

Time 

Per 

of 

from 

Cent. 

of 

from 

Cent. 

Can. 

Setting. 

Fat. 

Can. 

Setting 

Fat. 

All  sections  at  start 

4.30 

Top 

20  minutes 

3.95 

Top 

1 y2  hours 

4.40 

Middle 

3.80 

Middle 

4.20 

Bottom... 

“ 

2.10 

Bottom 

< < 

2.25 

Too 

1 hour 

3.75 

Top 

3 y2  hours 

2.40 

Middle 

3.45 

Middle 

2.20 

Bottom  ... 

“ 

Bottom 

.45 

Too 

2 hours 

3.55 

Top 

7^4  hours 

1.80 

Middle 

2.95 

Middle 

1.35 

Average 

Bottom  ... 

“ 

1.75 

Bottom 

‘ < 

.30 

1.15 

Top 

3y2  hours 

2.45 

Too 

24?  hours 

1.65 

Middle 

1.80 

Middle 

1.35 

Bottom ... 

“ 

1.60 

Bottom 

“ 

.20 

Average 

Top 

514  hours 

1.80 

.85 

Middle 

“ 

1.30 

Bottom ... 

“ 

.85 

Top 

914  hours 

1.25 

Average 

Middle 

“ 

1.00 

.85 

Bottom  ... 

“ 

.30 

Top 

24  hours 

1.00 

Middle 

“ 

.80 

Bottom  ... 

“ 

.20 

Average 

.66 

In  these  tables  the  same  points  are  to  be  noted  as  when 
the  temperature  of  the  water  ranged  from  40°  to  47°  F.,  ex- 
cept that  the  action  is  slower  and  the  creaming  far  less  per- 
fect. At  the  end  of  8%  hours  the  average  per  cent  of  fat  in 
the  skim  milk,  due  to  the  high  temperature  of  creaming  was 
1.24  per  cent.,  at  the  end  of  25  hours  it  was  1.05  per  cent. 

The  average  of  the  eight  trials  when  set  at  47°  showed 
that  the  creaming  was  practically  completed  before  the  end 
of  the  twelve  hour  period  and  that  the  skimming  could  then 
safely  be  done. 


19 


TABLE  VII. 


Can  X.  Milk  set  at  86°  in  water 
at  54°.  4.15%  fat  in  original  milk. 

Can  XI.  Milk  set  at  84°  in  water 
at  54°.  4.25%  fat  in  original  milk. 

Section 

of 

can. 

Time 

from 

setting. 

Per 

cent. 

fat. 

NOTES. 

Section 

of 

can. 

Time 

from 

setting. 

Per 

cent 

fat. 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom 

y2  hour 
do 
do 

1 hour 
do 
do 

2 hours 

do 

do 

4 hours 
do 
do 

6 hours 
do 
do 

8 hours 
do 
do 

10  hours 
do 
do 

27  hours 
do 
do 

4.35 

4.20 

3.55 
3.50 

3.45 
3.15 
3.50 
3.15 
1.60 

2.45 
1.40 
2.80 

2.20 
.60 

2.00 
1.80 
.60 
1.80  1 
1.60  \ 
.50  1 

1.55  ) 

1.45  } 
.40  J 

Average 

1.30 

Average 

1.13 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom ... 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom ... 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom ... 

Top 

Middle,.... 
Bottom  ... 

Top 

Middle 

Bottom  ... 

1 hour 
do 
do 

3 hours 
do 
do 

5 hours 
do 
do 

7 hours 
do 
do 

27  hours 
do 
do 

3.60 

3.45 

3.30 

3.50 
3.30 
2.15 
2.90 
2.85 
1.55 
2.35  ) 
1.80  S 

.80  ) 
2.20  1 

1.50  } 
.35  ) 

Average 

1.65 

Average 

1.35 

In  this  setting  no  9 or  10  hour  period 
was  taken  so  the  results  are  not  strictly 
comparable  as  to  the  closing  period. 

The  average  of  12  trials  when  set  in  water  at  tempera- 
tures varying  from  50°  to  60°  F.,  showed  that  the  creaming 
was  practically  completed  within  the  same  time.  Although 
a slight  gain  resulted  from  a prolonged  setting,  in  no  case 
was  this  equal  to  the  loss  sustained  for  the  want  of  a lower 
temperature  at  the  beginning.  A prolonged  setting  cannot 
make  up  for  a low  temperature  at  the  time  of  setting. 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  CHEESE  MAKING. 


HARRY  SNYDER. 


1.  CHEESE  MADE  FROM  NORMAL  MILK  RICH  AND  POOR  IN  FAT. 

In  cheese  making,  a great  diversity  of  opinion  exists  as 
to  losses  of  fat  in  working  with  different  grades  of  milk.  It 
has  been  claimed  that  when  cheese  is  made  from  milk  rich 
in  fat  that  a large  per  cent  of  the  total  fat  is  lost  in  the  whey, 
and  that  when  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  milk  reaches  a cer- 

TABLE  I.  TABLE  II. 

Milk  with  percentages  of  fat  ranging  Milk  with  percentages  of  fat  ranging 

from  3.5  to  4.0  inclusive.  from  4.1  to  4.4  inclusive. 


DATE. 

Per 

cent 

fat 

in 

milk 

Per 

cent 

fat 

in 

whey 

Lbs. 

of 

Milk. 

Lbs. 

of 

green 

cheese. 

DATE. 

Per 

cent 

fat 

in 

milk 

Per 

cent 

fat 

in 

whey 

Lbs. 

of 

milk. 

Lbs. 

of 

green 

cheese. 

Jan. 

20... 

3.5 

0.4 

305 

28.0 

Jan. 

19... 

4.1 

0.5 

305 

32.0 

26... 

3.6 

0.3 

30. 

15... 

4.1 

0.3 

i i 

31.0 

“ 

20... 

3.7 

0.4 

“ 

27. 

Feb. 

2... 

4.2 

0.3 

i i 

31.0 

“ 

29... 

3.7 

0.4 

29. 

Jan. 

21... 

4.2 

0.4 

i i 

32. 

“ 

30... 

3.7 

0.3 

29. 

i i 

16... 

4.2 

0.4 

i i 

31.0 

Feb. 

3... 

3.8 

0.4 

“ 

30.0 

i i 

14... 

4.2 

0.4 

i i 

31. 

Jan. 

12... 

3.8 

0.4 

“ 

33.0 

18... 

4.2 

0.45 

i i 

33.0 

28... 

3.8 

0.5 

29.0 

i i 

11... 

4.2 

0.4 

ii 

34.0 

“ 

23... 

3.8 

0.4 

30. 

i i 

14... 

4.2 

0.3 

i i 

32.0 

‘ ‘ 

30... 

3.8 

0.4 

“ 

34.0 

i i 

15... 

4.2 

0.3 

32.0 

“ 

28... 

3.9 

0.3 

30. 

9... 

4.2 

0.3 

i i 

31.0 

29... 

3.9 

0.3 

“ 

29.0 

8... 

4.2 

0.4 

i i 

34.0 

“ 

27... 

3.9 

0.4 

35.0 

i * 

15... 

4.3 

0.3 

i i 

34.0 

9... 

3.9 

0.4 

32.0 

ii 

14... 

4.3 

0.3 

i i 

34.0 

Feb. 

16... 

4.0 

0.4 

<< 

— 

i i 

14... 

4.3 

0.3 

i i 

-35 

Jan. 

12... 

4.0 

0.4 

« < 

34.0 

ii 

15... 

4.3 

0.3 

ii 

-32.0 

22... 

4.0 

0.3 

<< 

— 

i i 

9... 

4.3 

0.4 

33.0 

20... 

4.0 

0.4 

300 

30.0 

i i 

19... 

4.3 

0.4 

32.0 

22... 

4.0 

0.4 

305 

31.0 

i i 

15... 

4.3 

0.3 

34.0 

20... 

4.0 

0.4 

300 

30.0 

i i 

30... 

4.3 

0.4 

-31 

12... 

4.0 

0.4 

305 

34.0 

i i 

19... 

4.3 

0.4 

i i 

32 

12... 

4.0 

0.4 

i i 

34.0 

Feb. 

1... 

4.4 

0.3 

i i 

35.0 

< < 

11... 

4.0 

0.4 

i i 

34.0 

Jan. 

27... 

4.4 

0.4 

i i 

** 

13... 

4.0 

0.4 

ii 

34. 

i i 

14... 

4.4 

0.3 

i i 

35.0 

< < 

14... 

4.0 

0.3 

i i 

33.0 

i i 

23... 

4.4 

0.3 

i i 

35.0 

<< 

13... 

4.0 

0.4 

ii 

34.0 

i i 

18... 

4.4 

0.4 

ii 

34.0 

12... 

4.0 

0.4 

i i 

32.0 

i i 

18... 

4.4 

0.4 

i i 

34.0 

18... 

4.0 

0.45 

33.0 

i i 

14... 

4.4 

0.3 

i i 

35.0 

No. Trials 

i i 

16... 

4.4 

0.4 

i i 

33.0 

28. 

3.85 

0.38 

304.7 

31.46 

13... 

4.4 

0.4 

i i 

33.0 

11... 

4.4 

0.4 

ii 

35.0 

No. Trials 

31. 

4.29 

0.36 

305.0 

32.8 

21 


tain  point  all  the  fat  above  that  point  is  lost  in  the  whey, 
and  no  more  can  be  retained  in  the  cheese.  It  is  also  claimed 
that  only  a small  and  definite  per  cent  of  fat  can  be  utilized 
in  cheese  making.  In  order  to  obtain  some  knowledge  up- 
on this  question,  based  upon  actual  experiments,  the  follow- 
ing work  has  been  carried  out.  The  cheese  was  made  under 
the  direction  of  Mr.  Phillips,  instructor  in  cheese  making  in 
the  Dairy  School  of  the  University  of  Minnesota.  In  the  fol- 
lowing tables  will  be  found  grades  of  milk  ranging  from  3.5 
to  5.4  per  cent  fat,  classified  in  four  groups  together  with 
the  per  cent  of  fat  lost  in  whey  in  each  case  : 

TABLE  III.  TABLE  IV. 


Milk  with  percentages  of  fat  ranging  Milk  with  percentages  of  fat  ranging 

from  4.5  to  5.0.  from  5.0  to  5.5. 


DATE. 

Per 

cent 

fat 

in 

milk 

Per 

cent 

fat 

in 

whey 

Lbs. 

of 

milk. 

Lbs. 

of 

green 

cheese. 

DATE. 

I Per 
cent 
fat 
! in 
milk 

Per 

cent 

fat 

in 

1 whey 

Lbs. 

of 

! milk. 

Lbs. 

of 

! green 
! cheese. 

Jan.  13... 

4.5 

0.4 

305 

34.0 

Jan.  23... 

5.0 

0.3 

3 05 

-36 

“ 13... 

4.5 

0.4 

“ 

34.0 

! “ 23... 

5.0 

0.3 

“ 

36.0 

“ 9... 

4.6 

0.4 

“ 

33.0 

“ 23... 

5.0 

0.3 

“ 

-34 

“ 13... 

4.6 

0.4 

“ 

36.0 

“ 22... 

5.4 

0.4 

“ 

-36 

“ 11... 

4.6 

0.4 

“ 

36.0 

No. Trials 

- 

“ 21... 

4.6 

0.4 

300 

32.0 

4. 

5.10 

0.32 

305.0 

35.5 

“ 21... 

4.6 

0.4 

“ 

32.0 

“ 13... 

4.6 

0.4 

305 

36.0 

“ 11... 

4.6 

0.4 

“ 

36.0 

“ 16... 

4.6 

0.4 

33.0 

“ 12... 

4.6 

0.4 

“ 

34.0 

“ 15... 

4.7 

0.3 

“ 

34.0 

“ 25... 

4.8 

0.4 

35.0 

“ 25... 

4.8 

0.4 

“ 



No. Trials 

’ 14. 

4.62 

.39 

304.3 

34.2 

GENERAL  AVERAGES  OF  ALL  THE  GROUPS. 


No.  of 
Trials. 

Milk  with 
fat  rang- 
ing 
from 

1 ' 

Per  cent, 
of 

fatin  milk. 

1 

Per  cent. 

of  fat 
in  whey. 

I 

Pounds 

of 

milk. 

1 

Pounds  of 
green 
cheese". 

! 

Pounds  of 
milk  to 
make  lib 
green  cheese. 

28 

3.50-4.00 

3.85 

.38 

304.7 

1 

31.46 

' 9.68 

31 

4.10-4.40 

4.29 

.36 

305. 

32.80 

9.30 

14 

4.50-4.90 

4.62 

.39 

304.3 

34.2 

8.90 

4 

5.00 

5.05 

.32 

305 

35.5 

8.56 

In  these  experiments,  in  which  the  cheese  was  made 
under  the  same  conditions,  the  losses  of  fat  in  the  whey  are 
practically  the  same,  whether  the  original  milk  was  rich  or 
poor  in  fat ; and  normal  milks  rich  in  fats  were  made  into 
cheese  without  any  greater  percentage  loss  of  fats  in  the 
whey,  than  poorer  milk.  It  is  also  noted  that  where  the 
milk  was  rich  in  fat  it  required  a less  number  of  pounds  to 
make  a pound  of  cheese. 


22 


INCORPORATION  OF  CREAM  INTO  CHEESE. 

Inasmuch  as  the  results  of  the  previous  experiment  indicate 
that  rich  milk  can  be  made  into  cheese  with  no  greater  loss 
of  fat  in  the  whey  than  poor  milk,  the  question  arises,  can 
cream  be  incorporated  into  cheese  ? 

This  naturally  resolves  itself  into  two  parts  : first,  can  it 
be  done ; second,  will  it  be  a financial  success.  In  this  bulle- 
tin the  first  question  alone  will  be  discussed.  In  the  following 
tables  will  be  found  in  a condensed  form  the  result  of  a num- 
ber of  experiments  bearing  on  this  question.  The  milk  was 
divided  into  two  portions,  to  one  of  which  cream  was  added  : 

TABLE  I. 


DATE,  January, 

18 

19 

19  1 

! 20 

! 20  i 

22 

22 

1 Milk  with  1 

cream  added. 

Milk  with 
cream  added. 

Normal  Milk. 

1 

| Milk  with 
cream  added. 

Normal  Milk. 

| 

Milk  with 
cream  added. 

j Normal  Milk. 

Per  cent  of  fat  in  milk 

6.00 

6.00 

4.00 

6.00! 

| 

4.00 

| 5.40 

! 2.80 

Pounds  of  milk  in  vat 

300 

300 

300  ! 

| 300 

300  1 

j 300 

300 

Rennett  test  for  ripeness 

55j 

60i 

60 

60 

60  ! 

35 

40 

Temperature  set 

90 

88 

88 

90 

90  j 

1 87 

87 

Amount  of  rennet  used,  ozs 

m\ 

% 1 

! 1% 

% 1 

i 1.  . 

% 

Minutes  in  curdling 

12 

25 

25 

1 14 

14  | 

8 

13 

Time  required  in  raising  to  120°,  minutes 

30 

30 

30 

! 35  | 

36 

! 20 

20 

Hot  iron  test  when  dipped 

Vs  in. 

%in. 

y8in. 

Vain-  ! 

Vsin- 

jZ&in. 

Vs  in- 

Per  cent  fat  in  whey 

.40 

.40 

.40 

.40! 

.40 

: .40 

.40 

Hot  iron  test  when  ground 

y2in. 

3/4  in. 

% in. 

%in.  ! 

% in. 

Vz  in  • 

Vz  in. 

Weight  of  green  cheese 

38i/2 

39V2 

32 

36  j 

30 

l 36 

28 

Weight  of  milk  per  pound  of  cheese 

7.79 

5.79 

9.39 

8.33! 

10.00 

i 8.33 

10  71 

Weight  of  whey  

246 

248 ! 

257! 

250 

255 1 i 250 

261 

TABLE  II. 


0 

05 

rh 

Kind  of  milk 

| 

Pounds  of  fat  in 
Milk 

Pounds  of  fat  in 
Whey 

Losses  at 
Press. 

* 

0 

ct- 

Total  lbs.  fat  re- 
covered in  cheese 

No.  lbs  fat  added 
in  cream 

No.  lbs.  fatadded 
to  cheese  from 
cream 

No.  lbs.  fat  lost 
from  cream 

n 

In  liquids,  lbs 
fat 

In  solids,  lbs. 
fat 

P 

& 

xn 

P* 

rt- 

0 

rt- 

J art  na  rv  1 8 

creamed 

18.00 

.984 

.072 

.640 

1.696 

16.304 

6 

19... 

creamed 

18.00 

.992 

.060 

.44 

1.492 

16.508 

6 

5.814 

.186 

< < 

19... 

normal 

12.00 

1.028 

.0779 

.20 

1.3059 

10.694 

0 

20... 

creamed 

18.00 

1.00 

.0972 

.656 

1.753 

16  247 

6 

5.73 

.27 

20... 

normal 

12.00 

1.02 

.0675 

.40 

1.48 

10.52 

0 

22... 

creamed 

16.00 

1.00 

.0770 

.24 

1.317 

14.883 

7.8 

7.655 

.145 

22... 

normal 

8.40 

1.044 

.0783 

.05 

1.172 

7.228 

0 

Explanation  of  Tables. — The  column  headed  “ total  pounds  of  fat  lost,”  in- 
cludes the  fat  lost  in  the  whey  and  at  the  press,  both  in  liquids  and  solids ; the  total 
pounds  of  fat  recovered  is  found  by  subtracting  the  total  losses  from  the  total 
pounds  of  fat  in  the  milk.  The  number  of  pounds  of  fat  added  to  the  cheese  from 
the  cream  is  found  by  subtracting  from  the  total  fats  in  the  creamed  milks  that  of 
the  normal  milks  of  the  same  day,  inasmuch  as  the  milk  was  divided  into  two  por- 
tions, to  one  of  which  cream  was  added  and  to  the  other  it  was  not.  The  column 
headed  ” fat  lost  from  cream,”  is  the  difference  between  the  number  of  pounds  of 
fat  added  to  the  milk  as  cream,  and  the  number  of  pounds  of  fat  added  to  the 
cheese  from  the  cream. 


23 


From  these  tables  it  will  be  observed  that  by  the  addition  of 
cream  to  milk  so  that  the  mixture  contained  about  six  per 
cent,  fat  no  greater  loss  of  fat  occurred  in  the  whey ; a great- 
er loss  did  result  from  the  pressing*  of  the  creamed  milks,  this 
ho wever,  amounted  to  only  a small  per  cent,  of  the  fat  added. 
Whether  this  loss  will  be  more  than  balanced  by  the  increase 
in  the  price  received  for  this  cheese  yet  remains  to  be  seen. 

In  working  with  creamed  milk  the  greatest  losses  are  at 
the  press,  the  solid  material  which  resembles  butter  in  ap- 
pearance has  a varied  composition.  In  the  column  given 
as  losses  at  the  press,  both  the  solids  and  the  whey  were 
analyzed  separately,  the  solid  matter  ranges  from  60  to 
80  per  cent.  fat.  The  following  is  an  example  of  this  material, 
from  a creamed  milk,  obtained  at  the  press  : 

Water 13.53  per  cent. 

Fat  83.16  per  cent. 

Casein 1.  percent. 

Ash  and  Salt 2.3  per  cent. 

To  what  extent  cream  can  be  incorporated  into  cheese 
without  increasing  the  per  cent,  of  loss  in  the  whey  depends 
largely  upon  the  manipulation.  The  cheese  made  from 
creamed  milk  testing  7.6  per  cent,  fat,  left  in  the  whey  .7  per 
cent,  fat,  indicating  that  the  point  in  which  cream  can  be 
added  under  the  conditions  in  which  these  were  made,  with- 
out sustaining  more  than  normal  losses  in  the  whey,  lies 
somewheres  between  6 and  7.6  per  cent,  of  fat  for  the  mix- 
ture. In  each  case  it  will  be  observed,  where  cream  is 
added,  that  the  weight  of  the  green  cheese  obtained  always 
exceeded  that  made  from  the  same  normal  milk  by  more  than 
the  weight  of  the  fat  added  to  the  cream. 

In  reviewing  the  tables  in  both  of  these  articles  on  ex- 
periments in  cheese  making,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
per  cent  of  fat  left  in  the  whey  is,  in  a great  measure,  a test 
of  the  capabilities  of  the  cheese  maker  and  his  apparatus. 
Daily  work  in  the  cheese  factory  of the  dairy  school  shows  this 
statement  to  be  true  among  experienced  makers.  In  work- 
ing with  rich  milks  every  factory  man  is  urged  to  follow  each 
step  of  his  work  with  the  test,  to  learn  where  the  losses  oc- 
cur, then  study  what  the  causes  are  rather  than  attribute 


24 


any  unusual  losses  to  the  high  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  milk. 

In  these  experiments  an  extended  preliminary  study  was 
found  necessary,  to  get  all  of  the  complicated  factors  under 
control,  so  that  the  conditions,  processes  and  manipulations 
would  be  the  same  in  all  the  different  tests.  All  other  known 
conditions  therefore  being  the  same,  the  variations  in  the  re- 
sults must  be  due  to  the  variations  in  the  per  cent  of  fat  in 
the  milk,  and  the  results  recorded  in  the  tables  are  therefore 
strictly  comparable  as  to  the  loss  of  fat  in  the  whey  and  at 
the  press. 

This  report  of  the  work  is  a summary  of  the  results  only. 
Complete  analyses  were  made  of  the  milk,  whey,  drippings 
and  losses  at  the  press  both  liquid  and  solid  and  determi- 
nations made  of  the  protein  compounds,  sugar,  ash,  lactic 
acid,  and  fat  in  each  by-product,  but  as  these  are  necessarily 
technical  in  character  a discussion  of  them  is  not  given  in 
this  bulletin. 

The  whole  question  of  the  loss  of  fat  in  cheese  making  is 
one  that  requires  careful  consideration,  for  upon  its  right 
solution  depends  to  a large  extent  the  success  of  the  factory. 
If  it  can  not  be  demonstrated  that,  with  normal  milk,  rich 
in  fat,  intelligent  cheese  makers  can  so  incorporate  the  fat  in 
the  cheese  as  to  leave  as  small  a per  cent  of  fat  in  the 
whey  as  with  poorer  milk,  many  patrons,  owning  herds 
of  cows  giving  rich  milk  must  advocate  partial  skimming  at 
least.  These  experiments,  however,  seem  to  show  that  with 
rich  milk  the  loss  of  fat  in  the  whey  is  relatively  less  than 
where  poor  milk  is  used.  The  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  whey  re- 
mains about  constant,  a little  less  than  .4  per  cent  without 
regard  to  the  quality  of  the  original  milk,  hence  the  propor- 
tional loss  in  the  whey  is  less  with  the  richer  milk  both  be- 
cause there  is  more  fat  in  the  original  milk  and  because  there 
is  a less  proportional  amount  of  whey.  For  example,  in 
table  I of  the  second  article  in  the  case  of  the  300  pounds  of 
milk  testing  2.8  per  cent  fat  there  was  261  pounds  of  whey, 
in  the  same  weight  of  milk  testing  5.4  per  cent  fat  there  was 
but  250  pounds  of  whey.  The  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  whey  in 
each  case  was  .4  per  cent.  The  absolute  loss  of  fat  in  the 
whey  from  the  poor  milk  was  1.044  pounds  while  with  the 


25 


rich  milk  it  was  but  one  pound.  The  absolute  amount  of  fat 
in  the  poor  milk  was  8.4  pounds,  while  in  the  rich  milk  it 
was  16.2  pounds,  hence  the  per  cent  of  loss  of  the  total  fat 
of  the  whole  milk  was,  in  the  whey  of  the  poor  milk  12.4  per 
cent,  of  the  rich  milk  6.25  per  cent.  This  is  one  example 
taken  from  many.  In  the  prosecution  of  this  experiment 
ninety  cheeses  were  made  and  the  results  in  every'  case  bear 
out  the  truth  of  the  statement  that  the  loss  of  fat  in  the 
whey  is  both  relatively  and  absolutely  larger  with  poor  than 
with  rich  normal  milk. 

At  the  press,  however,  there  are  greater  losses  with  the 
richer  milk,  occuring  mainly  in  the  solids  of  the  drippings. 
The  drippings  were  treated  as  follows:  The  total  drippings 
from  each  cheese  was  caught  in  a stone  jar  and  filtered 
through  a weighed  filter  with  slight  pressure.  The  solids 
adhering  to  the  sides  of  the  jar  were  washed  into  the  filter 
with  portions  of  the  filtrate.  The  solids  and  filtered  whey 
were  then  weighed  and  analysed  separately  and  gravimatri- 
cally.  Attempts  were  made  to  dissolve  this  butter-like  ma- 
terial with  hot  water  and  with  chemicals  but  without  success. 
In  the  case  of  the  example  last  quoted  the  losses  at  the  press 
from  the  cheese  made  from  poor  milk  were  .078  pounds  in 
the  liquids  and  .05  pounds  in  the  solids,  while  with  the  5.4 
per  cent  milk,  although  the  losses  in  the  liquid  were  practic- 
ally the  same  as  with  the  poor  milk,  the  loss  in  the  solids 
was  .24  pounds  fat.  Taking  therefore  the  total  fat  lost  in 
whey  and  drippings  and  dividing  it  by  the  total  fat  in  the 
original  milk  we  find  that  the  per  cent  of  total  loss  in  the 
case  of  the  poorer  milk  was  13  per  cent  while  with  the  5.4 
per  cent  milk  it  was  but  8.14  per  cent. 

The  history  of  cheese  making  shows  that  the  making  of 
skim  cheese  however  profitable  temporarily  to  the  individual 
maker  is  disastrous  to  the  cheese  trade  of  the  state  or  sec- 
tion that  makes  the  article.  Any  advice  therefore  that  looks 
towards  skimming  at  all  should  be  listened  to  with  caution. 
The  results  of  these  experiments  tend  strongly  to  show  that, 
as  far  as  the  retention  of  the  fat  in  the  cheese  is  concerned 
there  seems  to  be  no  legitimate  excuse  for  the  practice. 


THE  BABCOCK  TEST  AND  CHURN. 


CLINTON  D.  SMITH  AND  T.  L.  HACKER. 

SUMMARY  OF  RESULTS. 

This  experiment  was  undertaken  as  a preliminary  study 
of  the  question,  how  nearly  the  butter  fat  as  indicated  by 
the  Babcock  test  in  the  whole  milk  of  an  individual  cow  can 
be  accounted  for  in  the  butter,  butter  milk  and  skim  milk. 
In  the  following  table  in  which  the  results  are  tabulated,  the 
first  column  contains  the  name  of  the  cows  under  experi- 
ment ; the  second,  the  sum  of  the  butter  fat  given  by  the  cow 
in  seven  milkings  as  determined  by  the  Babcock  test  ; the 
third,  the  amount  of  butter  fat  in  the  butter  churned  from 
these  seven  milkings;  the  fourth,  the  amount  of  butter  fat 
in  the  skim  milk ; fifth,  the  butter  fat  in  the  butter  milk ; 
sixth,  the  fat  in  the  samples  of  the  whole  milk  taken  for 
analysis ; seventh,  the  sum  of  the  butter  fat  in  the  butter, 
skim  milk,  butter  milk  and  samples  ; eighth  the  discrepancy 
between  the  indicated  amount  of  butter  fat  in  the  whole 
milk  and  the  amount  accounted  for  in  the  products ; it  is 
marked  plus  when  the  amount  found  in  the  products  exceeds 
the  amount  indicated  in  whole  milk  and  minus  when  the 
latter  is  less  than  the  former. 

SUMMARY. 


•POUNDS  OF  BUTTER-FAT  IN 


Whole 

milk. 

Butter  j 

Skim 
| milk. 

Butter 

milk. 

Samples. 

Totals. 

Discrep- 

ancy. 

Beckley 

4.731 

4.7000 

.0621 

.00865 

.0567 

4.8374 

+.0964 

Bess 

3.1563 

2.9729 

.0702 

.0119 

.0343 

3.0893 

—.0669 

Bess 

3.1437 

3.0518 

.0708 

.0107 

.0264 

3.1597 

+.0170 

Houston.... 

5.353 

5.2635 

.0719 

.0064 

.0568 

5.3986 

+.0466 

Houston.... 

5.0517 

4.7812 

.0663 

.0184 

.0524 

4.9183 

—.1334 

Maria 

4.6517 

4.6518 

.0654 

.0096 

.0527 

4.7  795 

+.1378 

Olive 

4.303 

4.078 

.0844 

.0651 

.0393 

4.3668 

—.0353 

Olive 

4.459 

4.2903 

.0783 

.023 

.042 

4.4336 

—.0354 

Sully 

5.503 

5.218 

.0981 

.049 

.043 

5.4081 

—.0939 

Sw.  Briar.. 

5.3619 

5.337 

.0739 

.0189 

.052 

5.4818 

+ .1199 

Sw.  Briar.. 

5.5001 

5.046 

.0831 

.0123 

.0521 

5.1935 

—.3066 

Topsy 

3.0654 

2.925 

.0623 

.0168 

.0361 

3.0403 

—.0353 

Topsy 

3.1867 

2.9959 

.0662 

.046 

.0361 

3.1483 

1 

—.0434 

27 


1.  The  bottles  used  in  the  analysis  of  the  skim  milk  were 
graduated  to  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent  only,  but  a variation 
of  that  amount  in  the  reading  would  account  for  some  of  the 
discrepancies  recorded  above.  As  the  milk  was  all  separated 
by  a hand  centrifuge  and  repeated  tests  showed  that  no 
greater  proportion  of  fat  could  be  found  in  any  of  the  skim 
milk,  the  column  headed  “butter  fat  in  skimmilk”  represents 
the  total  weight  of  skimmilk  multiplied  by  the  factor  .001. 

2.  The  scales  on  which  the  milk  and  butter  were  weighed 
are  graduated  to  a tenth  of  a pound.  Very  much  closer 
readings  are  desirable  if  not  necessary  in  weighing  the  butter 
especially,  as  a variation  of  a tenth  of  a pound  in  the  weight 
of  that  product  would  in  many  of  the  cases  throw  the  dis- 
crepancy to  the  other  side  of  the  line. 

3.  The  difficulty  of  taking  a sample  of  butter  for  analy- 
sis that  accurately  represents  the  whole  amount  may  ac- 
count for  still  other  of  the  discrepancies.  Since  the  butter 
must  be  analyzed  in  any  event  whether  the  test  or  the  churn 
is  taken  as  the  final  arbiter  in  the  comparison  of  different 
cows  or  different  breeds,  this  factor  is  alike  the  misfortune  of 
both  methods. 

4.  If  perceptible  mechanical  losses  had  occurred  in  the 
progress  of  these  experiments,  the  sum  of  the  fat  found  in  the 
butter,  skimmilk,  buttermilk  and  samples  would  in  every 
case  have  been  less  than  the  amount  indicated  in  the  whole 
milk,  but  the  table  shows  that  such  is  not  the  case. 

5.  Since  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  skimmilk  remains 
about  constant  the  total  fat  lost  in  the  skimmilk  is  greater 
in  the  case  of  cows  giving  the  larger  quantity  of  milk.  It  is 
also  relatively  largest  in  the  case  of  cows  giving  the  milk 
poorest  in  fats. 

6.  The  more  exhaustive  chumability  of  the  cream  as 
shown  by  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  buttermilk  was  not  in 
these  experiments  a characteristic  of  any  one  breed  of  cows ; 
but  here  also  the  cow  having  a given  amount  of  fat  distri- 
buted through  the  least  amount  of  milk,  had  of  course  the 
least  amount  of  cream  and  buttermilk  and  therefore,  the  per 
cent  of  fat  in  the  buttermilk  remaining  the  same,  the  least 
absolute  loss  of  fat  therein. 


28 


7.  To  prevent  waste  of  fat  in  the  buttermilk,  the  cream 
from  each  cow  had  to  be  treated  differently,  in  a manner 
peculiar  to  that  cow,  hence  the  churn  is  a test  of  the  skill  of 
the  buttermaker  as  well  as  of  the  value  of  the  cow. 

8.  In  the  analysis  of  acid  skimmilk  and  buttermilk  un- 
less due  allowance  is  made  for  the  lactic  acid  and  matters 
other  than  fat  soluble  in  ether  the  usual  gravimetric 
method  is  no  more  accurate  than  the  Babcock  test. 


DETAILS  OF  THE  EXPERIMENTS. 

The  cows  selected  for  these  tests  were  all  fresh  in  milk. 
Beckley  and  Maria  are  grade  Jerseys;  Houston  a cross-bred 
Guernsey -Jersey;  Olive  a grade  Guernsey;  Sweet  Briar  a 
registered  Guernsey;  Rose  a grade  Shorthorn;  Bess  a regis- 
tered Holstein;  Topsy  a grade  Holstein  and  Sully  a native. 

Each  mess  as  soon  as  drawn  from  the  cow  was  weighed 
and  a sample  weighing  on  the  average  2 2-7  ounces  taken 
for  analysis.  Seven  of  these  samplss  thus  make  one  pound 
of  milk  and  as  they  were  thrown  away  their  fat  content  is 
added  to  that  of  the  butter,  skimmilk  and  buttermilk  as  part 
of  the  fat  in  the  whole  milk  not  otherwise  accounted  for. 

The  milk  was  run  through  a hand  centrifuge  immediate- 
ly after  weighing,  care  being  taken  to  wash  all  the  cream 
from  the  bowl  by  liberal  additions  of  skimmilk  at  the  com- 
pletion of  the  separation  of  each  mess  of  each  cow.  The 
cream  was  then  cooled  and  kept  until  seven  milkings  had  ac- 
cumulated wdien  it  was  ripened  and  churned.  Both  the 
skimmilk  and  buttermilk  were  tested  with  the  Babcock  test; 
below  is  given  in  tabular  form  the  detailed  history  of  the  ex- 
periment. The  first  column  in  the  various  tables  shows  the 
date  of  the  milking,  the  second  the  weight  of  the  milk,  the 
third  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  milk  as  shown  by  the  test, 
the  fourth  the  product  of  the  weight  of  milk  multiplied  by 
the  per  cent  'of  fat  or  in  other  words  the  total  fat  in  that 
milking,  the  fifth  gives  the  weight  of  the  skimmilk.  As  the 
experiment  was  performed  in  December  the  number  in  the 
first  column  designates  the  day  of  that  month  when  the 
respective  milkings  were  made. 


29 


Beckley. 


Date 

Whole 

milk, 

lbs. 

Per 

cent  fat 

Total 

fat, 

lbs. 

Skim 

milk, 

lbs. 

Temperature  of  cream,  64°;  time  churn- 
ing, 15  minutes;  temperature  when  churn- 
ed, 66°;  when  washed,  59°;  when  worked, 
59°;  buttermilk,  17.3  lbs.;  per  centfat,  .05; 
worked  butter,  5.35  lbs;  percent  fat,  87.85. 

Butter  fat  in  whole  milk 4.731 

“ “ butter 4.7000 

“ “ skim  milk..  .0621 

“ “ buttermilk.  .0086 

“ “ samples 0567 

Discrepancy .0964 

26  p.m 

27  a.m 

27  p.m 

28  a.m 

28  p.m 

29  a.m 
29  p.m 

12.5 
13. 
11. 

11.5 
11. 

13.5 
11. 

6. 

5.5 

5.6 
5.9 

5.7 
5.4 
5.6 

.75 

.715 

.616 

.6785 

.627 

.729 

.616 

9.4 

10.8 

8.3 

8.4 
7. 

10. 

8.2 

83.5 

4.731 

1 

62.1 

4.8274  4.8274 

Bess. 


Date 

Whole 

milk, 

lbs. 

Per 

cent  fat 

Total 

fat, 

lbs. 

II 

Skim  j 
milk, 
lbs. 

Temperature  of  cream  when  churned, 
64°;  after  churning  65°;  when  washed, 
54°;  when  worked  56°;  buttermilk  23.8 
lbs.,  per  centfat  .05;  worked  butter  3.4 
lbs.,  per  cent  fat  87.44. 

Butter  fat  in  whole  milk 3.1562 

“ “ skimmilk...  .0702.. 

“ “ buttermilk  .0119.. 

“ “ samples 0343.. 

“ “ butter 2.9729.. 

Discrepancy 0669.. 

23  a.m 

23  p.m 

24  a.m 

24  p.m 

25  a.m 

25  p.m 

26  a.m 

13 

13 

13.5 

13. 

13 

12.75 

13.75 

3.8 

3.7 

4.1 

2. 

3.5 

3.6 
3.3 

.494 

.481 

.5535 

.26 

.455 

.459 

.4537 

9.4 

10.75  ! 
10. 

10.9 

9.6 

9.65 

9.85 

92. 

3.1562 

70.15  | 

3.1562  3.1562 

Bess. 


Date 

Whole 

milk, 

lbs. 

Per 

cent  fat 

Total 

fat, 

lbs. 

Skim  [ 
milk, 
lbs.  * 

j Temperature  of  cream  when  churned, 
62°;  after  churning  66°;  when  worked, 
59°;  time  of  churning  30  minutes;  butter- 
milk 21.5  lbs.;  per  cent  fat  .05;  butter 
3.45  lbs.;  per  cent  fat  88.46. 

Butter  fat  in  whole  milk 3.1427 

“ “ butter 3.0518 

“ “ skimmilk...  .0708 

“ “ buttermilk  .0107 

“ “ samples 0264 

Discrepancy 017 

26  p.m 

27  a.m 

27  p.m 

28  a.m 

28  p.m 

29  a.m 
29  p.m 

13 

14.75 

15. 

15. 

12.25 

14.75 

13.5 

3.3 

3.1 
2.8 
1.9 

3.2 

4.2 
4. 

.429 

.4572 

.42 

.285 

.392 

.6195 

.54 

9.7 

9.65 

11.4 

10.6 

8.85 

10.65 

10. 

98.25 

3.1427 

70.85 

3.1597  3.1597 

Houston 


Date 

Whole 

milk, 

lbs. 

Per 

cent  fat 

Total 

fat, 

lbs. 

Skim 

milk, 

lbs. 

Temperature  of  cream  when  churned  64°; 
of  butter  when  washed  55°;  when  work- 
ed 59°;  buttermilk,  21.6  lbs.;  per  cent  fat 
.03;  butter  6.05;  per  cent  fat  87.00. 

23  a.m 

23  p.m 

24  a.m 

24  p.m 

25  a.m 

25  p.m 

26  a.m 

14 

12.5 
13.75 

13.5 
14 
13 
13.5 

5.9 

6.4 

5.4 
5.8 
5.8 
5.8 
4.7 

.826 
.800 
.7425 
.783 
.812  | 
.754 
.6345 

10.6 

9.7 
9.95 

11.1 

10.9 

9.9 

9.8 

Butter  fat  in  whole  milk 5.352 

“ “ butter 5.2635 

“ “ skimmilk..  .0719 

“ “ buttermilk  .0064 

“ “ samples 0568 

Discrepancy 0466 

5.3986  5.3986 

94.25 

5.352 

71.95 

30 


Houston. 


Date 

Whole 

milk, 

lbs. 

Per 

cent  fat 

Total 

fat, 

lbs. 

Skim 

milk, 

lbs. 

Temperature  of  cream  when  churned, 
63°;  of  butter  when  washed  55°;  when 
worked  59°;  time  of  churning  35  min- 
utes; buttermilk  18.4  lbs.;  per  cent  fat,  .1; 
butter  5.6  lbs.;  per  cent  fat  85.38. 

Butter  fat  in  whole  milk 5.0517 

“ “ butter 4.7812 

“ “ skimmilk..  .0663 

“ “ buttermilk  .0184 

“ “ samples 0524 

Discrepancy 1334 

27  p.m 

28  a.m 

28  p.m 

29  a.m 

29  p.m 

30  a.m 
30  p.m 

12.5 

14.75 
12.25 
14 
12 

13.75 
12.25 

5.5 
6. 
5.8 
•5.3 
5.8 

4.6 

5.7 

.6875 

.885 

.7105 

.742 

.696 

.6325 

.6982 

9. 

10.95 

8.15 
10.6 

8.7 

9.75 

9.15 

91.5 

5.0517 

66.3 

5.0517  5.0517 

Maria. 


Date 

Whole 

milk, 

lbs. 

Per 

cent  fat 

Total 

fat, 

lbs. 

Skim 

milk, 

lbs. 

Temperature  of  cream  when  churned 
64° ; temperature  of  butter  66° ; when 
washed  55°;  when  worked  58°;  buttermilk 
19.2  lbs.;  .05%  fat;  time  of  churning  45 
minutes ; butter  5.3  lbs.;  per  cent  fat, 
87.77. 

Butter  fat  in  whole  milk 4.6517 

“ “ butter 4.6518 

“ “ skimmilk..  .0654 

“ “ buttermilk  .0096 

“ “ samples 0527 

Discrepancy 1278 

27  p.m 

28  a.m 

28  p.m 

29  a.m 

29  p.m 

30  a.m 
30  p.m 

12.5 

13.25 

12. 

13.75 

12.5 

13.5 

12.75 

5.3 

4.7 

5.4 
5.4 
5.4 
4.9 

5.8 

.6625 

.6227 

.648 

.7425 

.675 

.5615 

.7395 

9.1 

9.55 

8.5 
10.15 

9.1 

10. 

9.05 

90.25 

4.6517 

65.45 

4.7795  4.7795 

Olive. 


Temperature  of  cream  when  churned, 
62°;  time  churning  40  minutes;  tempera- 
ture of  butter  64°;  when  washed  56°; 
when  worked  58°;  buttermilk  21.7  lbs.; 
per  cent  fat  .3;  butter  4.65  lbs.;  per  cent 
fat  87.70. 

Butter  fat  in  whole  milk 4.302 

“ “ butter 4.078 

“ “ skimmilk...  .0844 

“ “ buttermilk.  .0651 

“ “ samples 0393 

Discrepancy 0352 


4.302  4.302 


Olive. 


Date 

Whole 

milk, 

lbs. 

Per 

cent  fat 

Total 

fat, 

lbs. 

Skim 

milk, 

lbs. 

Temperature  of  cream  62°;  time  churn- 
ing 30  minutes;  temperature  of  butter, 
65°;  when  washed  56°;  when  worked  60°; 
weight  of  worked  butter,  4.85;  butter- 
milk 23  lbs.;  per  cent  of  fat  .1;  per  cent  of 
fat  in  butter  88.46. 

Butter  fat  in  whole  milk 4.459 

“ “ butter 4.2903 

“ “ skimmilk...  .0783 

“ “ buttermilk  .023 

“ “ samples 0420 

Discrepancy 0254 

26  p.m 

27  a.m 

27  p.m 

28  a.m 

28  p.m 

29  a.m 
29  p.m 

14.75 

16. 

14.25 

15.5 

14.5 
16. 
15. 

4.2 
3.6 
4.4 

3.8 

4.3 

4.4 

4.8 

.6195 

.576 

.627 

.589 

.6235 

.704 

.720 

10.95 

12. 

9.85 

12.2 

10.5 

11.6 
11.2 

106. 

4.459 

78.30 

4.459  4.459 

Date 


23  a.m 

23  p.m 

24  a.m 

24  p.m 

25  a.m 

25  p.m 

26  a.m 


Whole 

milk, 

lbs. 


16. 

14. 

17.1 

15.5 

16. 

15.75 

15.5 


109.85 


Per 

cent  fat 


4.2 

4.5 

3.5 
4.1 
3.8 
4.4 
3. 


Total 

fat, 

lbs. 


.672 

.63 

.5985 

.6355 

.608 

.693 

.465 


4.302 


Skim 

milk, 

lbs. 


11.5 

10.5 
12.8 
14.3 
11.9 
11.75 
11.7 


84.45 


31 


Sully. 


Date 

Whole 

milk, 

lbs. 

Per 

cent  fat 

Total 

fat, 

lbs. 

Skim 

milk, 

lbs, 

Temperature  of  cream  when  churned, 
62°;  time  of  churning  45  minutes;  temper- 
ature of  butter  64°;  when  washed,  60°; 
when  worked  62°;  buttermilk  with  water 
added  to  secure  separation  from  butter- 
milk 49  lbs.;  per  cent  of  fat  in  same,  .1; 
worked  butter,  5.85  lbs.;  per  cent  fat, 
89.20. 

Butter  fat  in  whole  milk 5.502 

“ “ butter 5.218 

“ “ skimmilk...  .0981 

“ “ buttermilk  .049 

“ “ samples 043 

Discrepancy 0939 

23  a.m 
23^p.m 

24  a.m 
24  p.m 
25"a.m 
25ip.m 
26‘a.m 

20.5 
18. 
20. 
17.25 

19.5 

17.5 
19. 

4.8 

4. 

4. 

4.6 

4.5 

4. 

3.3 

.984 

.72 

.80 

.7935 

.8775 

.70 

.627 

15.1 

12.6 

14.9 

13.05 

15.5 
12.3 
14.7 

131.75 

5.502 

98.15 

5.502  5.502 

Sweet  Briar. 


Date 

Whole 

milk, 

lbs. 

Per 

cent  fat 

Total 

fat, 

lbs. 

1 

Skim 

milk. 

lbs. 

Temperature  of  cream  64°;  time  of 
churning  33  minutes;  temperature  of  but- 
ter 65°;  when  washed  55°;  when  worked, 
58°; buttermilk  24.6  lbs.;  per  cent  fat  .05; 
butter  5.8  lbs.;  per  cent  fat  87. 

Butter  fat  in  whole  milk 5.5001 

“ “ butter 5.046 

“ “ skimmilk...  .0831 

“ “ buttermilk  .0123 

“ “ samples 0521 

Discrepancy 3066 

23  a.m 

23  p.m 

24  a.m 

24  p.m 

25  a.m 

25  p.m 

26  a.m 

16.25 
15.5 

15.25 
16.75 

17.25 

16.25 

15.25 

5. 

5.5 
4.7 
5.2 

4.6 

5.1 

4.1 

.8125 

.8525 

.7167 

.871 

.7935 

.8287 

.6252 

12.85 

11.4 

11.45 

13.15 

12.65 

10.65 
10.95 

112.50 

5.5001 

83.1 

5.5001  5.5001 

Sweet  Briar. 


Date 

Whole 

milk, 

lbs. 

Per 

cent  fat 

Total 

fat, 

lbs. 

Skim 

milk. 

lbs. 

Temperature  of  cream,  63°;  time  churn- 
ing 16  minutes;  butter  temperature  65°; 
when  washed  62°;  when  worked  63°;  but- 
termilk 18.9  lbs.;  per  cent  fat  .1;  butter  6 

26  p.m 

27  a.m 

27  p.m 

28  a.m 

28  p.m 

29  a.m 
29  p.m 

15.25 
14.75 
14.5 
15. 
14.5 
14.5 

14.25 

5.4 

4.9 
5. 

5.9 

5.6 

4.6 
5.1 

.8235 

.7227 

.725 

.885 

.812 

.667 

.7267 

11.75 

9.75 

10.80 

10.10 

10.50 

10.80 

10.25 

lbs.;  per  cent  fat  88.95. 

Butter  fat  in  whole  milk 5.3619 

“ “ butter 5.337 

“ “ skimmilk...  .0739 

“ “ buttermilk  .0189 

“ “ samples 0520 

Discrepancy 1199 

102.75 

5.3619 

73.95 

5.4818  5.4818 

Topsy. 


Date 

Whole 
milk , 
lbs. 

Per 

cent  fat 

Total 

fat, 

lbs. 

Skim 

milk, 

lbs. 

Temperature  of  cream,  62°;  time  churn- 
ing, 27  minutes;  butter  66°,  when  wash- 
ed, 59°,  when  worked,  63°;  buttermilk, 
23  lbs.;  per  cent  fat,  .2;  butter,  3.45  lbs; 
per  cent  fat,  86.84. 

Butter  fat  in  whole  milk ,3,1867 

“ “ butter 2.996 

“ skimmilk...  .0662 
“ buttermilk,  .046 

“ samples 0361 

Discrepancy 0424  # 

23  a.m. 

23  p.m. 

24  a.m. 

24  p.m. 

25  a.m. 

25  p.m. 

26  a.m. 

13. 

11.5 

13.5 

12.5 
13.25 
12.1 
13.25 

3.9 

3.9 

3.7 

4. 

4. 

3.5 

2.1 

.507 

.4485 

.4995 

.50 

.53 

.4235 

.2782 

9.6  I 
8.4 
10.1 

9.8 
9.95 

8.9 
9.45 

89.1 

3.1867 

66.2 

3.1867  3.1867 

Topsy 


Date 

Whole 

milk, 

lbs. 

Per 

cent  fat 

Total 

fat, 

lbs. 

Skim 

milk. 

lbs. 

26  p.m 

13.25 

3.8 

.5035 

10.25 

27  a.m 

12.75 

3.7 

.4717 

9.35 

27  p.m 

11.5 

2.9 

3.335 

8.2 

28  a.m 

12.5 

3.1 

.3875 

8.7 

28  p.m 

12. 

4.3 

.516 

9. 

29  a.m 

12.25 

3.2 

.392 

8.75 

29  p.m 

11.25 

4.1 

.4612 

8.05 

85.5 

3.0654 

62.3 

Temperature  of  cream  64°;  time  churn- 
ing 30  minutes;  butter,  temperature  67°; 
when  washed  58°;  when  worked  62°;  but- 
termilk 16.8  lbs.;  per  cent  fat  .1;  butter 
3.25  lbs.;  per  cent  fat  90. 

Butter  fat  in  whole  milk 3.0654 

“ “ butter 2.925 

“ “ skimmilk  ..  .0623 

“ “ buttermilk  .0168 

“ “ samples  ....  .0361 

Discrepancy 0252 


3.0654  3.0654 


University  of  Minnesota. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  No.  20. 


ZMZJ5.-5T,  1892. 


FERTILIZERS. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  TIMOTHY.  RAPE  IN  MINNESOTA. 
PEAS  AND  OATS.  FIELD  PEAS. 


I®”  Tlie  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the 
State  who  make  application  for  them. 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK,  RAMSEY  CO., 

MINNESOTA. 


Uni  vensity  of  Minnesota 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis, 1896. 

The  HON.  GREENEEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - - 1894. 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - 1894. 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  Alexandria, 1896. 

The  HON.  JOEL  P.  HEATWOLE,  Northfield,  ....  1896. 

The  HON.  0.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth, 1896. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson, 1896. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  EMERY,  Lake  City, 1895. 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  Minneapolis,  - 1 895. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  R.  MERRIAM,  St.  Paul,  - - - Ex-Officio. 

The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  DAVID  L.  KIEHLE,  M.  A..  St.  Paul,  - - - Ex-Officio. 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHROP,  LL.  D.,  Minneapolis,  - Ex-Officio. 

The  President  of  the  University. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  EMERY. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION: 

CLINTON  D.  SMITH,  M.  S., Director. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S.,  - - - - - - Horticulturist. 

OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  - - - - Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S., Chemist. 

T.  L.  H HACKER, Dairying. 

J.  A.  VYE, - Secretary. 


OATS  SOWN  WITH  FIELD  PEAS. 


W.  M.  HAYS. 

During  the  past  two  or  three  seasons  numerous  plats  of 
field  peas,  and  oats  with  peas,  have  been  grown  on  the  Ex- 
periment Farm  to  study  how  best  to  grow  these  crops  for 
feed.  All  the  plats  were  grown  on  land  in  good  heart.  It  is 
a mixture  of  sand  and  clay,  has  good  power  to  hold  mois- 
ture, while  a stratum  of  sand  and  gravel  at  a depth  of  several 
feet  provides  perfect  underdrainage.  In  1890  experiments 
were  made  on  fall  plowed  stubble  land  and  in  1891  on  fall 
plowed  timothy  sod. 

In  1890  nine  one-third  acre  plots  33  rods  long  were  planted 
to  oats,  peas  and  the  two  mixed.  The  facts  are  tabulated 
below.  The  weather  was  favorable  to  the  stooling  of  the 
oats  and  where  even  only  a half  bushel  of  oats  was  used  with 
peas  the  crop  was  mainly  oats.  White  Canada  field  peas 
used  alone  produced  a good  crop.  Oats  alone  ^fielded  a 
medium  crop  of  poor  quality,  weighing  only  25  pounds  per 
bushel.  Separating  the  oats  and  peas  in  the  crop,  the 
yield  per  acre  of  each  is  presented  in  the  table.  Estimating 
peas  at  80  cents  and  oats  at  25  cents  per  bushel,  the  rela- 
tive values  of  the  several  crops  are  also  shown.  The  straw 
^f  peas  is  worth  more  than  the  oat  straw  but  as  the  values 
of  these  rough  feeds  are  but  poorly  determined  no  estimate 
* ; attempted. 


36 


PEAS  AND  OATS  IN  1890. 


Plot. 

Manner  of 
Seeding. 

Qts.  per  A. 

Straw 

yield, 

lbs. 

Yield  per  Acre. 

Value  per  Acre. 

Peas. 

Oats. 

Peas,  bu.j 

Oats,  bu. 

Peas. 

Oats. 

Total. 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 
19 

Ay. — 

Drill  8 in. 
Drill,  8 in. 
Plowed  under 
Drill,  8 in. 
Plowed  under 
Drill,  8 in. 

“ 8 “ 

“ 8 “ 

“ 8 “ 

Oats  alone 
Peas  alone 
Oats  and  peas 

96 

80 

96 

60 

93 

54 

96 

80 

32 

36 

18 

16 

32 

80 

80 

2688 

3215 

2236 

3240 

2619 

2420 

1749 

2364 

3495 

3500 

2500 

2500 

25* 

5 

2314  ! 

3* 

19 

2% 

1% 

2* 

8 

37 

23 
17 
29% 
35  * 
35y2 

$20.40 

4.00 
18.80 

2.80 

15.20 

1.90 

1.30 

2.00 

$2.00 

9.20 

5.70 

4.30 

7.30 
8.90 

$20.40 

6.00 

18.80 

12.00 

15.20 

7.60 

5.60 
9.30 
8.90 
8.90 

18.90 

8.10 

96 

23% 

PEAS  AND  OATS  IN  1891. 


Plot. 

Manner 
of  seeding. 

Qts.  per  A. 

Straw 

yield, 

lbs. 

Yield  per  Acre. 

Value  per  Acre. 

Peas. 

Oats. 

Peas,  bu. 

Oats,  bu. 

Peas. 

Oats. 

Total. 

1 

Drilled. 

100 

3593 

55 

$13.70 

$13.70 

2 

“ 

120 

2653 

15% 

$12  53 

12.53 

3 

85 

22 

3233 

2 

38 

1.60 

9.50 

11.10 

4 

105 

22 

2293 

2% 

38 

1.90 

9.50 

11.40 

5 

“ 

102 

31 

2980 

4 

36 

3.20 

9.00 

12.20 

6 

“ 

120 

2800 

20 

16.00 

16.00 

7 

“ 

107 

3193 

55 

13.70 

13.70 

9 

95 

12 

3328 

1 

32 

.80 

8.00 

8.80 

10 

80 

40 

3587 

1 * 

25 

1.20 

6.20 

7.40 

11 

“ 

96 

24  * 

3413 

2 

30 

1.60 

7.50 

9.10 

12 

92 

28 

2966 

4 * 

27 

3.60 

6.70 

10.30 

13 

“ 

87 

3733 

54 

13.50 

13.50 

14 

107 

3547 

14 

11.20 

11.20 

Ay. — Oats  alone 

3 bu. 

3500 

54% 

13.90 

“ Peas  alone 

1 9-10  bu. 

3000 

16* 

13.20 

“ Oats  and  peas 

l*bu 

* bu. 

3000 

10.00 

PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 

The  results  suggest  a few  practical  considerations. 

(1.)  With  the  conditions  suited  to  the  stooling  of  oats  even  a small  pro- 
portion of  oat  seeds  will  cause  the  peas  to  be  a light  crop  when  sown  by 
mixing  in  the  seed  drill;  this  occurs  on  rich  moist  soils  nearly  every  year, 
rarely  on  sandy,  drouthy  soils. 

(2.)  Peas  made  the  best  crop  in  1890  when  plowed  under  and  sown 
alone.  Farmers  on  sandy  lands  claim  the  best  results  from  plowing  the 
peas  under  to  a depth  of  4 or  5 inches  and  then  sowing  the  oats  with  seeder 
or  drill.  The  further  trials  of  pea  and  oat  succotash  could  include  a test  of 
this  plan. 

(3.)  Though  no  figures  have  been  recordEd  several  comparisons  have 
shown  that  peas  do  not  do  nearly  as  well  on  our  timothy  sods  as  when 
following  a grain  crop. 


37 


(4.)  Oats  and  peas  together  or  peas  alone  can  be  successfully  threshed 
with  ordinary  threshing  machines,  and  the  whole  peas  can  easily  be  separ- 
ated from  oats  and  split  peas  by  screening  and  by  allowing  the  whole  peas 
to  roll  down  an  inclined  plane. 

(5.)  Oats  and  peas  sown  together  have  not  proven  as  profitable  as  when 
grown  separately , but  where  the  oats  will  serve  to  hold  the  peas  erect  good 
combined  crops  are  produced.  Peas  alone  are  such  a good  crop  on  soils 
suited  to  their  growth  that  our  most  erect  sorts  should  be  selected  and  im- 
proved. This  done  and  harvesting  machinery  perfected  and  pea  crops  will 
be  as  popular  to  raise  for  sale  and  for  feed  as  are  oats.  They  have  an 
especial  value  in  rotations  with  our  grain  crops. 

(6.)  The  greatest  needs  in  raising  peas  are  a knowledge  of  what  varieties 
to  sow  on  each  kind  of  soil,  and  a harvesting  machine  that  will  lay  the 
vines  in  “rolled  up”  bunches  much  as  a man  does  in  mowing  them  wfith  a 
scythe. 

(7.)  Mr.  Andrew  Boss,  foreman,  who  attended  to  most  of  the  details 
of  crop  trials,  tried  every  way  we  could  invent  to  harvest  peas.  The  best 
way  tried  was  to  cut  with  a two  horse  mowing  machine  having  two  men 
with  forks  following  on  stations  to  roll  the  swath  out  of  the  way  of  the  re- 
turning team.  The  mowing  can  not  be  successfully  done  when  the  vines 
are  wet. 

(8.)  Peas  for  green  feed,  for  hay,  for  hay  and  grain,  for  grain  to  sell  and 
for  silage,  also  to  get  land  ready  for  other  crops  are  bound  to  be  much  used, 
especially  on  our  sandy  lands. 


FIELD  PEAS  IN  MINNESOTA. 


During  the  past  three  years  numerous  experiments  have 
been  in  progress  to  determine  the  best  methods  of  grow- 
ing field  peas,  the  best  varieties  for  Minnesota  and  their 
general  value  as  a field  crop  to  be  grown  as  a money  crop  or 
for  feed.  Progress  along  these  lines  is  reported  below. 

BEST  VARIETIES  OF  FIELD  PEAS. 

There  are  four  general  classes  of  varieties  of  field  peas 
which  are  well  adapted  to  Minnesota  conditions.  They  are 
the  Canada  Blue  Field  Peas  and  the  Canada  White  Field 
Peas,  both  of  which  have  smooth,  hard  seeds;  and  Black  E\re 
Marrowfat  and  White  Marrowfat  peas,  both  of  which  are 
large,  wrinkled  and  not  so  hard  as  the  Blue  and  White 
Canada  field  peas.  Every  seedsman  has  so  called  varieties  of 
these  classes  of  peas  which  he  advertises.  Doubtless  many 
of  them  are  nearly  identical.  There  seems  to  be  two  sub- 
classes of  the  White  Canada  pea,  some  calling  one  Prince 
Albert  and  the  other  Common  White  Canada  Field  Pea. 
The  Prince  Albert  class  has  larger,  finer  seeds  but  has  yielded 
no  more  per  acre  than  the  other  class  with  us.  Most  of  the 
notes  of  time  of  ripening,  habit  of  vines,  and  part  of  the 
notes  of  yield  of  grain  and  straw  for  1889  and  1890  were 
destroyed  by  fire.  The  table  below  gives  the  yields  of  the  va- 
rieties of  the  four  classes  of  peas  for  1891,  and  1890  and  a few 
of  1889.  There  is  no  general  marked  difference  in  the  yields 
of  these  four  classes  of  field  peas.  In  1891  the  24  varieties  of 
seed  we  had  culled  out  of  the  greater  number  sown  before 
yielded  an  average  of  28 bushels  per  acre  on  “old  land,”  that 
had  been  cultivated  for  twenty  or  more  years  with,  so  far  as 
known,  no  application  of  manure.  In  1890  these  same 
varieties  averaged  18 H bushels  per  acre.  The  average  yields 
of  the  four  classes  for  the  years  1890  and  1891  are  shown 
below. 


39 


TABLE  NO.  1. 

VARIETY  TEST  OF  FIELD  PEAS. 


Plot  No 

Varieties  Sown  May  5th, 
1891. 

Bush,  seed  sown 
per  acre 

Bushels  grain  per 
acre,  1891 

Bushels  grain  per 
acre,  1890 

Pounds  straw  per 
acre,  1891 

Bushels  grain  per 
acre,  1889 

Original  Source 
of  Seed. 

Plants 

stand 

erect. 

2 

Common  Blue  Field  Pea 

354 

29 

3209  28 

40 

Experiment  Farm 

Fairly 

3 

Blue  Russian  Pea 

3% 

29 

4791  51 

32 

Fxperiment  Farm 

Down 

4 

Bine  Canada.  Pea 

3 

3454 

3860  19 

P.  Henderson 

Well 

5 

Blue  Canada  Pea 

3 

29 

3140  20 

Experiment  Farm 

Well 

6 

Blue  Imperial  Pea 

3 

28% 

3349  16% 

B’dgr  State  s.  farm 

Fairly 

7 

Choice  Blue  Pea.. 

3 

2854 1 

3570  18 

Ferry 

Fairly 

8 

Common  White  Field  Pea... 

3 

24% 

2000  1754 

Ferry 

Fairly 

9 

White  Field  Pea  . . 

3 

2454  1 

4814  18 

Ferr  a” 

Well 

10 

White  Canada  Pea 

Is  ! 

24 

3093  15 

Experiment  Farm 

Down. 

11 

White  Prince  Albert  Pea 

3 

28 

2977  22  , 

N.  B.  & Goodwin.. 

Down 

12 

No.  1 White  Field  Pea 

3 

24 

2512  17 

Ferry 

Down 

13 

Common  WLite  Pea 

3 

28%; 

3651  2334; 

40 

Gregory 

Down 

14 

White  Field  Pea 

3 

2 3 ~/3 

3116  1754 

Ferry 

Down 

15 

White  Canada  Field  Pea 

!3  l 

25  54 

3116  15 

Experiment  Farm 

Down 

16 

White  Canada  Field  Pea 

3 

26% 

2581  

Experiment  Farm 

Down 

17 

White  Marrowfat  Pea 

3 

31% 

3442  21 

N.  B.  & Goodwin.. 

Fairly 

18 

Tall  Marrowfat  Pea 

3 ; 

31 

3244  ! 

Experiment  Farm 

Down 

19 

Black  E3^e  Marrowfat  Pea.. 

3 1 

3254  i 

4326  1754 

Experiment  Farm 

Down 

20 

Black  Eye  Marrowfat  Pea.. 

2Hi 

33%j 

2651  18% 

B’dgr  State  s.  farm 

Fairly 

21 

Black  Eye  Marrowfat  Pea.. 

2% 

30% 

1209  2054 

Maule 

Fairly 

22 

White  Marrowfat  Pea 

2>4, 

34 

3768  2254 

B’dgr  State  s.  farm 

Fairly 

23 

Veitches  Perfection  Pea 

254 

2454 

2954  -9% 

Experiment  Farm 

Fairly 

24 

Scotchman  Pea 

254 

21 

2930  16  1 

N.  B.  & Goodwin.. 

Well  | 

25 

Latest  of  all  Peas 

21/2 

23% 

4186  

Sutton  & Son,  Eng 

Well  “ 

TABLE  NO.  2. 

AVERAGE  YIELDS  OF  FOUR  CLASSES  OF  PEAS. 


Varieties. 

Bus.  per 
Acre,  1890. 

Bus.  per 
Acre,  1891. 

Blue  Canada  Field  Peas 

18 

30 

White  Canada  Field  Peas 

I8V4 

26 

White  Marrowfat 

22 

.32 

Black  Eye  Marrowfat 

19 

32 

The  yields  did  not  vary  so  widely  as  was  expected.  In 
1890  the  Bine  Prussian  which  has  been  a heavy  yielder  of 
straw  went  down  very  badly  and  did  not  yield  many  peas, 
and  we  could  not  save  all  that  were  matured  as  the  vines 
laid  so  low.  I was  agreeably  surprised  to  find  the  Marrow- 
fat varieties  such  good  yielders  of  grain.  I will  not  under- 
take at  this  time  to  advise  as  to  varieties.  Some  help  can  be 
obtained  from  the  tables  and  with  catalogues  of  a few  reliable 


40 


seedsmen  the  purchaser  will  stand  a good  chance  of  procur- 
ing a good  stock  of  seed.  Many  varieties  of  common  garden 
peas  have  been  tried  but  all  give  too  small  a yield  to  com- 
pare favorably  with  the  four  classes  above  named  for  field 
purposes. 

From  a study  of  the  individual  plants  grown  alone  and  in 
fields  I believe  that  no  easier  line  of  improving  varieties  exists 
in  any  class  of  field  crops  than  in  peas.  And  it  would  be 
quite  worth  the  while  of  Experiment  Stations,  of  seedsmen 
and  of  amateurs  to  try  to  improve  field  peas  by  selecting  and 
by  cross  fertilizing.  The  individual  plant  is  easily  studied 
and  the  flower  can  be  artificially  cross  fertilized  without 
great  trouble.  I have  found  the  two  great  sources  of  loss  in 
the  crop  of  peas  to  arise  from  a lack  of  ability  to  stand  erect 
on  the  part  of  the  stems,  thus  causing  the  whole  plant  to  be- 
come infested  with  fungus  parasites  (“moulds”)  and  the  seed 
to  be  thus  lessened  in  quantitv.  And  in  the  second  place  the 
legumes  burst  so  quickly  in  case  of  most  varieties,  when  the 
crop  is  drying  that  a very  large  per  centage  of  the  seeds  shell 
out  before  they  can  be  secured  on  the  wagon.  Those  who 
undertake  the  improvement  of  these  peas  should  look  to 
getting  stockier  plants  and  pods  that  are  tough.  Some  of 
the  seed  now  on  hand  will  make  excellent  foundation  stock 
for  careful  work  in  improvement. 

METHODS  OF  SEEDING  FIELD  PEAS. 

The  tabular  statement  below  shows  the  results  of  seeding 
Canada  blue  field  peas  in  several  different  ways.  Very  wet 
weather,  while  curing  the  vines,  caused  delay  and  consequent 
loss  of  peas  as  the  alternate  wetting  and  drying  of  the  pods 
caused  them  to  open  and  the  peas  to  be  lost.  The  largest 
two  yields  of  grain  were  produced  on  plot  six,  drilled  eight 
inches  apart  and  seeded  at  the  rate  of  three  bushels  per  acre ; 
and  plot  four,  drilled  twenty -four  inches  apart  and  cultivated, 
one  bushel  and  three  quarts  per  acre.  The  smallest  yields  of 
grain  were  on  plot  one,  drilled  eight  inches  apart,  two  and 
one-half  bushels  of  seed  per  acre,  and  plot  seven,  sowed 
broadcast  at  the  rate  of  3%  bushels  seed  per  acre.  The  largest 
two  yields  of  straw  were  on  plot  three,  one  bushel  seed  per 
acre  in  drills  16  inches  apart,  cultivated  between  the  rows, 


41 


and  plot  two,  1 Vi  bushel  seed  per  acre,  drills  16  inches  apart 
and  cultivated ; while  the  smallest  yields  of  straw  were  on 
plot  four  on  which  one  bushel  three  quarts  of  seed  per  acre 
was  sown  in  drills  24  inches  apart  and  cultivated,  and  on 
plot  five  on  which  114  bushels  seed  per  acre  was  placed  in 
drills  16  inches  apart  and  cultivated.  This  land  was  clover 
and  grass  sod,  spring  plowed,  and  was  fairly  fertile.  This 
is  certainly  a good  example  showing  that  repeated  trials 
with  field  plots  are  necessary  to  give  reliable  figures.  These 
plots  were  33  rods  long  and  no  difference  in  the  land  can  be 
observed  upon  inspection. 


Plot. 

Distance  Apart  of  Drills. 

Amount  Seed  per  Acre. 

Yield  Peas, 
per  Acre. 

Yield  Straw 
per  Acre,  lbs. 

1 

2 

8 inches 

16  in.,  cultivated 

2V\  bushels 

1 bushels 

6 bushels... 
9.3  ' “ 

1945 
2 238 

3 

16  in.,  cultivated 

1 bushel 

7.1  “ 

2604 

4 

24  in.,  cultivated 

1 bushel  and  3 qrts.. 

9.8  “ 

1452 

5 

16  in.,  cultivated 

1 bushel  and  8 qrts.. 

7.8  “ ... 

1542 

6 

8 inches 

3 bushels 

10.1  “ 

1671 

7 

*Sowed  broadcast 

3%  bushels 

j 6.3  “ 

2112 

8 

*Sowed  broadcast 

2^4  bushels 

1 8.2  “ 

2097 

9 

*Sowed  broadcast 

1 bushel  and  3 qrts.. 

1 7.2  “ ... 

1976 

*Covered  with  Disk  Harrow. 


The  yield  on  this  sod  land  was  not  more  than  half  as  good  ' 
as  on  land  very  similar  which  had  borne  two  crops  of  com 
since  the  clover  and  timothy  sods  were  turned  under.  In 
this  case  cultivation  did  not  pay,  but  more  experiments  are 
needed  in  this  line  also. 

The  above  results  were  obtained  with  a white  variety  of 
peas.  Our  practice  has  been  to  plant  with  a common  shoe 
drill  about  three  bushels  of  peas  per  acre,  and  letting 
them  be  covered  2%  to  3 inches  deep.  They  will  stand  being 
planted  twice  as  deep  but  our  general  practice  on  many  plots 
and  with  many  varieties  has  been  so  uniformly  successful 
that  we  can  commend  it. 


RAPE  IN  MINNESOTA. 


Rape  ( Brassica  napus)  is  grown  in  England  for  fattening 
sheep  and  also  to  some  extent  in  Canada.  There  it  is 
usually  sown  in  June  or  July  and  used  for  fall  pasture  for 
fattening  lambs,  cleaning  the  ground  of  weeds  and  enriching 
it  with  the  manure  dropped.  As  some  grain  is  given  in  ad- 
dition, the  land  is  considerably  enriched. 

When  growing,  rape  appears  much  like  rutabaga  turnips, 
though  it  has  not  a thick  root.  It  grows  taller  than  the 
turnip  forming  a stem  a foot  or  more  high  which  bears  many 
succulent  leaves.  On  very  clean  land  it  may  be  sown  broad- 
cast as  Dutch  turnips,  but  it  will  serve  a double  purpose  on 
weedy  land  if  sown  in  drills  and  cultivated  a few  times,  as 
besides  furnishing  a crop  of  feed,  the  land  is  cleaned  of  weeds 
and  nicely  prepared  for  wheat  or  other  grain.  In  Can- 
ada the  farmers  often  sow  rape  after  removing  a crop  of 
rve  or  after  using  it  for  pasture,  or  cutting  it  a little  early 
for  hay.  The  same  plan  might  be  followed  here  where  the 
rape  is  wanted  for  very  late  sheep  pasturage.  It  may  also 
be  grown  on  land  not  plowed  until  time  to  seed  the  rape, 
thus  taking  the  place  of  summer  fallow.  We  grew  some  rape 
last  season  on  land  on  which  we  had  mowed  a crop  of  peas 
and  oats,  mixed,  for  hogs.  There  seems  no  reason  to  doubt 
that  rape  will  do  well  on  any  of  our  lands  suited  to  corn  or 
potatoes.  As  it  is  used  elsewhere  only  for  fall  feed  we  have 
no  experience  with  it  or  knowledge  of  it  except  when  sown 
about  the  first  of  July.  Some  grown  on  the  Experiment 
farm  last  season  did  well  and  in  September  Prof.  Shaw,  of 
Ontario  Agricultural  College,  said  it  was  a good  average 
crop  as  compared  with  rape  grown  in  Ontario.  Prof.  Shaw 
has  done  considerable  experimenting  with  rape  and  as  he 
knows  the  practical  methods  used  in  its  growth  in  Canada 
we  have  followed  his  advice  largely  in  starting  to  grow  it 
here.  He  says  it  does  best  to  sow  it  late  in  June  or  early  in 


43 


July  so  that  it  may  develop  in  the  cooler  weather  in  the  fall, 
but  not  so  late  that  it  will  be  too  succulent  or  watery  when1 
wanted  to  be  fed  off.  The  last  week  in  June  would  seem  to 
be  the  best  time  for  the  vicinity  of  St.  Paul. 

Following  Prof.  Shaw’s  advice  we  sowed  in  drills  two 
feet  apart,  on  land  already  well  cleaned,  and  cultivated  a few 
times  to  keep  down  weeds.  One  pound  per  acre  of  Dwarf 
Essex  Rape  seed  was  used.  If  sown  broad  cast  three  pounds' 
per  acre  should  be  used.  We  prepared  the  land  nicely  but 
did  not  ridge  up  as  is  the  practice  in  the  old  country.  Ridg- 
ing up  for  planting  seeds  in  this  country,  subject  to  periods 
of  drouth,  is  thought  to  be  an  injury.  Our  farmers  will  look 
upon  cultivating  rape  as  tedious,  especially  in  weedy  land 
where  the  hand  hoe  must  be  used  to  clean  out  the  rows,  but 
our  state  is  becoming  so  befouled  with  weeds  that  we  must 
learn  to  fight  them,  and  by  more  profitable  means  than  the 
bare  summer  fallow.  When  the  rape  is  a foot  or  more  high 
sheep  may  be  turned  into  it  and  allowed  to  pasture  it  until 
very  late  as  it  withstands  frosts  until  the  freezing  is  very 
hard.  Animals  eating  frozen  rape  are  subject  to  digestive 
troubles  and  it  must  be  cautiously  done,  if  done  at  all.  Rape 
makes  good  pasturage  for  cattle  and  hogs  also  are  said  to 
be  fond  of  it.  For  dairy  cattle  it  is  hardly  allowable  as  it 
taints  the  milk. 

About  the  only  caution  needed  in  turning  sheep  on  rape 
is  that  they  be  well  fed  on  other  feeds  for  a few  days  or  al- 
lowed only  a short  time  in  the  rape  at  once.  When  turned 
in  hungry  they  are  liable  to  eat  so  much  that  bloating  is 
caused.  Ewes  which  are  to  be  bred  are  liable  to  become  too 
fat  if  pastured  on  rape  for  one  or  two  months  in  the  fall. 

RESULTS  OF  FEEDING  RAPE  TO  SHEEP. 

Early  in  October,  after  a week’s  preliminary  feeding, 
eight  sheep  were  divided  into  two  groups,  each  containing 
two  aged  ewes,  one  yearling  and  one  lamb,  all  Shropshires. 
Group  2 was  placed  in  the  rape  day  times  and  housed  with- 
out other  feed  at  night.  Group  1 was  given  all  the  timothy 
hay,  containing  a little  clover,  they  would  eat,  and  were  al- 
lowed a small  yard  to  exercise  in.  Group  2 ate  one-fifth  acre 
of  rape  in  thirty -two  days.  During  the  same  period  Group 


44 


1 ate  387  pounds  of  hay.  Group  2 gained  *4  pound  each 
daily  and  Group  1 gained  Vs  pound  each  daily.  The  follow- 
ing table  shows  the  results: 


■Number 

Pounds 

Amount 

Average 

Total 

Average 

Group. 

of 

of  hay 

of  rape 

weight 

gain  in 

daily  gain 

Sheep. 

eaten. 

eaten. 

of  sheep.. 

32  days. 

per  head. 

1 

4 

387 

113.5 

16 

Vs 

2 

4 

1-5  acre. 

120.2 

34 

V4 

In  terms  of  an  acre,  one  acre  of  rape  was  eaten  while  the 
sheep  fed  hay  ate  nineteen-twentieths  of  a ton.  Counting 
the  increase  of  live  weight  at  4 cents  per  pound  (the  current 
value  of  sheep  for  feeders)  and  the  hay  at  six  dollars  per  ton 
(an  average  on  Minnesota  farms)  and  we  have  the  acre  of 
rape  equal  to  $5.70  worth  of  hay  and  $3.20  worth  of  mut- 
ton more  than  was  produced  by  hay  on  Group  1.  We  thus 
have  one  acre  of  this  rape  worth,  for  very  late  pasturage  for 
stock,  sheep  the  sum  of  $8.90.  This  crop  seems  very  promis- 
ing as  being  adapted  to  add  one  more  small  diversity  to 
Minnesota’s  Agriculture.  With  the  increase  of  sheep  raising, 
we  have  hopes  that  rape  may  prove  very  useful. 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  TIMOTHY. 


WILLET  M.  HAYS. 

Efforts  to  improve  our  common  field  crops  have  not  been 
pushed  with  as  much  vigor  as  the  cost  such  improvements 
would  incur  in  proportion  to  the  great  interests  these  crops 
represent  would  justify.  Believing  that  experiments  looking 
toward  the  improvement  of  those  pasture  and  hay  plants 
which  are  most  extensively  used  would  best  repay  the  expen- 
diture, timothy  and  red  clover  were  selected  and  a start  was 
made  two  years  ago.  Very  little  progress  has  been  made  in 
case  of  clover,  but  with  timothy  the  foundation  seems  to 
have  been  laid. 

In  1889  seeds  of  selected  stocks  or  plants  of  timothy  were 
gathered,  and  in  1890  a few  hundred  of  these  seeds  were 
planted  in  good  soil.  Each  seed  was  given  more  than  one 
square  foot  of  ground  in  which  the  resulting  plant  could 
spread.  In  selecting  these  seeds  the  effort  was  to  secure  a 
foundation  stock  of  plants  with  some  distinguishing  mark, 
that  any  improvements  which  might  be  made  would  be  on 
plants  easily  recognized  as  different  from  ordinary  timothy, 
of  which  there  is  only  one  species  or  variety  in  common  use 
in  this  country.  It  had  been  observed  that  the  anthers  of 
timothy  at  the  time  it  is  in  the  “ blue  bloom  ” vary  in  color 
from  light  straw  color  to  dark  blue.  Plants  representing 
the  two  extremes  were  marked  when  in  bloom  and  when 
ripe  the  seeds  were  saved,  the  intention  being  to  fix  the 
colors  as  the  distinguishing  marks  of  two  varieties. 

The  rich  soil  and  ample  room  caused  the  plants  to  make 
unusually  strong  growth,  and  a number  of  them  retained 
the  colors  sought  to  be  perpetuated.  But  this  rich  feeding 
forced  the  plants  into  a much  stronger  growth  than  occurs 
when  crowded  together  in  pasture  or  meadow.  When  head- 
ed out  the  second  year,  the  plants  then  being  15  months  old, 


46 


each  one  had  spread  by  stooling  to  ten  inches  or  less  in  di- 
ameter, some  much  more  than  others.  Some  had  longer 
heads,  were  taller,  had  longer  radicle  leaves  and  were  appar- 
ently much  stronger  and  more  desirable  plants  than  others. 
Eight  of  the  324  plants  developed  some  of  the  spikelets  into 
marked  branches,  as  shown  in  the  photographic  plate  on 
the  opposite  page.  As  nearly  all  the  spikes,  20  to  50,  on 
each  plant  showing  this  variation  had  the  branches,  it  is 
safe  to  assume  that  this  feature  can  be  made  a fixed  charac- 
ter by  selection  in  a few  to  several  years.  These  branches 
are  useful  mainly  as  a mark  to  go  along  with  other  intrinsic 
qualities,  but  they  have  a direct  use  in  making  the  yield  of 
seed  greater.  It  would  seem  easy  to  continue  or  fix  this 
characteristic  by  selection,  and  at  the  same  time  select  to  get 
plants  better  adapted  to  the  various  purposes  for  which 
timothy  is  grown.  I was  able  from  this  first  generation  of 
plants  to  choose  those  having  large  size,  long  stem  and 
radicle  leaves,  great  spreading  or  stooling  habit,  tall,  strong, 
and  as  shown  by  the  natural  sized  photographs,  long,  heavy 
bearing  “ heads' ’ or  spikes. 

In  climates  subject  to  drouth,  as  is  this,  all  grasses  that 
do  not  send  out  root-stocks  underground,  but  spread  only 
by  stooling,  do  not  make  a continuous  sod  but  grow  in 
bunches.  The  hay  and  pasture  is  less  in  quantity  and  coars- 
er in  quality  than  if  the  blades  and  culms  grew  close  and 
fine.  Prof.  Waldron,  of  North  Dakota,  says  he  has  seen 
timothy  plants  which  had  the  bulb  so  modified  that  but  lit- 
tle further  change  would  produce  underground  root-stalks. 
Such  plants  would  be  even  better  foundation  stock  to  start 
with  than  that  first  used  in  the  work  above  mentioned. 
This  report  of  progress  is  here  given  to  illustrate  the  pos- 
sibilities in  this  line  of  field  crop  experiments  rather  than  to 
report  finished  results.  Heads  of  barbed  timothy  are  ob- 
served at  very  rare  intervals  in  fields.  The  variation  in 
timothy  plants  is  even  more  than  is  observed  between  the 
scrubbiest  stalk  of  corn  and  the  stalk  which  grows  tall  and 
produces  one  or  more  large  ears.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
other  grasses  and  clovers. 


FERTILIZERS  IN  MINNESOTA. 


W.  M.  HAYS  AND  D.  N.  HARPER. 

During  some  recent  years  wheat  did  not  prove  as  suc- 
cessful in  many  parts  of  Minnesota  as  when  the  land  was 
first  occupied.  Newly  broken  land,  as  well  as  that  which 
had  borne  several  crops,  would  not  yield  as  much  wheat  as 
was  grown  by  the  pioneers.  Many  theories  for  this  decline 
were  advanced.  Many  who  had  formerly  lived  in  New 
England  regarded  it  as  soil  exhaustion,  and  that  we  are 
causing  ruin  by  shipping  out  of  the  state  and  removing  from 
our  lands  the  bulk  of  its  fertility.  Experiments  to  study 
this  point  were  started  in  1888  at  this  station.  In  that 
year  nitrate  of  soda,  sulphate  of  potash  and  superphosphate 
of  lime,  alone  and  in  mixtures,  also  common  salt  and  lime, 
were  applied  by  Dr.  Porter  to  plots  on  a centrally  located 
field  on  the  Experiment  Farm.  Each  fertilizer  and  mix- 
ture was  applied  to  wheat,  oats,  barley,  flax,  potatoes  and 
beets.  The  soil  was  of  more  than  average  native  fertil- 
ity, but  had  been  cropped,  mainly  to  wheat,  for  thirty  years, 
and  but  little  manure  had  ever  been  applied  to  it.  The  soil 
is  a black  loam,  while  the  subsoil  is  made  up  of  cla}r  and 
considerable  sand,  and  at  a depth  of  several  feet  is  underlaid 
with  gravel.  The  results  of  this  trial  were  recorded  in  Sup- 
plement I to  the  Fifth  Biennial  Report  of  the  University  of 
Minnesota,  p.  137  to  160,  inc.  As  that  report  is  out  of 
print,  the  following  summary  is  here  quoted,  giving  some  of 
the  results,  simply  to  show  the  general  rich  character  of  this 
“upland”  soil: 

“Nitrogen,  in  the  form  of  nitrate  of  soda,  had  the  effect  of 
increasing  the  growth  of  the  young  plants  of  wheat,  oats 
and  barley  so  that  they  were  larger  and  stronger,  and  better 
withstood  the  attacks  of  chinch  bugs,  which  were  very  numer- 
ous. The  effect  on  weight  of  grain  could  not  be  determined, 
as  the  chinch  bugs  prevented  their  ripening.  Nitrate  of  soda 


48 


Increased  the  weight  of  oat  straw  over  one-half  ton  per  acre, 
and  of  grain  three  bushels  per  acre.  Probably  this  increase 
in  grain  was  due  to  the  ranker  growth  of  straw  where 
nitrogen  was  scattered — being  less  favorable  to  the  chinch 
bugs,  which  slightly  injured  the  entire  crop.  Three  hundred 
pounds  per  acre  of  nitrate  of  soda  more  than  doubled  the 
weight  of  flax  straw,  but  did  not  increase  the  yield  of  flax 
seed  per  acre.  Seven  or  eight  bushels  per  acre  less  of  pota- 
toes were  grown  on  the  plots  treated  with  300  pounds 
nitrate  of  soda  than  on  unmanured  plots.  Nitrogen  in- 
creased the  yield  of  mangels  two  and  one-half  tons  per  acre. 
Clover  produced  many  flowers  and  seeds  (the  same  year  as 
sown)  on  plots  not  fertilized  with  nitrogen,  but  on  all  those 
upon  which  nitrate  of  soda  was*  placed  very  few  flowers  were 
formed,  though  the  leaves  grew  nearly  or  quite  as  strong. 
It  has  long  been  known  that  nitrogen  increases  the  growth 
of  straw  more  than  grain.  But  in  this  case  the  clover  was 
apparently  kept  from  producing  seeds  the  first  year,  on 
several  plots  by  the  application  of  nitrogen. 

“ Sulphate  of  potash  and  superphosphate  of  lime,  applied 
together,  showed  an  increase  of  one-fourth  ton  per  acre  of 
oat  straw  and  flax  straw,  but  no  more  grain.  These  two 
fertilizers  caused  no  increases  f potatoes  or  beets. 

“ Lime  caused  no  increase  of  oat  or  flax  straw  or  of  oats, 
but  in  this  single  trial  increased  the  yield  of  flax  seed  one 
bushel  per  acre.  Lime  lessened  the  quantity  of  potatoes  and 
beets. 

“ Fifty  bushels  of  salt  showed  an  increase  of  five  bushels 
per  acre  of  oats,  and  200  pounds  of  oat  straw;  of  flax  seed 
one  and  one-half  bushels,  and  of  flax  straw  500  pounds,  and 
of  beets  one  and  one-half  tons  per  acre.  No  increase  of  pota- 
toes was  shown  from  the  application  of  salt. 

“None  of  these  fertilizers  caused  enough  increase  to  pay 
their  cost.” 

TRIALS  IN  OTHER  COUNTIES. 

In  1890,  in  response  to  requests  from  various  parts  of 
the  state,  experiments  were  begun  to  study  tHe  needs  of  the 
soil  of  the  entire  state  and  to  learn,  if  possible,  whether 
there  is  a general  lack  of  one  or  more  of  the  elements  of  fer- 


51 


tility.  Along  with  practical  trials  of  the  kinds  of  fertilizers 
most  often  found  beneficial  in  older  countries,  samples  of  the 
soil  were  taken  for  chemical  analysis.  It  was  not  believed 
that  the  time  had  come  in  Minnesota  for  the  general  use  of 
commercial  fertilizers,  but  that  the  time  had  come  when  it 
was  wise  to  know  from  actual  experiments,  regarding  our 
soils. 

Commercial  fertilizers  were  purchased  and  experiments 
were  instituted  on  the  so-called  “worn  wheat  lands”  in 
three  widely  separated  parts  of  the  State,  viz:  at  Warren, 
Marshall  County,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Red  River  Val- 
ley; at  Windom,  Cottonwood  County,  in  Southwestern 
Minnesota,  and  at  Taopi,  Mower  County,  in  the  southeast- 
ern part  of  the  State.  At  Warren,  March  & Spalding  gave 
land  on  their  large  farm,  also  all  needed  labor,  and  in  every 
way  possible  assisted  in  the  work.  To  Sen.  S.  A.  March,  of 
Minneapolis,  manager,  our  hearty  thanks  are  due.  At  Win- 
dom the  plots  were  on  Mr.  S.  Huntington’s  farm.  Here  also 
careful  assistance  was  rendered  by  Mr.  S.  H.  Rydeen,  fore- 
man. At  Taopi  land  was  secured  on  the  Chamberlain  Farm. 
Our  thanks  are  due  Mr.  H.  H.  Crossett,  manager,  for  his 
careful  assistance. 

At  Warren  there  were  twenty  plots  of  wheat  and  eigh- 
teen plots  of  oats  ; at  Windom  twenty-one  plots  barley  and 
eighteen  plots  of  flax,  and  at  Taopi  twenty  plots  of  barley 
and  twenty  of  wheat. 

The  plan  upon  which  these  experiments  were  made  was 
as  follows:  Upon  equal  sized,  contiguous  and  very  long- 
shaped plots  definite  quantities  of  fertilizers  were  spread. 
Each  fertilizer  contained  but  one  fertilizing  ingredient,  or 
two  or  more  ingredients  by  making  mixtures  in  definite  pro- 
portions. To  determine  the  absolute  worth  of  each  fertiliz- 
ing ingredient  or  mixed  fertilizer  there  was  left  unfertilized  a 
sufficient  number  of  plots  for  comparison.  The  statement  of 
results  further  on  gives  the  plan  in  detail  as  it  was  carried 
out  at  each  place. 


52 


The  fertilizers  used  and  their  analyses  are  as  follows  : 
Muriate  of  potash — 82.48  per  cent,  pure. 


Equivalent  to  potash,  K2  0 52.12 

Golden  Harvest  Phosphate — Phosphoric 

acid,  total 14.62  per  cent 

Phosphoric  acid,  soluble 2.96 

“ “ insoluble 3.85 

“ “ reverted 7.81  “ 

Nitrogen 1.74  “ 

Land  Plaster — 91.74  per  cent,  pure. 

Lime,  Ca  0 33.33  per  cent 

Sulphuric  acid,  SO3  39.38  “ 

South  Carolina  rock. — 

Phosphoric  acid,  total 15.76  per  cent 

“ “ soluble ^..  8.15 

“ “ insoluble 2.10 

“ “ reverted 5.51  “ 

Nitrate  of  Soda. — 90.17  per  cent,  pure. 

Nitric  anhydride,  N2  Os 53.22  per  cent 

[Nitrogen] [13.8] 


The  prices  per  ton  charged  for  the  several  fertilizers  used 
and  where  obtained,  are  shown  in  the  following  table : 

Nitrate  of  Soda,  $48.00  per  ton.  Bowker  Fertilizer  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 
Muriate  of  Potash,  40.00  per  ton.  “ “ 

Superphosphate,...  20.00  per  ton.  “ “ “ “ 

Land  Plaster  $1  to  2.00  per  ton.  Land  Plaster  Co.,  Ft.  Dodge,  Iowa. 
Tankage,  $13.00  per  ton.  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Salt,  $5.00  or  less  per  ton. 

Lime,  $3.00  to  $10.00  per  ton,  owing  to  locality. 

In  the  destruction  hy  fire  of  our  station  building  October 
5,  1890,  all  records  of  results  at  Taopi  were  lost,  while  those 
at  Warren  and  Windom  have  been  only  partially  obtained 
from  records  left  with  the  farm  owners  ; many  notes  regard- 
ing growth,  etc.,  being  entirely  lost.  The  accompanying 
tables,  I.,  II.,  III.,  IV.,  give  the  amounts  of  fertilizers  used 
and  the  results  in  yields  in  tabular  form. 


53 


TABLE  I. 


WHEAT  AT  WARREN. 


I 

1 

Pounds 

WHEAT. 

Average. 

No. 

Kind  of  Fertilizer. 

per 

Acre. 

Pounds 

on 

Plot. 

j 

Bush 
1 per 
j Acre. 

1 bu  Tb 

Pounds 

on 

Plot. 

Bush. 

per 

Acre. 

1 

1 

(Salt 

135 

189 

12-36 

}i8iy4 

12-  6 

2 

Salt 

270  | 

1731/2 

11-34 

3 

jLime 

160 

166 

11-  4 

}i6ey2 

"1  “1  R 

4 

Lime 

80 

167 

11-  8 

1 x — 0 

' 

5 

[No  Fertilizer 

171 

11-24- 

171 

11-24 

6 

Nitrate  of  Soda 

140 

147 

9-48  j 

j}l61 

10-44 

7 

Nitrate  of  Soda 

280  1 

175 

11-40  ! 

8 

_ „ ( Nitrate 

f 100 

Complete  1 Muriate 

<M00 

217V* 

14-30  | 

2171/2 

14-30 

Fertilizer  j phosphate 

[200 

I 

„ , ( Nitrntf* 

f 200 

9 

Complete  j^jurjate 

< 200 

Lost. 

Fertilizer  | pho"phate 

[400 

10 

Plaster 

160  j 

199 

13-16 

} 197% 
184 

13-71 

11 

Plaster 

350 

1961/2 

184 

13-  6 

12 

No  Fertilizer 

12-16 

12-16 

13 

Muriate  of  Potash 

280  1 

183 

12-12 

}i83y2 

12-14 

14 

Muriate  of  Potash 

120 

184 

12-16 

15 

Superphosphate 

230 

150 

10 

) 

16 

Superphosphate 

120  ! 

194 

12-56 

JU87y2 

J 

j-20294 

12-30 

17 

Superphosphate 

450 

218 

14-32 

18 

Golden  Harvest 

* 

1 2ioy2( 

195 

14-  2 

13-31 

19 

Phosphate 

* 

13 

20 

No  Fertilizer 

1 198  1 

13-12 

198 

13-12 

- 

* Record  of  amount  lost  in  fire.  Average  of  plots  without  fertilizer,  184  It),  12 
bu.,  16Tb  per  acre.  Average  of  plots  fertilized,  185  tb,  12  bu.,  20  tb  per  acre. 

In  no  case  does  the  application  of  fertilizers  show  an  in- 
crease of  over  three  bushels  per  acre. 

Average  of  plots  without  fertilizers,  285  tbs.,  35^2  bush. 
Average  fertilized  plots,  303  tbs.,  37  bush,  per  acre.  Plain 
superphosphate  shows  a gain  of  5 to  7 bushels  per  acre. 
Toledo  fertilizer  shows  a gain  of  4 or  5 bushels  per  acre. 
Complete  fertilizer  a gain  of  3 to  5 bushels  per  acre.  Other 
fertilizers  made  but  little  apparent  gain.  Only  plots  having 
phosphates  show  increase. 

Plaster  and  complete  fertilizer  each  showed  considerable 
gain,  ten  to  fifteen  bushels  per  acre.  The  St.  Paul  fertilizer, 
salt,  lime  and  superphosphate,  showed  a slight  increase. 
Nitrate  of  soda  and  muriate  of  potash  showed  but  little 
effect — none  beneficial. 

Superphosphates  produced  a gain  of  only  2 to  4 bushels 
of  flax  per  acre.  No  other  fertilizer  produced  much  more 


54 


than  a bushel  more  on  the  average.  Some  seemed  to  actu- 
ally lower  the  yield  of  grain. 

TABLE  II. 


OATS  AT  WARREN. 


Pounds 

per 

acre. 

Oats. 

Average. 

Plot 

No. 

Kind  of  Fertilizer. 

Pounds 

Bush. 

per 
j acre. 

Pounds 

Bush. 

per 

acre. 

1 

Golden  Harvest 

240 

328 

41 

}331% 

41% 

2 

Phosphate 

560 

335 

42 

3 

Plain  superphosphate 

180 

352 

44 

]343% 

300 

^288% 

43 

4 

480 

335 

42 

5 

No  fertilizer 

300 

37% 

37 

37% 

36 

6 

Plaster  or  gypsum 

175 

297 

7 

525 

280 

35 

8 

Nitrate  of  soda 

220 

281 

35 

|266% 

33%. 

9 

425 

252 

31% 

371/4 

36% 

33y2 

10 

Muriate  of  potash 

100 

298 

>296 

37 

11 

180 

294 

12 

No  fertilizer 

269 

269 

33% 

, Nitrate  of  soda 

160 

Muriate  of  potash 

160 

] 

13 

Complete  I Superphosphate 

320 

344 

43 

\ 324 % 

41 

14 

fertilizer.  1 Nitrate  of  soda 

60 

Muriate  of  potash 

60 

^ Superphosphate 

120 

305 

30 

J 

15 

Lime 

120 

282 

351/4 

34% 

39% 

282 

}295% 

35%. 

37 

16 

Salt 

320 

276 

17 

195 

315 

18 

No  fertilizer 

Lost 

RESULTS  AT  WARREN. 

The  soil  at  Warren  is  one  of  great  native  fertility,  lays 
nearly  level,  and  being  underlaid  with  clay  subsoil,  is  wet  in 
years  of  unusually  large  rainfall.  The  bad  effects  of  too 
much  rain  are  obviated  by  means  of  ditches  around  the 
quarter  sections.  Into  these  ditches  dead-furrows,  made 
broad  and  deep  by  plowing  the  land  the  same  way  for  suc- 
cessive years,  and  following  the  direction  of  the  greatest  in- 
cline, conduct  the  surface  water  when  heavy  rainfall  occurs. 
The  season  previous  having  been  a dry  one,  and  the  rainfall 
being  rather  favorable,  our  crops  had  fairly  good  conditions 
as  to  moisture.  This  land  had  been  cropped  to  wheat  for 
ten  years  or  more,  with  an  occasional  summer  fallow,  and 
.ronce  laid  in  timothy  pasture  for  two  years.  It  is  a typical 
Red  River  Valley  soil,  but  has  had  better  management  as  to 
allowing  and  keeping  down  weeds  than  most  lands  in  that 


55 


region  which  have  been  for  so  long  a time  under  the  plow. 
The  grain  was  planted  on  fall  plowing,  the  land  having  pro- 
duced wheat  the  previous  year.  The  grain  was  sowed  with 
a press  drill,  and  the  land  was  not  even  harrowed  before  or 
after  the  sowing.  The  crust  formed  on  the  soil  during  the 
winter  was  thus  left  intact,  except  where  broken  by  the  press 

TABLE  III. 

BARLEY  AT  WINDOM,  1890. 


Pounds 

per 

acre. 

Barley. 

Average. 

Plot 

No. 

Kind  of  Fertilizer. 

Pounds 

Bush. 

per 

acre. 

Pounds 

Bush. 

per 

acre. 

1 

1 

Land  plaster  . 

375 

Not 

threshed 

2 

3 

Tankage,  St.  Paul 

120 

280 

546 

! 40134 

341  % 

435V> 
i 519 

45  V2  ; 
33V2  i 
28V2  ; 

3614  ! 
4314 

381/2 
38%  | 

38V2 
38V4 
51%  | 

34V2 

3934 

29% 

284 

28V4  • 

2734 

25i/4 

28 

j>474 

38% 

4 

No  fertilizer 

341% 

|477 

28V2 

5 

6 

Salt 

40 

160 

39% 

7 

8 

Lime 

160 

320 

463% 
1 425 

}444 

461 

37 

9 

No  fertilizer 

! 461 

38% 

45 

10 

Plaster  or  gypsum 



40 

i 458 

[-536 

j-445 

11 

80 

614 

12 

Superphosphate 

160 

414 

37 

13 

80 

476 

14 

15 

No  fertilizer 

3524 

342 

3524 

29% 

28% 

Muriate  of  potash 

80 

16 

40 

339 

[■  341 

17 

Nitrate  of  soda 

80 

334 

264 

18 

40 

30314 

337 

[ 319 

19 

No  fertilizer 

337 

28 

20 

Complete  fertilizer 

320 

58414 

544 

483/4 

45  V4 

21 

160 

564 

47 

Average  of  plots  with  no  fertilizer 

373 

! | 

31 

Average  of  plots  fertilized 

423  4 

i i 

1 

35% 

wheels  and  by  the  feet  of  the  horses,  thus  preventing  the 
wind  from  “blowing”  the  soil  badly.  When  harrowed,  and 
especially  if  rolled,  in  this  region,  the  fine  mellow  soil  is 
carried  off  in  great  quantity  b}^  the  strong  winds  in  spring, 
if  there  is  not  ample  rainfall  to  keep  it  moist.  The  fertilizers 
in  this  case  were  scattered  in  the  drills  with  the  grain  by 
means  of  a fertilizer  attachment  on  the  Havanna  Press  Drill. 
This  put  the  fertilizer  in  very  close  contact  with  the  seeds, 
but  no  injurious  results  were  shown  by  the  appearance  of 
yellow  plants  or  otherwise,  even  when  the  fertilizers  were 
put  in  unevenly  in  a few  places  to  see  if  a greater  quantity 
seemed  to  have  injurious  effects.  The  fertilizer  attachment 


56 


used  was  an  entirely  new  feature  on  the  Havanna  Press 
Drill,  and  excepting  one  small  defect  which  is  easily  remedied t 
it  worked  admirably.  Our  thanks  are  due  to  the  manufac- 
turers, Stoddard  Mfg.  Co.,  Dayton,  0.,  for  their  assistance, 
and  for  the  use  of  their  machine.  Seed  wheat  and  oats 
grown  on  March  & Spalding’s  farm  the  previous  year  was 
used.  Like  most  grain  in  that  locality  of  the  crop  of  1889, 
it  was  not  first  class  in  quality.  The  plots  contained  one- 

TABLE  IV. 


FLAX  AT  WINDOM,  1890. 


Pounds 

FLAX. 

Average. 

No. 

Kind  of  Fertilizer. 

per 

acre. 

Pounds 

per 

acre. 

I 

Bush, 
per  1 
acre.  1 

bu.  lb. 

Pounds 

per 

acre. 

Bush. 

per 

acre. 

bu.  lb. 

22 

Salt . 

160 

107 

7-36  j 

j j- 144 

10-17 

23 

Salt 

40 

isi% 

185% 

198% 

204% 

214 

13  1 

24 

Land  Plaster 

80 

13-14 1 

j- 192 

13-40 

25 

Land  Plaster 

40 

14-10 

26 

No  Fertilizer 

14-32 

204 

14-32 

27 

Superphosphate 

160 

15-16  I 

16-37 

28 

Superphosphate 

80 

252% 

208% 

205% 

167% 

160 

18 

j-  233 

29 

Muriate  of  Potash 

80 

14-50 

14-44 

30 

Muriate  of  Potash 

40 

14-38 

r 207 

31 

No  Fertilizer 

12 

167 

12 

32 

Nitrate  of  Soda 

80 

11-24 

12-25 

33 

Nitrate  of  Soda 

40 

188*4 

180 

13-26 

r 174 

34 

Complete  Fertilizer 

320 

12-48 

j- 185 

13-14 

35 

Complete  Fertilizer 

160 

191 

13-36 

36 

No  Fertilizer 

190 

13-32 

190 

13- 32 

14- 18 

37 

Lime 

160 

193 

13-44 

38 

Lime 

320 

208 

14-_48 

j-  200 

39 

Tankage,  St.  Paul 

130 

187 

13-20 

187 

13-20 

Average  of  plots  without  fertilizer i II 1 I 187  j 13—20 

Average  of  plots  fertilized ! 1 1 1 1 191  ' 13-36 


fourth  of  an  acre  each,  and  were  fifty -four  rods  long  by  two 
seeders,  about  twelve  feet,  wide.  The  ordinary  crop  of 
wheat  in  this  region  when  first  settled  was  twenty-five 
bushels  of  No.  1 Hard  per  acre.  The  fact  that  even  complete 
fertilizers  produced  a gain  of  not  more  than  two  bushels  per 
acre  of  wheat  and  five  bushels  per  acre  of  oats,  indicates  that 
the  lessened  yields  of  latter  years  is  due  mainly  to  causes 
other  than  a lack  of  fertility.  In  fact  the  general  results  of 
these  experiments  seem  to  strongly  indicate  that  this  soil  is 
very  rich,  and  that  no  general  economical  effect  came  from 
the  use  of  these  expensive  fertilizers  when  applied  to  these 
small  cereals.  Thirty  bushels  per  acre  in  1892  has  further 


57 


shown  the  owners  that  their  lands  need  no  fertilizers  if 
climatic  conditions  are  favorable  to  wheat. 

RESULTS  AT  WINDOM. 

The  soil  at  Windom  is  a rich,  nearly  level  prairie  loam  un- 
derlaid with  a pervious  clayey  subsoil.  It  had  been  under 
cultivation  for  a dozen  years  or  more,  but  being  at  some  dis- 
tance from  barns  had  never  received  any  dressing  of  barn- 
yard manure.  The  barley  and  flax  planted  here  were  drilled 
in  with  a Missouri  grain  drill,  and  the  fertilizers  at  once 
drilled  into  the  same  plots.  Plot  I,  on  which  land  plaster 
was  sown  on  the*barley  was  so  badly  grown  to  weeds  that 
it  was  not  harvested.  A few  rods  at  the  south  end  of  barley 
plots  13,  14  and  15,  also  on  20  and  21,  had  been  slightly 
manured  from  straw  stacks  which  had  been  partially  burned 
and  partly  allowed  to  rot  there  a few  years  before.  The  bar- 
ley here  was  down  and  badly  affected  with  rust.  On  the 
flax  plots,  Nos.  22,  23,  33,  34,  35,  36,  37  and  38,  the  flax 
died  in  very  small  spots  where  a former  straw  stack  and  two 
“low  placed”  caused  the  soil  to  be  unsuited  to  the  plants. 
No  estimates  of  the  size  of  these  small  dead  patches  have 
been  preserved,  so  the  tabular  statement  is  faulty  in  that  it 
is  not  corrected  for  the  slightly  lessened  area  in  these  plots. 
On  inspecting  the  tables  and  the  notes  underneath,  it  will  be 
observed  that  there  is  no  general  large  increase  in  yields  per 
acre  by  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers.  Some  of  the  land 
plaster  and  complete  fertilizer  plots  of  barley  seem  to  have 
been  benefited.  The  general  effects  are  but  slight. 

RESULTS  AT  TAOPI. 

At  Taopi  the  wheat  and  barley  were  sown  on  land  that 
had  been  cropped  mainly  to  wheat  for  nearly  twenty  years. 
Oats  had  been  grown  in  alternation  with  the  wheat  a few 
times,  and  once  the  land  had  for  a few  years  grown  crops  of 
timothy  hay  or  timothy  seed.  As  before  stated  records  of 
yields  were  lost  in  the  fire.  This  was  especially  unfortunate 
as  on  this  older  land  that  had  been  somewhat  worse  worn, 
and  was  not  as  rich  originally  as  the  vergin  soil  at  Warren 
or  Windom,  the  fertilizers  would  have  had  a little  better 
chance  to  show  profits.  A few  results  which  were  especially 


58 


marked  can  be  remembered.  Nitrogenous  manures  made 
much  greater  growth  of  straw,  both  in  case  of  the  barley  and 
the  wheat.  Tankage  from  South  St.  Paul  also  gave  much 
larger  yield  of  straw,  doubtless  due  in  the  main  to  the  nitrogen 
it  contained,  as  no  other  fertilizer  made  any  marked  increase 
in  the  size  of  either  wheat  or  barley  plants.  There  was  con- 
siderable more  effect  of  the  fertilizers  shown  here  than  at 
either  of  the  other  two  places,  but  memory  alone  is  not 
sufficient  for  reliable  records.  There  was  an  increase  in  the 
grain,  though  not  great.  This,  however,  is  true,  that  none 
of  these  fertilizers  at  Taopi  caused  the  old-time  yield  of 
wheat,  though  the  season  was  favorable  as  to  the  amount  of 
rainfall.  And  the  conclusion  is  safe  that  in  Mower  County, 
where  the  wheat  has  failed  for  most  years  during  the  past 
decade  that  fertilizers  alone,  with  other  conditions  as  they 
existed,  would  not  bring  the  success  with  wheat  that  was 
experienced  when  that  county  was  first  settled. 

Mr.  H.  H.  Crosset  of  Taopi,  made  a trial  of  a so-called 
“ wheat  Phosphate/’  a complete  fertilizer,  sent  him  from  Ohio 
by  the  proprietor  of  the  farm,  Mr.  Chamberlain,  with  the 
following  results : 

1.  Plowed  in  fall  and  in  spring,  250  lbs.  fertilizer  per  acre,  yield  3,875 
lbs.  grain  on  whole  plot. 

2.  Plowed  in  fall  and  in  spring,  no  fertilizer,  yield  2,55ft  lbs.  grain  on 
whole  plot. 

3.  Plowed  in  spring  and  in  fall,  no  fertilizer,  yield  2,903  lbs.  grain  on 
whole  plot. 


OUR  SOILS  AND  THEIR  FERTILITY. 


When  the  lands  of  any  state  are  so  reduced  infertility  that 
commercial  fertilizers  are  needed,  and  will  repay  their  ex- 
pense, the  farmers  are  forced  to  study  the  science  of  manures. 
If  they  remain  ignorant  and  use  fertilizers,  they  annually 
spend  great  sums  of  money  on  expensive  fertilizers  with  de- 
lusive names,  sold  them  by  shrewd  dealers,  who  make  large 
profits.  Chemists  and  botanists  have  worked  out  many 
facts  regarding  the  science  of  supplying  plant  food  to  soils, 
and  with  a knowledge  of  these  truths  the  farmer  need  not 
go  far  astray.  Minnesota  is  not  as  yet  in  condition  for  the 
general  farmer  to  make  any  money  out  of  the  use  of  com- 
mercial fertilizers,  though  in  some  cases  land  plaster  might 
pay  on  clover,  or  even  other  crops,  especially  on  the  lighter 
or  sandy  soils.  This  fertilizer  is  cheap,  costing  only  $3  per 
ton  by  the  carload  at  Minneapolis.  Tankage  from  our 
home  stock  yards,  which  is  offered  at  $10  to  $15  per  ton, 
can  doubtless  be  used  with  profit  by  some  of  our  gardeners 
who  are  too  far  from  city  sources  of  barnyard  manures,  and 
who  have  light  or  rather  poor  soils.  These  two  fertilizers 
will  doubtless  be  the  first  that  are  used  in  our  state. 
Wherever  a proper  system  of  rotations  is  observed,  the  rich 
lands,  like  those  upon  which  our  experiments  have  thus  far 
been  conducted,  will  remain  so  rich  for  some  time,  especially 
if  crops  are  intelligently  rotated,  that  expensive  fertilizers 
will  not  pay.  The  larger  part  of  soils  now  under  cultivation 
in  Minnesota  are  rich,  and  a great  portion  of  that  unculti- 
vated also  has  a very  large  amount  of  native  fertility. 
There  is,  however,  much  land  in  the  state  which  is  too 
sandy  to  have  stored  up  a very  great  amount  of  plant  food. 
Other  lands  which  lack  in  native  fertility  are  not  in  very 
great  quantity;  some  are  too  nearly  clay;  others,  in  the 
southeastern  and  in  the  northeastern  portion,  are  on  orig- 
inal rock  foundation,  and  in  places  have  not  enough  fertility 
to  support  continuous  large  crops  for  many  years.  Fertil- 


60 


izers  will  doubtless  come  into  use  on  these  poorer  lands,  but 
except  for  fruit  and  garden  crops,  which  cost  much  in  labor 
per  acre  and  return  large  income  per  acre,  they  will  not  pay 
so  long  as  lands  not  needing  expensive  fertilizers  can  be  had 
as  cheaply  as  now,  and  so  long  as  stable  manure  is  no  mote 
expensive  than  at  present.  The  amount  of  lands  in  this 
state,  dotted  with  lakes  as  it  is,  which  are  too  wet  for  culti- 
vation without  artificial  drainage,  is  also  considerable. 
These  wet  lands  are  in  nearly  all  cases  full  of  fertility,  and 
when  drained  with  surface  drains,  or  far  better  with  tiles, 
thev  are  our  very  richest  soils.  They  will  even  serve  as 
mines  of  fertility  from  which  we  can  grow  crops  to  be  made 
partly  into  manure  for  other  and  poorer  parts  of  our  farms. 

SOME  GENERAL  FACTS  ABOUT  FERTILIZERS. 

While  the  science  of  feeding  plants  is  extensive,  and  the 
literature  relating  to  it  very  voluminous,  a few  of  the  more 
general  facts  and  principles  will  here  help  to  make  clear  our 
method  of  experimenting  to  solve  the  numerous  questions 
which  come  up  regarding  how  to  best  raise  wheat  and  other 
crops. 

As  all  matter  is  divided  into  about  seventy -five  elements  of 
which  all  the  numerous  compounds  both  inorganic,  without 
life,  and  organic,  built  up  in  living  organisms,  are  made,  we 
naturally  seek  first  those  elements  which  make  up  the  com- 
position of  plants.  It  is  found  upon  analysis  that  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  carbon,  nitrogen,  phosphorous,  potash,  soda, 
lime,  magnesia,  silica,  sulphur  and  traces  of  a few  others  are 
the  elements  of  which  all  plants  are  composed.  Of  these  the 
first  three,  oxygen,  hydrogen  and  carbon,  are  obtained  mainly 
from  the  air,  directly  or  indirectly.  Water  which  is  com- 
posed of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  is  supplied  by  the  atmos- 
phere to  the  soil,  where  the  plant  roots  take  it  up.  The  car- 
bonic acid,  which  is  composed  of  carbon  and  oxygen,  is 
thinly  mixed  throughout  the  air,  and  when  the  plant  is 
growing  rapidly  this  gas  diffuses  toward  the  leaves  and  is 
there  used  by  the  plant  cells.  Thus  where  moisure  is  abund- 
ant plants  can  get  all  they  want  of  oxygen  from  both  these 
sources  and  of  hydrogen  from  the  water  and  of  carbon  from 
this  carbonic  gas  which  is  a part  of  the  air,  and  we  need  not 


61 


supply  these  three  elements  to  the  plants  in  manures  even  on 
the  poorest  soils.  Nitrogen  is  in  the  air  in  very  great  quan- 
tity, and  continually  in  contact  with  the  plant,  yet  the  plant 
can  make  no  use  of  the  atmospheric  nitrogen.  It  is  in  the 
free  state  in  the  air,  that  is  it  is  not  in  a compound  with  other 
elements,  and  the  plants  can  not  take  it  pure.  There  is  also 
some  in  the  air,  in  the  compound  called  ammonia,  but  the 
plant  leaves  are  unable  to  use  this  also.  The  nitrogen  must 
be  in  some  compound  like  nitrate  of  soda  and  be  in  solution 
in  the  soil-water  around  the  roots  or  the  plant  cannot  use  it 
and  there  must  be  considerable  of  it  present  for  crops  to  do 
well.  Soils  often  become  deficient  in  nitrogen,  when  better 
crops  are  raised  if  some  manure  containing  a soluble  nitro- 
gen compound  is  applied.  This,  then,  is  one  element,  the 
need  of  which  we  wanted  to  determine  in  our  wheat  lands. 
To  determine  if  the  soils  needed  nitrogen  we  applied  nitrate 
of  soda  alone  and  also  in  mixtures  with  mineral  manures. 
We  also  applied  tankage,  which  contains  a large  amount  of 
nitrogen.  The  four  elements  above  named,  viz:  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  carbon  and  nitrogen,  are  called  the  volatile  plant 
elements,  as  they  go  off  in  the  form  of  vapor  when  the  plant 
is  burned. 

The  several  other  elements  above  named,  viz : potash, 
phosphorous,  soda,  lime,  magnesia  and  silica,  together  with 
traces  of  iron,  chlorine,  etc.,  are  called  the  mineral  or  ash,  as 
they  remain  as  ashes  when  the  plant  is  burned.  These,  like 
the  nitrogen,  must  all  be  in  the  soil  in  soluble  compounds 
so  that  they  may  be  taken  up  by  the  roots  of  the  plants  out 
of  the  moist  soil.  Some  of  these  ashy  materials  are  not 
necessary  in  large  quantities  in  the  soil.  In  fact,  none  but 
potash  and  phosphorus  are  needed  in  greater  quantity  than 
is  found  in  almost  all  soils.  The  soils  of  nearly  all  of 
Minnesota  are  made  up  of  glacial  material,  which  is  com- 
posed of  many  kinds  of  stones  and  clay  mixed  together, 
thus  supplying  all  the  kinds  of  mineral  food  for  plants.  In 
some  cases,  however,  where  the  various  parts  of  this  mixed 
glacial  till  were  assorted  out  by  water,  and  clay  left  in  one 
place,  sand  in  another  and  gravel  in  another,  there  may  be  a 
lack  of  one  or  more  of  these  elements  ; but  most  of  the  land 


62 


of  the  state  now  being  cultivated  is  made  up  of  that  mix- 
ture of  clay,  sand,  gravel  and  stones,  which,  as  they  decay  or 
decompose  into  soil,  supply  all  the  ash  elements  plants  need. 

This  same  glacial  mixture,  not  too  dense  and  impervious 
as  tough  clay  or  loose  and  leachy,  as  gravel  or  sand,  is  also 
best  to  hold  the  proper  amount  of  moisture  in  readiness  for 
plants  and  lets  in  air  to  decompose  its  own  particles,  and 
best  serves  as  a storehouse  to  hold  easily  soluble  nitrogen 
compounds.  It  also  gives  the  best  conditions  for  soil  microbes. 
But  from  the  experience  of  all  other  investigations  we  can  as- 
sume that  potash  and  phosphorous  are  the  ashy  elements 
most  needed,  if  any  are  wanting.  Some  mere  theorists  have 
said  that  our  great  crops  of  wheat  have  taken  so  much  silica 
out  of  our  soils  that  they  no  longer  have  enough  soluble  sili- 
cates to  make  stiff,  bright  straw  like  that  grown  when  the 
land  was  new.  But  this  glacial  drift  mixture,  of  which  most 
of  our  soils  are  made,  certainly  contains  an  over  abundance 
of  silica.  Besides  the  dull  colored  straw  is  as  common  on 
new  lands,  in  older  settled  neighborhoods,  as  on  fields  cropped 
for  one  or  two  decades.  Confining  our  experiments  on  min- 
eral manures  mainly  to  potash  and  phosphorous  we  applied 
the  former  in  the  form  of  muriate  of  potash  (K  Cl),  mined  in 
Germany,  the  latter  in  the  form  of  prepared  South  Carolina 
phosphaticrock,  or  superphosphate  of  lime  [CaH  4 (P  0 4)  2] 
and  we  found  no  general  large  benefit  from  the  application 
of  these  substances.  Phosphatic  manures  had  a slight  gen- 
eral beneficial  effects,  but  not  nearly  enough  to  pay  for  the 
cost. 

These  several  elements  which  plants  use  are  often  in  the 
soil  in  insoluble  compounds  or  in  a condition  in  which  the 
plant  can  not  use  them.  The  potash,  for  example,  may  be 
there  in  abundance  as  a constituent  of  stony  particles  but 
not  enough  of  it  soluble  so  that  the  plants  can  procure  all 
they  need.  So  the  nitrogen  may  be  there  in  the  form  of  un- 
decayed plants  or  manure  and  not  be  available  to  the  crop. 
And  the  fact  is,  that  only  a small  part  of  these  elements  in 
the  soil  is  at  any  one  time  in  soluble  forms,  but  the  wise 
provision  of  nature  is  for  the  insoluable  part  to  gradually 
become  soluble  thus  giving  out  to  growing  crops. a con- 


63 


stant  supply.  We  call  the  soluble  part  of  the  nitrogen,  for 
example,  available  nitrogen  and  that  which  is  tightly  locked 
nip  in  the  soil  the  insoluble  or  non-available nitrogen.  Ordin- 
arily the  atmosphere,  the  sun,  the  rain,  low  organisms  and  the 
chemical  reactions  which  go  on  in  the  soil,  assisted  by  culti- 
vation in  the  presence  of  the  plant  roots,  are  depended  upon 
to  dissolve  and  make  ready  enough  of  the  insoluable  sub- 
stances to  keep  the  plant  constantly  supplied.  But  in  some 
instances  it  is  found  that  help  is  needed  to  keep  up  a good 
supply  of  one  or  more  of  these  elements.  This  help  is  often 
given  by  putting  on  some  active  substance  like  lime,  land 
plaster,  or  salt  which  are  usually  not  needed  as  food  by  the 
plant,  but  which  act  chemically  upon  the  insoluble  potash, 
nitrogen  or  phosphorous  making  it  soluble  and  available 
to  the  crop.  To  see  if  any  good  could  be  done  by  the  use  of 
these  ‘‘indirect  fertilizers”  salt,  lime  and  land  plaster  were 
all  tried  at  the  three  places  where  the  experiments  were  per- 
formed. The  results  show  that  the  soils  at  Warren  and 
Windom  are  rich  in  all  kinds  of  fertility.  AtTaopi  the  older, 
poorer  soil  used  was  not  very  rich  in  nitrogen  and  the  fact 
that  continued  cropping  to  small  grain  crops  is  “wearing  it 
out”  is  plainly  seen. 

An  extended  study  of  the  chemical  composition  of  the 
soils  of  the  wheat  fields  was  begun.  But  little  progress  has 
been  made  in  this  line  as  not  only  were  part  of  the  samples 
which  had  been  gathered  destroyed  by  fire  but  the  chemical 
outfit  was  likewise  lost.  The  newly  erected  chemical  labora- 
tory furnishes  accommodation  much  more  nearly  suited  to 
the  needs  of  this  work  than  did  the  building  formerly  used. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

The  one  fact  most  prominently  brought  out  is  that  our 
better  lands  are  very  rich  in  all  kinds  of  plant  food  even  after 
having  grown  crops  of  wheat  for  ten  to  twenty  years. 
Neither  nitrogen,  potash,  nor  phosphoric  acid  when  purchas- 
ed in  commercial  fertilizers  will  pay  on  grain  crops  on  these 
rich  lands.  Not  even  land  plaster,  salt  or  lime  will  generally 
return  their  cost  in  increased  crops  while  our  lands  are  so 
rich.  In  short  the  time  for  the  general  use  of  commercial 
fertilizers,  purchased  in  markets  where  we  must  compete 


64 


with  gardeners  and  farmers  on  the  worn  out  farms  of  older 
states  and  other  countries,  has  not  come. 

Farmers  who  have  thin,  much  worn  land  should  experi- 
ment with  land  plaster  and  with  tankage.  The  expensive 
forms  of  nitrogen,  potash  and  phosphatic  fertilizers  will 
not  pay  as  yet  in  our  young  state.  Much  barn-yard  manure 
rich  in  all  these  elements  of  fertility  should  be  made,  hus- 
banded and  intelligently  applied  to  those  crops  which  will 
get  from  them  the  greatest  benefit.  They  not  only  make  the 
soils  richer  but  keep  them  moister.  We  have  wonderfully 
rich  soils,  it  is  wisdom  and  should  be  our  pride  to  keep  them 
rich. 

The  lessened  crops  of  wheat  and  other  cereals  comes  main- 
ly  from  causes  other  than  a lack  of  plant  food  in  the  soil. 
Rusts,  unfavorable  climatic  conditions  as  to  moisture,  hot 
winds,  hot  sun,  etc.;  chinch  bugs;  land  foul  with  weeds;  too 
loose  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil,  and  pool  seed  are 
some  of  the  things  which  have  done  far  more  to  lessen  wheat 
yields  than  a lack  of  fertility.  The  study  of  some  of  these  is 
of  far  more  present  importance  than  soil  analysis  or  fertil- 
izers trials. 


University  of  Minnesota. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  No.  21. 


3""Q"2>TIE],  1892. 


I. — SUGAR  BEETS.  II. — SORGHUM. 


JSP“  Tlie  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the 
State  who  make  application  for  them. 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK,  RAMSEY  CO., 

MINNESOTA. 


University  of  Minnesota 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis, 1896 . 

The  HON.  GREENLEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - - 1894. 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - 1894. 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  Alexandria, 1896. 

The  HON.  JOEL  P.  HEATWOLE,  Northfield,  ....  1896. 

The  HON.  0.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth,  -------  1896. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson,  - 1896. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  EMERY,  Lake  City, 1895. 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  Minneapolis,  - 1895. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  R.  MERRIAM,  St.  Paul,  - - - Ex-Officio. 

The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  DAVID  L.  KIEHLE,  M.  A..  St.  Paul,  - - - Ex-Officio. 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHROP,  LL.  D.,  Minneapolis,  - Ex-Officio. 

The  President  of  the  University. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  EMERY. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION: 

CLINTON  D.  SMITH,  M.  S., Director. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S.,  - ....  Horticulturist. 

OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  - - - - Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S., Chemist. 

T.  L.  H^ECKER, Dairying. 

CHRISTOPHER  GRAHAM,  - Veterinaran. 

J.  A.  VYE, - Secretary. 


SUGAR  BEETS. 


D.  N.  HARPER. 

The  production  of  Beet  Sugar  has  been  attempted  in  this 
country  many  times  and  in  various  places.  Within  the  past 
few  years  it  has  proven  successful  in  California  and  is  now 
being  carried  on  also  in  Utah  and  Nebraska. 

Since  1830  it  has  been  a very  profitable  industry  in 
Germany,  Austria  and  France,  and  more  recently  in  various 
other  European  countries.  While  the  natural  conditions  in 
various  parts  of  this  country  are  more  favorable  to  the  pro- 
duction of  beets  and  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from  the  beets 
than  they  are  in  any  of  the  European  countries  the  indus- 
try cannot  yet  be  said  to  be  fairly  established  here. 

During  the  past  four  years  experiments  have  been  made 
by  the  Experiment  Station  as  to  the  adaptability^  of  the 
.climate  and  other  conditions  of  Minnesota  to  the  production 
of  good  beets.  Each  year  the  results  have  been  reasonably 
satisfactory.  The  experiments  of  1890  were  so  encouraging 
and  promised  so  much  that  it  was  deemed  advisable  to 
make  very  extensive  tests  during  the  following  year. 

Seed  was  imported  in  considerable  quantity  from  Germany 
and  distributed,  with  the  kindness  of  the  railroads,  free,  to 
about  twenty -five  hundred  farmers  in  all  parts  of  the  state, 
together  with  instructions  for  the  planting,  cultivation,  and 
harvesting  of  the  beets.  The  railroad  companies  very  kind- 
ly permitted  free  transportation  of  samples  of  the  crop  from 
all  farmers  who  would  send  the  same  in,  and  the  State 
Agricultural  Society  provided  premiums  for  the  best  fifteen 
samples. 

Owing  to  the  disturbed  conditions  of  the  Experiment 
Station,  the  delivery  of  the  seed  was  very  much  delayed  and 
a large  part  of  it  sent  out  failed  to  reach  the  farmers 
in  time  for  planting.  There  were,  however,  a great  many 


70 


who  returned  beets  for  analysis,  and  a statement  of  the  re- 
sults is  given  in  the  following  pages. 

The  work  upon  the  State  farm  was  arranged  to  show  the 
cost  of  production,  the  yield  per  acre,  the  quality  of  the  beets 
as  affected  by  cultivation,  and  to  test  the  use  of  various  ma- 
chines in  the  planting  and  cultivation  of  the  beets.  As  it 
was  to  be  expected,  the  beets  grown  upon  the  farm  were 
much  better  than  those  produced  anywhere  else. 

In  the  last  sugar  beet  bulletin  published,  it  was  stated  that 
the  establishment  of  the  beet  sugar  industry  in  this  country 
depends  chiefly  and  primarily  upon  the  farmer.  The  results 
of  last  year  gave  renewed  evidence  of  this. 

Upon  the  State  Farm  the  results  as  to  the  quality  of  the 
beets  were  all  that  could  be  expected,  and  show  that  we 
possess  the  conditions  necessary  for  the  production  of  the 
best  beets  for  the  purpose  of  sugar  manufacture.  While  the 
results  elsewhere  in  the  state  vary  greatly,  this  variation  is 
chiefly  due  to  the  difference  in  cultivation  given. 

Many  farmers  had  the  mistaken  idea  that  it  was  necessary 
to  have  highly  manured  lands  in  order  to  grow  good  beets. 
This,  it  was  pointed  out  in  the  last  bulletin,  is  just  what  we 
must  guard  against.  The  best  lands  in  our  state  for  the 
raising  of  beets  are  those  lands  which  have  been  cropped  for 
a considerable  number  of  years  to  grain,  and  are  what  may 
be  termed  our  “worn  out”  lands.  By  careful  production  of 
beets  these  can  be  restored  to  their  native  fertility. 

The  detailed  results  of  analyses  are  as  follows: 


All  the  analyses  of  sugar  beets  recorded  in  the  following  tables  were  made  by  Mr.  John 
Thompson , assistant  in  the  chemical  laboratory  at  the  station. 

ANOKA  COUNTY. 


71 


A vg.  Weight 
of  Beets.  Oz. 


Sugar  Per 
Ton 


ONO 
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COCiCi 


Purity  Per 
Cent 


Sugar  Per 
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I 


BLUE  EARTH  ( Continued .) 


72 


Avg.  weight 
of  beets.  Oz. 


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73 


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CHISAGO  COUNTY  ( Continued ). 


74 


Avg.  weight 
of  beets.  Oz. 

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76 


A vg.  weight 
ofbeets.  Oz. 


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78 


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82 


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BEETS  ON  THE  STATION  FARM. 


The  analysis  of  beets  raised  upon  the  State  farm  recorded 
below  were  made  from  samples  selected  as  follows : 

On  Sept.  26th,  28th  and  Oct.  1st,  5th,  7th,  9th  and  13th,  a 
lot  of  beets  of  each  variety  were  pulled  and  mixed  indiscrim- 
inately and  averaged,  leaving  from  three  to  five  for  analysis. 
Parts  of  each  of  these  were  rasped,  the  juice  expressed  under 
heavy  pressure  and  analyzed. 

The  last  fifteen  samples  on  Oct.  13th  and  the  samples  of 
Dec.  2nd  were  taken  from  piles  where  all  the  beets  had  been 
placed  by  varieties. 

The  beets  showed  rapid  improvement  from  the  26th  until 
the  1st  of  October.  On  the  4th  rain  set  in  lasting  several 
days  resulting  in  a lowering  of  the  percentage  of  sugar 
and  purity,  yet  the  averages  still  remained  high. 

The  results  are  as  follows  : 


DATE.  VARIETY.  SUCROSE.  PURITY. 

Sept.  26 16.89  86.6 


16.77  88.3 

16.04  82.2 

16.87  80.3 

15.92  77.6 

17.11  81.5 

17.98  85.6 

15.18  77.8 

16.32  85.9 

15.80  79. 


Knauer’s  Imperial 13.24  66.2 

Zuckerreichste  Elite 15.37  75.1 

Vilmorin  White  Improved 16.22  85.4 

Klein  wanzleben 16.94  84.7 

Knauer’s  Imperial 15.50  77.5 


Average 


16.14  80.9 


85 


DATE.  VARIETY.  SUCROSE.  PURIT\  . 

Sept.  28 13.92  73.3 

“ 16.36  81.8 

“ 14.08  74.1 

“ 17.09  87.7 

“ : 14.21  81.1 

“ 16.58  80.9 

“ 17.61  83.9 

“ 17.99  85.7 

“ 17.40  82.9 

“ 15.92  81.6 

Knauer’s  Imperial 15.64  78.2 

Zuckerreichste 16.58  80.9 

Vilmorin  White  Improved 15.33  80.7 

Klein  wanzleben 16.33  81.7 

Knauer’s  Imperial 16.58  82.9 

Average 16.11  81.1 

Oct.  1.  Vilmorin  White  Improved 16.58  82.9 

Kleinwanzleben 18.49  84. 

“ “ 17.67  84.1 

“ ' “ 17.34  82.6 

Dippe’s  Improved 16.99  85. 

Vilmorin  White  Improved 17.36  82.7 

Dippe’s  Klienwauzleben 16.54  84. 

Vilmorin  W^hite  Improved 16.67  83. 

Kleinwanzleben 17.98  92.2 

“ “ 15.67  84.7 

Kleinwanzleben  Elite  16.42  82.1 

Kleinwanzleben 17.83  84.9 

“ “ 17.67  86.2 

“ “ 17.52  87.6 

“ “ 15.12  88.8 

Zuckerreichste  16.77  88.3 

Dippe’s  Kleinwanzleben 16.67  83.4 

Kleinwanzleben 18.37  89.6 

“ “ 19.15  89. 

Dippe’s  Kleinwanzleben  17.09  85.5 

French,  Very  Rich 16.94  84.7 

Average 17.18  85.5 


10 


86 


DATE.  VARIETY.  SUCROSE. 

Oct.  7.  ...f. 13.51 


13.29 

14.33 

14.39 

16.11 

15.24 

14.23 

12.45 


“ Kleinwanzleben  Elite 13.54 

“ Zuckerreichste  Elite 14.71 

“ Knauer’s  Imperial 13.29 

“ Kleinwanzleben 13.26 

Oct.  9.  “ 11.64 

“ “ 15.64 

“ Zuckerreichste 14.23 

Kleinwanzleben 15.58 

Vilmorin  White  Improved 16.90 

“ Kleinwanzleben 16.90 

“ “ 16.58 

“ “ 17.09 

“ Dippe’s  Kleinwanzleben 15.79 

“ Kleinwanzleben 15.96 

“ Vilmorin  White  Improved 16.21 

“ “ “ u 16.52 

“ Dippe's  Kleinwanzleben 13.90 

u Kleinwanzleben 16.90 

“ French,  Very  Rich 14.58 

“ Kleinwanzleben 14.86 

“ Dippe’s  Improved 16.11 

“ Kleinwanzleben 13.27 

“ u 15.08 

“ Kleinwanzleben  Elite 14.39 

“ Knauer’s  Imperial 13.60 

“ Kleinwanzleben 14.23 


Oct.  13. 

u 

u 


14.82 

15.45 

15.85 

16.6 


PURITY. 

84.4 

83.1 

89.6 

87.2 

94.8 

87.1 

79.1 

75.4 

79.6 

86.2 

83.1 
78. 

75.1 

84.5 

81.3 
82. 

' 84.5 

84.5 

85.1 

89.9 

83.1 
84. 

87.6 

91.8 

81.8 
84.5 

83.3 
84.9 

87.1 

78.1 
83.8 

83.7 

82.4 

82.2 


83.9 

83.5 

86.6 
95.4 


Average 


87 


DATE.  VARIETY.  SUCROSE.  PURITY. 

Oct.  13 15.85  86.1 

“•  15.8  82.7 

“ 14.95  85.4 

“ 16.6  86. 

“ 16.0  84.2 

“ 15.7  82.2 

“ 16.35  86.1 

“ 12.25  79.5 

“ 12.7  77.4 

“ 15.1  84.3 

“ 16.4  85.4 

“ 14.55  82.2 

“ 14.6  84.9 

“ 14.75  86.2 

“ 14.2  83.5 

“ 15.55  96.6 

“ 15.1  86.8 

“ Knauer’s  Imperial,  12.8  79.5 

“ 15.3  84.1 

“ 15.65  85.9 

“ Zuckerreichste,  17.25  82.6 

“ 16.75  85.5 

Kleinwanzleben  Elite,  14.65  81.4 

“ Kleinwanzleben, 13.5  77. 

Vilmorin  White  Improved,  16.75  82.1 

“ 14.6  80.2 

“ 15.15  83.7 


Average 15.2  84.2 

Dec.  2 19.2  83.1 

“ 18.9  87.5 

“ 18.0  85.7 

“ 19.2  86.1 

“ 17.5  85.4 

“ 18.7  89. 

“ 16.5  84.6 

“ 18.5  84.1 

“ 18.0  82.5 

“ 15.5  84.7 


88 

SUCROSE.  PURITY. 

18.5  84.8 

18.1  84.2 

20.4  89.0 

20.4  88.7 

19.3  86.5 

16.8  80.8 

16.4  82.8 

20.0  85.1 

Average 17.7  85.3 

The  above  results  show  that  in  many  parts  of  the  state 
the  production  of  sugar  beets  can  be  made  successful  in  so 
far  as  quality  is  concerned.  The  seed  was  distributed  in 
such  quantity  as  would  make  it  possible  to  get  reliable  re- 
sults as  to  the  yield  of  roots.  Few  farmers,  however,  were 
able  to  make  the  experiment  complete,  owing  largely  to  the 
exceptional  returns  of  other  crops  last  year.  The  reports  re- 
turned show  the  yield  of  beets  to  vary  from  six  to  forty- 
eight  tons  per  acre.  The  most  reliable  estimates  place  the 
average  yield  about  twenty  tons  per  acre  where  the  require- 
ments of  cultivation  were  observed.  While  not  as  full  and 
complete  as  it  was  anticipated  the  results  would  be,  we 
can  nevertheless  say  unhesitatingly  that  all  agricultural 
requirements  for  the  production  of  good  beets  are  successful- 
ly met  in  Minnesota. 

But  beyond  the  necessity  of  having  suitable  soil,  favorable 
climatic  conditions,  unexcelled  transportation  facilities,  we 
must  have  what  is  yet  lacking  on  the  part  of  the  farmers, 
namely : A knowledge  of  the  cultural  requirements  more 
generally  diffused  and  a willingness  to  produce  beets. 
Without  a plentiful  supply  of  beets,  the  best  factory,  ever 
so  perfect,  can  only  fail. 

It  is  generally  known  that  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from 
sugar  beets  is,  under  the  provisions  of  the  McKinley  bill 
passed  by  the  last  Congress,  sufficiently  remunerative  to  in- 
duce capital  to  erect  factories  wherever  good  beets  in 
sufficient  quantity  will  be  raised. 

I am  informed  the  jobbing  and  confectionery  trade  of  the 
Twin  Cities  used  last  year  about  175  tons  of  sugar  per  day. 


DATE.  VARIETY. 

* 4 
4 4 
4 4 
4 4 
4 4 
4 4 

4 4 * 

4 4 


89 


To  supply  this  quantity  of  sugar  would  require  25  to  30 
factories.  As  our  results  have  shown  we  can  produce  our 
own  sugar. 

But  the  returns  from  beet  raising  have  not  proved  satisfac- 
tory in  many  places  where  factories  are  now  in  existence. 
Inasmuch  as  it  is  likely  another  season  may  witness  the 
inauguration  of  the  industry  in  Minnesota  it  may  be  well  to 
point  out  the  interdependence  of  the  farmer  and  manufac- 
turer and  the  causes  which  have  contributed  elsewhere  to 
unsatisfied  expectations. 

The  interest  of  the  farmer  and  manufacturer  are  mutual, 
probably  more  dependent  the  one  upon  the  other  than  in 
any  other  industry.  A factory  costs  complete,  exclusive  of 
the  site,  and  including  ample  running  capital,  nearly  a half  a 
million  dollars.  Such  a factory  should  have  25,000  to  40,- 
000  tons  of  beets  to  work  into  sugar.  Inasmuch  as  the 
fixed  charges  including  interest,  taxes,  insurance,  etc.,  must 
be  very  large  on  that  amount  of  investment,  and  the  season 
for  using  the  beet  sugar  plant  quite  short,  it  is  readily  seen 
that  inability  to  secure  ample  supply  of  the  beets  must  cause 
failure.  With  a bountiful  supply  of  beets  any  factory  could 
afford  to  pay  higher  prices  than  if  the  supply  were  short,  so 
that  over-production  of  beets  is  not  likely  to  occur.  On  the 
manufacturers’  .side  the  supply  of  beets  as  regards  quantity 
and  quality  is  almost  the  only  question  to  be  solved. 

On  the  farmers’  side,  however,  almost  everything  remains 
to  be  demonstrated.  After  having  proved  that  good  beets 
can  be  raised  he  has  yet  to  demonstrate  the  yield  and  cost; 
but  fortunately  these  conditions  are  largely  controlled  by 
the  farmer  himself. 

The  crop,  in  order  to  be  profitable  to  the  farmer,  must 
show  results  as  follows  : 

1st.  A beet  rich  in  sugar. 

2d.  A sufficiently  large  yield  per  acre. 

3d.  A not  extravagant  cost  of  production. 

4th.  A sure  market  at  good  price. 

These  requirements  can  be  met  by  the  farmer  if  he  will  intel- 
ligently and  faithfully  practice  the  proper  methods  of  cultiva- 
tion. These  are  well  determined  and  no  other  agricultural 


90 


product  has  had  more  careful  study  bestowed  upon  it,  and 
none  is  capable  of  more  scientific  production. 

The  four  points,  enumerated,  which  it  is  necessary  for  the 
farmer  to  take  into  his  calculations  if  he  contemplates  raising 
beets,  can  be  settled  as  follows : 

To  raise  rich  sugar  beets  in  good  quantity,  at  the  minimum 
expense  the  farmer  must  plant  and  cultivate  them  as  follows 
and  for  the  reasons  assigned  : 

1.  The  seed  must  be  planted  thickly,  our  results  show  20 
pounds  per  acre  to  be  best  for  our  conditions,  in  close  rows, 
sa}'  18  inches  apart.  By  planting  thickly  a multitude  of 
plants  grow  from  which  selection  can  be  made  of  the  most 
thrifty.  Within  reasonable  limits  the  more  seed  planted  the 
less  damage  can  result  from  poor  germination.  An  acre  if 
shaped  forty  rods  long  by  four  rods  wide  and  using  20 
pounds  of  seed  in  rows  18  inches  apart  would  require  de- 
posited in  each  row  one  half  pound  of  seed.  That  is  from 
three  to  four  times  the  amount  used  in  seeding  for  stock 
beets. 

2.  The  beets  must  be  thinned  out  early,  when  they  are 
three  to  five  inches  high,  and  cultivated  at  that  time  and 
frequent^  thereafter.  Direct  experiments  have  repeatedly 
shown  that  the  amount  of  sugar  in  the  beets,  as  well  as  the 
tonnage  yielded  is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  amount  of  cul- 
tivation given. 

3.  The  selection  of  land  must  be  made  by  reason  of  its  be- 
ing old  and  clean,  well  and  deeply  plowed  and  free  from 
manures.  If  weedy  land  is  used  more  expense  is  caused  by 
the  greater  amount  of  cultivation  needed  and  it  will  almost 
invariably  happen  that  the  cultivation  must  be  delayed. 

So  that  by  planting  thickly,  thinning  out  early  and  care- 
fully giving  frequent  cultivation,  and  making  proper  selec- 
tion of  soil,  the  cost  of  production  is  minimized,  the  quality 
is  improved  and  the  yield  increased.  Furthermore,  by  this 
means  the  maturity  of  the  beet  is  hastened  and  made  uni- 
form, and  the  size  of  single  roots  decreased  and  made  regu- 
lar. 

Stock  beets  are  usually  planted  in  three  feet  rows  and 
thin  in  the  rows.  In  our  state  phenomenal  yields  of  large 


91 


beets  are  of  usual  occurrence.  A beet  for  sugar  production 
must  not  exceed  three  pounds  and  is  better  to  weigh  only 
one.  When  the  requirement  is  stated  that  beets  must  be 
small,  one  thinks  this  must  decrease  the  total  yield,  while  on 
the  contrary  it  increases  it.  With  an  acre  field  forty  rods 
long  by  four  rods  wide,  there  would  be  forty -four  forty  rod 
rows  if  the  same  were  18  inches  apart.  Our  soils  are  so  rich 
that  to  secure  small  beets  the  plants  must  stand  close  in  the 
row.  If  they  are  let  grow  four  inches  apart  there  would  be 
on  one  acre  87,120  roots.  If  each  beet  weighed  but  one 
pound  that  would  represent  over  forty-three  and  a half  tons. 
If  six  inches  apart  in  the  rows  there  could  be  58,080  plants, 
which  yielding  one  pound  each  would  be  over  29  tons.  If 
eight  inches  apart  in  the  rows  there  could  be  43,560  plants, 
which  weighing  one  pound  each  would  be  over  21.75  tons. 
But  to  keep  the  beets  from  exceeding  one  pound  in  our  soil  it 
will  be  necessary  to  let  a great  number  grow,  say  one  plant 
every  four  to  six  inches,  so  that  the  probable  yield  is  large. 
As  high  as  forty-eight  tons  per  acre  were  reported  last  year. 

But  results  worked  out  on  paper  always  vary  from  actual 
experiences  and  so  it  has  happened  with  the  production  of 
sugar  beets.  In  California  the  yield  has  reached  as  high  as 
sixtv-one  tons  per  acre,  while  in  Nebraska  the  average  du- 
ring the  past  two  years  has  been  under  ten  tons  per  acre  and 
as  low  as  three  or  four  tons.  An  excessive  drought  was  ex- 
perienced there  in  1890  which  cut  down  the  yield  materially. 
Except  along  the  western  border  of  our  state  such  droughts 
do  not  occur  and  cannot  affect  our  results.  Furthermore 
the  raising  of  beets  in  Nebraska  has  been  done  mainly  upon 
a large  scale  by  syndicates  of  business  men,  not  farmers. 
As  beets  require  a vast  amount  of  work  and  at  certain 
times,  the  chances  are  largely  against  success  when  their 
production  is  attempted  on  a large  scale;  no  farmer  should 
attempt  to  produce  more  than  ten  acres  of  beets  and  few 
should  raise  more  than  five. 

While  our  results  indicate  success,  farmers  should  be  con- 
servative in  raising  beets,  as  the  cost  of  production  is  much 
greater  than  for  other  crops,  and  the  requirements  more  ex- 
acting. 


92 


The  premiums  offered  by  the  State  Fair  for  the  best  fifteen 
samples  of  beets,  where  the  station  should  analyze  the  beets, 
were  to  be  rated  as  those  having  the  highest  ratio,  of  both 
the  amount  of  sugar  and  the  purity  of  the  beets. 

This  report  was  submitted  to  the  secretary  of  the  State 
Fair  and  has  been  published  by  him.  It  was  required  that  the 
beets  competing  for  these  prizes  should  reach  the  Experiment 
Station  not  after  Nov.  20th.  The  best  beets  reaching  the 
Station  by  that  time  are  as  follows,  and  the  prizes  have  been 
awarded  to  the  first  fifteen  samples  named: 


Sug.  Pur. 

% % Ratio. 

O.  G.  Ho  eg,  St.Johns,  Kandrvohi  County 16.1  90.9  190.96 

*J.  F.  Porter,  Red  Wing,  Goodhue  County  16.7  85.8  188.75 

*P.  P.  Eddy,  Willmar,  Kandiyohi  County 17.7  80.2  188.23 

fH.  M.  Slee,  Dennison,  Goodhue  County 16.2  86.6  186.80 

fj.  F.  Porter,  Red  Wing,  “ “ 16.2  85.9  186.03 

H.  Metz,  Randolph,  Dakota  County 15.2  88.9  183.68 

H.  Clarke,  St.  Paul  & Duluth  Railroad  16.1  83.9  183.26 

J.  Cappell,  Watkins,  Meeker  County 15.65  85.3  182.26 

*H.  M.  Purdy,  Granite  Falls,  Yellow  Medicine  County  15.4  84.6  180.08 

*P.  Klippbein,  New  Ulm,  Brown  County  16.4  79.2  179.69 

August  Lofgrew,  Chisago,  Chisago  County  14.3  88.9  178.59 

fP.  C.  Anderson,  Donnelly,  Stevens  County 15.3  83.6  178.41 

R.  A.  Johnson,  16.1  78.2  176.99 

*A.  Burkhard,  Hay  Creek,  Goodhue  County 15.  83.3  176.39 

G.  R.  Rovel,  Sabin,  Clay  County 14.9  83.7  176.26 

H.  L.  Peuilly,  Mazeppa,  Goodhue  County 14.1  88.7  176.24 

P.  S.  Hasbird,  Madison,  Lac  qui  Parle  County 14.9  83.2  175.71 

J.  Sjohleme,  N.  Branch,  Chisago  County 13.9  88.3  175.67 

A.  Kaufer,  Montgomery,  Le  Sueur  County 15.8  78.2  175.30 

J.  Murphy,  Barnum,  Carlton  County 14.8  83.1  175.21 

H.  Clarke,  Sturgeon  Lake,  Pine  County, 15.25  80.9  175.16 

W.  A.  Patten,  Le  Sueur,  Le  Sueur  County 14.8  88.2  174.05 

© J.  F.  Porter,  Red  Wing,  Goodhue  County  14.5  83.3  173.56 

ttP-  Dehew,  St.  Michaels,  Wright  County 14.75  81.8  173.31 

tA.  Kop,  Eagle  Bend,  Todd  County 14.  85.4  173.05 

P.  Weiss,  Hutchinson,  McLeod  County  14.7  81.7  172.93 

Jesse  Moore,  Stacy,  Chisago  County 13.33  88.7  172.89 

J.  Hanenstein,  New  Ulm,  Brown  County 15.  79.8  172.53 

R.  A.  Peterson,  Warren,  Marshall  County 14.1  84.4  172.51 

J.  M.  Schlehr,  Frazee  City,  Becker  County  14.4  82.7  172.34 

L.  C.  Moore,  14.8  80.4  172.06 

-J.  Peterson,  Elbow  Lake,  Grant  County  15.1  78.3  171.45 

C.  Jobs,  Carver,  Carver  County 14.6  80.7  171.25 


93 


Sug.  Pur. 


% % Ratio. 

W.  Heinecke,  Mankato,  Blue  Earth  County  14.5  81.  171.02 

J.  F.  Kahring,  Barnum,  Carlton  County 14.  83.3  170.74 

*A.  S.  Printchers,  Ashby,  Grant  County  14.5  80.6  170.58 

C.  A.  Sargent.  Red  Wing,  Goodhue  County 13.6  85.  170.35 

Yae  Lovack,  Kettle  River,  Pine  Count}"  14.1  82.4  170.31 

K.  B.  Norswing,  Dennison,  Goodhue  County  14.5  80.1  170.03 

A.  Becker,  New -Ulm,  Brown  Count}" 14.3  80.8  169.67 

F.  Griffith,  Cokato,  Wright  County 14.21  81.1  169.59 

J.  Atkinson,  Montana,  Carlton  County 13.54  84.4  169.35 

C.  Andrews,  Centre  City,  Chisago  County 13.4  85.1  169  33 

O.  Peterson,  Delano,  Wright  County 13.6  83.4  168.59 

PI.  Lent,  Stacy,  Chisago  County  13.9  81.8 

H.  F.  Otling,  LeSueur,  LeSueur  County  13.9  81.8  168.51 

C.  H.  Siljan,  Madison,  Lac  qui  Parle  County 14.  80.9  168.09 

C.  H.  Goodrich,  Mankato,  Blue  Earth  County 13.6  82.9  168.04 

J.  Berg,  Rush  City,  Chisago  County 13.9  81.3  167.96 

H.  L.  Penjilly,  Mazeppa,  Goodhue  County 14.  80.5  167.65 

B.  F.  Meetch,  Sherburne,  Martin  County 13.75  81.7  167.55 

fD.  G,  Henring,  St.  Michaels,  Wright  County 13.9  80.8  167.41 

H.  C.  Clarke,  St.  Paul  & Duluth  Railway 13.8  81.2  167.29 

J.  F.  Hiebel,  Alexandria,  Douglas  County 14.  80.  167.10 

W.  Wallmarck,  Lindstrom,  Chisago  County  13.6  81.9  166.93 

J.  Edstrom,  Chisago  City,  thisago  County 13.3  83.1  166.52 

W.  F.  Rigby,  Clearwater,  Wright  County 13.6  81.  165  9 t 

T.  Asmundson,  Willmar,  Kandiyohi  County 12.8  84.8  165.61 

W.  D.  Japs,  Carver,  Carver  County 13.7  80.1  165.51 

J.  D.  Buckingham,  Glyndon,  Clay  County  12  6 85.7  165.47 

J.  Rice,  Kennedy,  Kittson  County 13.3  82.1 

*H.  0.  Bergh,  Berlev,  Norman  County 13.3  82.1  165.42 

* Vilmorin  White  Improved  variety, 
f Dippes  Imperial  variety. 

° Kleinwanzleben  variety, 
ft  Bulteau  Desprez  Richest  variety. 


The  above  table  gives  the  analysis  of  the  best  sixty  sam- 
ples received  up  to  the  20th  of  November.  Some  beets  better 
than  these  were  received  after  that  time,  and  as  late  as  the 
19th  of  December,  when  the  last  lot  was  analyzed.  Beets  re- 
ceived since  that  time  have  not  been  analyzed.  A number  of 
samples  that  were  shipped  previous  to  that  time  were  re_ 
eeived  too  late  for  analysis! 


COST  OF  GROWING  SUGAR  BEETS. 


W.  M.  HAYS. 

To  determine  the  cost  per  ton  of  raising  sugar  beets  a 
quantity  of  seed  of  the  Knauer’s  Improved  variety  was 
planted  at  the  rate  of  20  pounds  per  acre  on  a rather  weedy 
field  that  had  been  manured  in  1889  and  had  subsquently 
borne  two  crops,  one  of  corn  and  one  of  oats.  The  seed  was 
planted  with  a newly  invented  four-row  horse  beet  seed 
planter  kindly  sent  us  for  trial  by  the  Moline,  Milburn,  Stod- 
dard Co.,  of  Minneapolis.  The  land  after  having  been 
plowed  eight  inches  deep  was  made  thoroughly  fine  by  the 
use  of  a Tower’s  pulverizer.  The  beet  seed  planter  did  ex- 
cellent work  although  owing  to  the  unusual  softness  of  the 
seed  bed  the  beet  seeds  were  carried  down  too  far  below  the 
general  surface  by  the  press  drills.  The  season  immediately 
after  planting  was  unusually  wet,  preventing  cultivation  at 
the  proper  time  and  allowing  the  weeds  to  get  a good  start 
requiring  extra  expense  in  weeding.  It  is,  however,  to  be 
expected  in  growing  beets  that  the  weeding  and  thinning  will 
be  pretty  expensive  especially  if  the  weather  is  rainy  at  the 
critical  time  before  the  beets  are  four  or  five  inches  high. 
The  plot  containing  1%  acres  was  planted  in  rows  36  rods 
long  and  18  inches  apart,  and  yielded  34,785  pounds  of 
beets  or  10.4  tons  per  acre.  One  and  one-lialf  hours  with 
man  and  team  were  required  to  plant  an  acre,  72  hours 
cultivating  and  110  hours  in  harvesting.  Calling  man  and 
team  three  hours  planting,  we  have  the  total  labor  184 
hours  per  acre.  On  a clean  field  which  had  borne  three  good 
crops  of  corn  and  kept  very  clean  of  weeds  the  same  variety 
of  beets  was  planted;  the  amount  of  seed,  and  the  method 
of  planting,  cultivating  etc.,  were  the  same  as  in  the  weedy 
plot.  This  plot  contained  32  rows  14  rods  long  or  -*4  acre, 
and  yielded  7,275  pounds  of  beets  or  14%  tons  per  acre. 


95 


One  and  one-half  hours  work  with  man  and  team  was  re- 
quired to  plant  an  acre,  52  hours  to  cultivate  and  about 
the  same  time  as  in  the  other  field  to  harvest.  Counting  the 
work  of  the  team  equal  to  the  work  of  a man  and  one  horse 
as  half  a team  we  have  the  total  number  of  hours  expended 
in  planting,  cultivating  and  harvesting  the  beets  on  this 
cleaner  land,  171  hours  per  acre.  Counting  the  rent  of  the 
land  at  $3  per  acre,  plowing  deeply  and  harrow- 
ing $2,  the  seed  20  cents  per  pound  and  the  labor  $1.25  per 
dav  of  ten  hours  we  have  the  cost  in  the  case  of  the  weedy 
land  $30.38  per  acre.  Reduced  to  cost  per  ton  of  beets  we 
have  a greater  difference  in  favor  of  the  clean  land.  The 
heets  on  the  weedy  land  cost  $3.25  per  ton,  while  on  the 
cleaner  land  but  $2.09.  The  latter  sum  represents  the  cost 
of  a ton  of  beets  in  heaps  in  the  field  covered  with  straw  and 
dirt.  To  get  them  to  the  factory  the  labor  of  hauling 
should  be  added  and  would  depend  greatly  upon  the  dis- 
tance. 

AMOUNT  OF  SUGAR  BEET  SEED  PER  ACRE. 

Four  plots,  each  containing  eight  rows,  eighteen  inches 
apart  and  fourteen  rods  long,  were  planted  with  the  Moline, 
Milburn  & Stoddard  beet  seeder  to  test  different  amounts  of 
seed  per  acre.  On  planting  the  first  plot  on  this  land,  spring 
plowed  eight  or  nine  inches  deep,  it  was  found  that  the  press 
wheels  sank  down  so  deep  that  it  was  necessary  to  roll  the 
remainder  before  planting.  The  variety  used  was  Klein- 
wanzleben,  planted  May  29,  1891.  The  amount  of  seed 
the  yield  of  beets  and  of  sugar,  appears  as  follows : 


Plot 

Pounds  of  seed 

Pounds  of  seed 

Yield  of  beets 

Yield  per 

No. 

per  plot. 

per  acre. 

per  plot. 

acre.  Tons. 

1 

13  oz. 

12.75 

1.345 

10.6 

2 

11  oz. 

10.75 

1.575 

12.7 

3 

21  oz. 

20.50 

1,840 

14.8 

4 

24  oz. 

23.50 

1,895 

14.9 

1 

The  table  shows  that  with  this  way  of  planting,  twenty 
pounds  are  needed,  thus  confirming  the  practice  of  other 
countries. 


96 


DEPTH  OF  PLANTING. 

Three  plots  were  planted  to  Kleinwanzleben  sugar  beets  to 
test  the  depth  to  run  this  machine.  Twenty  and  one-half 
pounds  of  seed  per  acre  were  planted.  As  mentioned  else- 
where all  were  carried  down  below  the  surface  too  far. 
Depth  here  means  the  distance  the  seed  was  planted  below 
the  bottom  of  the  press  wheel  track.  These  results  hardly 


Plot  No. 


1 

2 
3 


Depth  Planted 


Yieid  of  Beets. 


% inch 
% inch 
1 inch 


880 

9^5 

850 


T 


oils  Per  Acre. 


13.1 

15.6 

13.3 


apply  to  depths  for  planting  with  garden  drills,  in  which 
case  there  is  far  less  pressure  on  the  wheels.  The  fact  that 
one  inch  seemed  too  deep  is,  however,  significant. 

The  yield  in  one  trial  of  rows  sixteen  and  eighteen  inches 
apart  gave  identical  results  in  yields  of  beets  per  acre  on 
plots  of  eight  rows  each  fourteen  rods  long. 


VARIETY  TESTS  OF  SUGAR  BEETS. 

The  table  below  shows  the  yields  per  acre  of  beets  in  tons 
of  several  varieties,  as  grown  at  the  Experiment  Station  in 
1891.  Those  in  field  A were  planted  with  a two-horse  beet 
planter  and  those  in  field  B with  a Mathews’  garden  drill, 
using  on  all  plots  twenty  pounds  of  seed  per  acre,  and  cover- 
ing one-half  to  three-fourths  inch  deep. 


1 , 
! 

Source  of 
| Seed. 

i i 

Field  A 
TonsBeets 
per  Acre. 

i 

i 

Field  B 
Tons  Beets 
per  Acre. 

Yilmorin  White  improved  

France.  .. 

14.6 

Dippe’s  Kleinwanzleben 

... 

16. 

French,  Verv  Rich  

.... 

16.9 

Dippe’s  Kleinwanzleben 

Germany .. 

12.2 

Vilmorin’s  White  Improved 

4- 

12.1 

• 

Dippe’s  Imperial  

u 

12.2 

Kleinwanzleben  Elite 

13. 

11.9 

Zuckerreichste  Elite 

14.3 

10.4 

Yilmorin  ^ White  Improved 

Utah 

13.3 

8.8 

Dippe’s*  Kleinwanzleben 

Utah 

15.4 

8.5 

Knauer’s  Imperial 

Utah 

1 

1 19.5 

1 

1 18.? 

All  the  varieties  tried  have  the  habit  of  growing  entirely 
under  the  ground  on  land  deeply  plowed. 


97 


PREPARING  SUGAR  BEET  LAND. 

To  test  a few  ways  of  preparing  land  for  sugar  beets 
several  plots  were  plowed  and  subsoiled  to  various  depths 
with  results  as  tabulated  below : 


Depth  Plowed 
Inches. 

Depth  Subsoiled 
1 Inches 

i ! 

Yield  Per  Acre 

Plot 

1 

9 

1 

17.6 

Plot 

2 

6 

11.2 

Plot 

3 

12 

i 

i 

14.2 

Plot 

4 

9 

1 14 

13.9 

Plowing  rich  loamy  soils  to  the  depth  of  8 to  10  inches 
seems  to  be  the  most  economical  and  effective  way  of  plow- 
ing land  for  beets. 

The  investigations  in  regard  to  sugar  beets,  both  as  to  the 
possibilities  of  growing  roots  rich  in  sugar  and  also  the 
economic  side  of  the  question,  will  be  continued  during  the 
present  and  following  years. 


SORGHUM  AND  SYRUP. 


D.  N.  HARPER. 

Over  a large  portion  of  the  state  sorghum  is  grown  and 
made  into  syrup.  This  is  used  almost  entirely  in  the  local- 
ities where  it  is  produced,  and  but  little  of  it  finds  its  way  in- 
to the  general  market,  so  that  although  the  sales  are  large, 
the  wholesale  grocers  and  the  mixing  houses  in  the  state  are 
obliged  to  rely  upon  other  states  for  a supply  of  sorghum 
syrup.  One  local  firm  writes  that  they  could  sell  1000  bar- 
rels of  good  sorghum  syrup  yearly  ifthey  could  get  the  goods, 
but  the  supply  does  not  equal  the  demand  and  the  quality 
is  too  variable.  The  wide  production  of  sorghum  and  the 
large  demand  for  the  syrup,  together  with  the  absence  of 
any  data  upon  the  quality  of  the  cane,  its  cost  of  production 
etc.,  led  me  to  make  certain  investigations  during  the  years 
1889  and  1890.  By  these  I hoped  to  secure  reliable  informa- 
tion, (1)  as  to  the  methods  of  cultivation,  (2)  the  yield  and 
cost  of  production,  (3)  the  quality  of  the  cane,  (4)  the 
methods  and  cost  of  manufacture  and  ( 5 ) the  quality  of  the  pro- 
duct. But  I have  found  it  possible  to  get  such  information 
only  upon  the  quality  of  the  cane  and  its  products  and  the 
methods  of  manufacture.  Cultivation  is  not  specially  di- 
rected to  the  production  of  a sugar  crop  and  the  methods  are 
in  general  the  same  as  those  for  corn.  There  is  no  special 
selection  of  the  plot  and  no  measurement  of  its  size,  no  re- 
cord taken  of  the  yield  etc.  It  is  therefore  impossible  to 
closely  estimate  the  cost  of  the  crop  and  the  profits  arising 
from  it.  The  most  reliable  estimates  show  that  the  syrup 
costs  from  20  to  35  cents  per  gallon.  This  has  read}"  sale  at 
home  at  from  50  to  60  cents  per  gallon,  or  saves  an  outlay 
for  other  syrups  costing  from  60  to  80  cents.  The  quality 
of  the  syrup  is  quite  variable  and  depends  as  well  upon  the 
character  of  the  cane  and  the  manner  of  handling  it  as  upon 
the  methods  of  manufacture.  The  charge  for  manufacture 
at  Cannon  Falls  and  Red  Wing  is  15  cents  per  gallon  and 


99 


this  yields  a reasonable  profit;  but  the  actual  cost  of 
manufacture  varies  with  the  cane.  That  which  has  been 
grown  upon  suitable  land,  after  the  proper  manner  and 
harvested  and  handled  carefully  yields  a good  syrup,  the 
largest  quantity  with  the  least  expense,  but  some 
lots  of  cane  at  the  charge  of  15  cents,  as  stated,  are  manu- 
factured at  a loss. 

The  quality  of  the  cane  is  more  important  to  us,  and  last 
year  this  called  for  our  chief  attention.  For  the  last  sea- 
son’s work  I arranged  a temporary  laboratory  in  the  fac- 
tory of  Mr.  J.  F.  Porter,  at  Red  Wing,  and  kept  chemical 
control  over  the  manufacture  of  the  syrup  and  from  time  to 
time  made  analyses  of  canes  selected  from  Mr.  Porter’s 
fields.  Four  different  varieties  of  cane  had  been  grown, 
namely:  Early  Orange,  Folger’s  Early,  Early  Amber  and 
Kenney’s  Early  Amber.  The  seed  of  the  first  two  varieties 
was  received  from  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  and 
was  the  seed-heads  of  selected  canes  grown  during  the  previ- 
ous year,  at  Sterling,  Kansas.  The  Early  Amber  seed  was 
native  grown  and  Kenney’s  Early  Amber  seed  was  obtained 
from  Hon.  S.  H.  Kenney,  of  Morristown,  Minn.  It  is  a 
variation  of  Early  Amber  which  originated  with  him.  The 
Early  Orange  grew  on  rather  the  heaviest  land  and  pro- 
duced the  largest  stalks,  but  was  quite  green  when  frost 
killed  it  on  September  27th.  Folger’s  Early  grew  on  black 
sandy  loam  produced  large  stalks  and  was  within  a week 
of  being  ripe  when  frost  occurred.  The  Early  Amber  grew 
upon  moderately  light  sandy  loam  at  an  elevation  consider- 
ably above  the  other  plots.  The  stalks  were  tall  and  slender 
and  would  have  ripened  within  a few  days  when  frost  killed 
it  on  the  27th  of  September.  Kenney’s  Early  was  grown 
upon  the  lightest  soil  and  produced  short,  heavy  stalks, 
none  exceeding  a height  of  six  feet.  It  ripened  about  the 
23d  of  September. 

The  canes  from  the  selected  Kansas  seed  produced  very  few 
suckers,  but  those  from  domestic  seed  suckered  badly.  All 
the  seed  was  planted  in  rows  3%  feet  apart  and  about  12 
inches  in  the  rows.  Owing  to  the  season  the  cultivation 
given  was  defective. 


100 


In  the  following  tables  I give  the  results  of  the  analyses  of 
selected  canes  and  for  purpose  of  comparison  the  results  ob- 
tained at  *Sterling  and  fFort  Scott,  Kansas,  two  places 
considered  especially  favorable  to  the  production  of 
sorghum. 

In  making  comparison  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
seed  which  produced  the  canes  analyzed  in  Kansas  had  been 
especially  selected  according  to  scientific  principles  during 
three  years  previous,  while  the  Early  Amber  seed  with  us 
had  not  been  previously  selected  in  any  way. 

To  show  how  intelligent  selection  had  affected  their  crop, 
I quote  the  record  of  results  at  Sterling,  Kansas.  The  seed 
for  the  crop  of  1888  was  from  canes,  the  seeds  for  which 
had  not  been  previously  specially  selected,  but  the  crops  of 
1889  and  1890  were  from  selected  seed : 

*FOLGER’S  EARLY. 


Solids. 

Sucrose. 

Glucose. 

Purity. 

1888 

15.62 

10.66 

1.88 

68.24 

1889 

18.39 

14.08 

2.03 

76.56 

1890 

18.85 

14.28 

1.39 

76.89 

EARLY  AMBER. 


Solids. 

Sucrose. 

Glucose. 

Purity. 

1888 

15.00 

9.50 

2.35 

63.34 

1889 

15.81 

11.69 

1.25 

73.94 

1890* 

18.08 

12.84 

1.50 

71.02 

*Unselected. 


These  results  show  the  gradual  and  presistant  improve- 
ment in  the  cane  by  the  selection  of  the  seed.  But  the  seed 
for  the  Early  Amber  crop  of  1890  was  not  specially  select- 
ed and  its  improvement  did  not  keep  pace  with  that  of  Fol- 
ger’s  Early  where  seed  selection  had  continued. 


*Dr.  Wiley’s  Report  for  1890.  Bulletin. 

|29,  Division  of  Chemestry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


101 


EARLY  AMBER. 


Date. 

Lab’y  No. 

Solids. 

Sucrose. 

Reducing 

Sugars. 

N-10  Alkali 

Purity. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

September  15  .. 

1204 

15.20 

9.21 

3.14 

60.59 

A A 

16... 

1220 

14.70 

9.20 

62.58 

ii 

17... 

1236 

18.40 

11.81 

2.27 

.7 

64.18 

ii 

22... 

1286 

17.65 

12.61 

2.52 

1.2 

71.44 

i 4 

22... 

1287 

16.96 

12.49 

2.25 

1.4 

73.64 

4 4 

22... 

1288 

16.88 

12.80 

2.40 

1.8 

75.83 

22... 

1294 

18.55 

13.93 

2.16 

75.09 

«< 

24... 

1310 

20.70 

15.28 

2.92 

73.81 

ii 

24... 

1311 

19.25 

14.04 

2.44 

1.6 

72.93 

4 i 

24... 

1312 

15.98 

10.74 

1.81 

1.6 

67.20 

4 i 

24... 

1313 

18.00 

13.35 

1.88 

1.7 

74.17 

44 

24... 

1314 

16.90 

12.31 

1.70 

1.9 

72.84 

4 4 

24... 

1316 

15.50 

9.51 

3.03 

.9 

61.35 

i 4 

24... 

1317 

13.78 

7.47 

4.12 

.7 

54.20 

i 4 

24... 

1318 

17.33 

11.11 

2.87 

.8 

64.10 

October 

1... 

1318V2 

17.14 

12.03 

4.67 

1.7 

70.18 

4 4 

24... 

1319 

14.98 

8.50 

3.05 

1.0 

58.70 

4 4 

24... 

1321 

16.42 

11.60 

2.57 

1.1 

70.64 

ii 

26... 

1336 

18.98 

15.11 

2.44 

1.5 

79.08 

ii 

26... 

1337 

20.22 

14.61 

2.75 

1.3 

72.25 

44 

26... 

1338 

15.20 

9.36 

2.69 

1.7 

61.57 

i 4 

26... 

1339 

19.88 

15.06 

1.76 

2.2 

75.75 

ii 

26... 

1340 

19.82 

14.22 

2.49 

1.5 

71-74 

ii 

26... 

1341 

20.32 

15.33 

1.88 

1.8 

75.44 

ii 

27... 

1356 

16.60 

11.29 

2 64 

1.5 

68.01 

4 4 

27... 

1357 

17.92 

12.14 

2.91 

1.3 

67.80 

4 4 

27... 

1358 

17.85 

12.27 

2*27 

2.0 

68.74 

4 4 

27... 

1359 

16.30 

11.00 

2.93 

1.2 

67.24 

ii 

27... 

1361 

18.55 

11.63 

2.95 

1.4 

62.69 

ii 

27... 

1364 

18.40 

12.42 

2.38 

2.6 

67.60 

ii 

29... 

1369 

15.56 

10.42 

2.61 

- 1.4 

66.96 

ii 

1... 

1385 

15.62 

10.42 

2.44 

2.0 

66.71 

ii 

1... 

1386 

13.58 

8.34 

2.37 

1.0 

61.41 

41 

1... 

1387 

17.38 

12.87 

1.94 

2.5 

73.88 

4 4 

1... 

1388 

16.45 

11.66 

2.34 

2.2 

70.28 

i 4 

2... 

1392 

16.32 

10.88 

2.08 

1.6 

66.66 

ii 

2... 

1393 

15.54 

9.99 

2.41 

1.5 

64.29 

4 4 

2... 

1394 

15.60 

10.42 

2.61 

1.6 

66.79 

ii 

2... 

1396 

15.68 

11.33 

1.91 

2.5 

72.26 

ii 

2... 

1397 

16.78 

11.59 

2.17 

1.6 

69.07 

AVERAGES. 


Date. 

Lab’y 

No. 

Solids. 

Sucrose. 

w 

» a 

N-10 

Alkali. 

Purity. 

Solids 

Not 

Sugar. 

Sept.  5 to  Oct.  2 
“ 22  to  Sept.  26 
Greatest 

1 

! 

17.01 

17.62 

20.70 

13.58 

11.76 

11.49 

15.33 

8.34 

2.42 

2.60 

3.13 

1.70 

66.99 

70.10 

79.08 

54.20 

Least 

AT  STERLING,  KANSAS. 

Average 

18.08 

12.84 

1.50 

70.02 

1 

| 3.74 

AT  FORT  SCOTT,  KANSAS. 


Average 

17.3 

13.2 

76.3 

Greatest 

18.5 

14.1 

80.6 

Least 

16.0 

11.7 

71.0 

102 


KENNEY’S  EARLY. 


Date. 

1 

Lab’y  No. 

Solids. 

Sucrose. 

Reducing 

Purity. 

Solids  not 

Sugar. 

Sugar. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

September 

22 

1290 

17  7 

13.67 

2.05 

77.23 

1.98 

22 

1291 

18.42 

14.09 

1.78 

76.49 

2.55 

“ 

22 

1292 

17.63 

12.76 

1.83 

72.38 

“ 

22 

1293 

16.55 

12.52 

1.33 

75.74 

“ 

24 

1205 

17.75 

12.18 

1.89 

68.62 

24 

1$06 

15.60 

9.92 

2.47 

63.59 

24 

1307 

19.05 

13.39 

1.33 

70.28 

24 

1308 

18.80 

13.46 

2.29 

71.59 

24 

1309 

19.16 

14.02 

1.71 

73.17 

26 

1346 

18.38 

12.73 

2.73 

69.26 

Average.... 

17.90 

12.87 

1.94 

71.84 

Greatest..., 

19.16 

14.09 

2.73 

77.23 

Least 

15.06 

9.22 

1.33 

63.59 

folger’s  early. 


September  16 
16 

“ 27 

“ 27 

“ 27 

“ 26 

1222 

1223 

1351 

1352 

1353 

1354 

14.24 

17.00 

19.38 
18.15 

18.38 
18.58 

7.64 

13.25 

12.68 

11.22 

11.72 

12.84 

2.37 

2.91 

3.10 

2.41 

53.65 

77.94 

65.42 

61.81 

63.76 

69.09 

Average 

• 

15.95 

11.52 

2.69 

65.28 

Greatest 

19.38 

13.25 

3.1 

77.94 

Least 

14.24 

7.64 

2.37 

53.65 

AT  FORT  SCOTT,  KANSAS. 


Average.. 

Greatest. 

Least 

18.40 

19.40 
15.80 

13.5 

15.6 

10.7 

73.40 

80.40 
67.70 

AT  STERLING,  KANSAS. 

Average 

18.85 

14.1  2 

1.76 

74.69 

2.97 

Our  analyses  show  that  we  produced  sorghum  the  quality 
of  which  compares  favorably  with  that  produced  in  the  lo- 
calities considered  naturally  better  adapted  to  sorghum. 
From  seed  which  had  never  been  specially  selected  we  pro- 
duced Early  Amber  of  nearly  as  high  average  quality  as 
that  produced  in  Kansas  from  selected  seed  and  the  best  of 
our  cane  was  better  than  the  best  of  theirs.  In  Kansas  the 
production  of  sorghum  is  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar  but 
with  us  it  must  be  confined  to  the  manufacture  of  syrup, 
with  the  production  of  sugar  incidental.  The  manufacture 
of  sugar  from  the  sorghum  has  not  yet  proved  entirely  sue- 


103 


cessful  anywhere  and  it  will  not  be  profitable  for  us  to  en- 
deavor to  make  it  prove  so  here.  In  addition  to  the  causes 
which  have  operated  infavorably  elsewhere,  our  short  sea,- 
son  for  working  up  the  cane  has  been  considered  fatal  to  sugar 
manufacture  here,  but  our  results  seem  to  indicate  that 
this  feature  may  not  be  a fault.  Hard  frosts  occurred  on  the 
27th,  28th  and  29th  days  of  September  before  any  of  Mr. 
Porter’s  cane  had  been  cut.  On  the  29th  the  Early  Amber 
was  stripped  and  harvested  and  made  into  an  excellent 
syrup.  To  study  the  effects  of  frost  upon  standing  cane 
some  rows  were  not  cut  down  at  all  and  analyses  were 
made  of  sample  canes  from  day  to  day.  The  averages  of  the 
daily  analyses  are  arranged  in  the  folio weng  tables  : 


EARLY  AMBER. 


BEFORE  FROST. 


Date. 

Solid. 
Per  cent. 

Sucrose. 
Per  cent. 

Glucose. 
Per  cent. 

Purity. 
Per  cent. 

N-10 
Alkali, 
c.  c.  # 

Solids  not 
Sugar. 

Per  cent. 

September 
Ratio... 

22 

3 7.51 
7.5 

3 2.98 
5.6 

2.33 

1. 

74.00 

1.5 

2.20 

September 
Ratio 

24 

18.17 

8.5 

13.14 

6.1 

2.15 

1. 

74.19 

1.6 

2.88 

September 
Ratio 

26 

18.80 

8.5 

13.49 

6.1 

2.23 

1. 

71.13 

1.9 

3.10 

AFTER  FROST. 


September  27 

17.51 

11.70 

2.77 

64.83 

1.5 

3.04 

Ratio 

6.3 

4.2 

1. 

September  29 

15.56 

10.42 

2.61 

66.96 

1.4 

2.53* 

Ratio 

6. 

4. 

1 

October  1 

17.42 

12.27 

2.14 

72.08 

2.3 

3.01 

Ratio 

8. 

5.7 

1. 

October  2 

16.23 

11.46 

2.04 

70.66 

2. 

2.73 

Ratio 

8. 

5.6 

1. 

October  4 

14.30 

1.99 

Ratio 

7.2 

1. 

October  10 

12.04 

2.34 

1.2 

Ratio 

5.1 

1. 

*One  cane. 


105 


Naturally  a general  decrease  in  the  density  of  the  juice  oc- 
curred after  frost,  but  that  there  was  so  little  inversion  of 
the  cane  sugar  seemed  quite  remarkable.  This  may  be  ex- 
plained from  the  fact  that  the  temperature  did  not  at  any 
time  after  frost  rise  sufficiently  high  to  permit  of  much  fer- 
mentation. 

By  a comparison  of  the  daily  maximum  temperatures  af- 
ter frosts  for  the  past  few  years  it  is  seen  that  this  low  tem- 
perature is  not  unusual.  Through  the  kindness  of  Prof.  O. 
Whiteman  I have  arranged  the  following  table  of  maximum 
temperatures  observed  by  him  at  Red  Wing  during  the  past 
six  years : 


Date. 

1885 

1 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1890 

1885 

1 886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1890 

September  18 
“ 19 

“ 20 

“ 21 

“ 22 

‘‘  23 

“ 24 

“ 25 

“ 26 

“ 27 

“ 28 

“ 29 

“ 30 

October  1 

“ 2 

“ 3 

*•  4 

“ 5 

“ 6 

7 

“ 8 

“ 9 

“ 10 

11 

“ 12 

“ 13 

35.6 

33.2 

32.1 

4.55 

65. 

67.2 
60. 

69.5 

48.9 

66. 

56.9 
63: 

43.6 
41. 
48. 
59. 
50. 
61.8 

66.2 
52. 

36. 

32.2 

49.4 

55.2 
58. 

57.3 
58.6 

63.5 
53.9 
51.8 

55.6 
54.5 

59.4 
53. 

51.5 
50.2 
62. 

28.2 

71.3 

31.4 

32. 

63.3 

70.9 

67.9 

71.4 
72.2 

77.5 
l 77. 

59U 

64. 

68.9 

72. 

53.1 

48.4 

46. 

59. 

49.3 

26.3 

26.6 

31.8 

34.9 

34. 

42.8 
50.1 

52.8 
.51  2 

31. 

68.  ! 73. 
76.  | 75.5 

69.  i 75.5 
58.9  67.7 
53.1  76. 

Frost  has  not  appeared  to  cause  much  injury  to  ripe  cane 
in  the  vicinity  of  Red  Wing,  but  no  analyses  have  hitherto 
been  made  to  show  its  effects.  Many  farmers  have  a prac- 
tice of  cutting  their  cane  before  it  is  ripe  to  save  it  from  be- 
ing frosted.  In  this  way  cane  was  cut  last  year  while  still 
quite  upripe,  as  much  as  two  weeks  before  frost  occurred. 
As  the  greatest  improvement  in  the  quality  of  the  cane  oc- 
curs during  the  short  period  of  ripening,  a great  loss  is  sus- 
tained by  harvesting  it  while  green. 


106 


Our  results  would  show  that  the  proper  practice  is  to  al- 
low the  cane  to  grow  until  it  matures  and  not  cut  it  while 
jet  unripe  in  apprehension  of  frost.  If,  however,  frost 
should  occur,  let  it  be  cut,  tied  in  small  bundles,  and  piled  in 
the  shade  in  such  a way  that  air  can  have  free  circulation 
throughout  the  piles.  It  should  then  be  made  up  into 
syrup  as  quickly  as  possible.  That  this  was  the  proper 
practice  last  year  was  shown  by  the  results  of  Mr.  Porter's 
own  cane  and  lots  from  other  parties.  The  best  canes  re- 
ceived last  Fall  were  those  which  came  in  last  and  they 
made  the  best  syrup,  while  the  canes  which  were  harvested 
while  green  made  poor  syrup  and  that  with  great 
difficulty. 

STRIPPING  CANE. 

Many  farmers  have  concurred  that  some  improvement  oc- 
curs by  allowing  cane  to  stand  after  being  stripped,  but 
such  treatment  really  injures  it.  Cane  should  be  harvested 
as  soon  as  it  is  stripped  and  made  into  syrup  immediately 
afterwards.  Through  a misunderstanding  a number  of 
rows  of  Mr.  Porter's  Early  Amber  were  stripped  on  the  24th 
of  September.  To  learn  how  this  cane  would  compare  with 
that  not  stripped,  analyses  were  made  of  similar  canes  of 
both  kinds.  The  average  result  of  daily  analyses  of 
stripped  cane  follow,  for  comparison  with  canes  not  stripped 
refer  to  to  the  table  on  page  104. 


107 


STRIPPED  CANES. 


BEFORE  FROST. 


Date* 

Solids 
Per  cent. 

Sucrose 
Per  cent. 

Glucose. 
Per  cent 

Purity. 
Per  cent. 

N-10  Alkali 
c.  c. 

Solids  not 
Sugar. 
Per  cent. 

September  24 
Ratio 

15.94 

4.3 

10.03 

3.8 

3.67 

1. 

62.46 

2.24 

September  26 
Ratio 

19.60 

7.6 

14.86 

5.7 

2.58 

1. 

75.67 

1.4 

2.16 

AFTER  FROST. 


September  27 

18.4 

12.42 

2 38 

67.60 

2.6 

3.60* 

Ratio 

7.8 

4.4- 

1. 

1 

October  1 

14.60 

9.38 

2.40 

64.06 

1.5 

2.82 

Ratio 

6. 

3.9 

1. 

* 

October  2 

15.82 

10.10 

2.33 

65.91 

1.6 

3.39 

Ratio 

6.8 

4.3 

1. 

October  4 

13.54 

2.88 

Ratio 

4.7 

1. 

October  10 

13.87 

3.23 

Ratio 

4.3 

1. 

*One  cane. 


108 


More  glucose,  less  sucrose  and  lower  purity  resulted  in 
the  stripped  canes  and  frost  caused  more  damage  to  them 
than  canes  in  their  natural  condition.  But  the  effects  of 
stripping  cane  were  quite  marked  in  the  working  of  it  in  the 
factory.  Cane  which  had  been  stripped  was  much  more 
difficult  to  work  up  than  the  other,  and  this  showed  itself 
particularly  in  the  evaporation  of  the  juice  to  syrup.  So 
that  for  all  reasons  it  proved  to  be  a wrong  practice  to  let 
stripped  cane  stand. 

RIPE  STALKS  AND  SUCKERS. 

Last  season  was  very  peculiar  and  one  not  favorable  to 
the  development  of  a sugar  producing  crop.  Drought  du- 
ring the  early  part  of  the  summer  prematurely  advanced  the 
cane  and  a subsequent  excess  of  moisture  prevented  perfect 
maturity  and  favored  the  growth  of  suckers.  The  great 
majority  of  the  Early  Amber  canes  had  from  one  to  six 
suckers,  which,  owing  to  the  season,  ripened  but  little  later 
than  the  main  stalk.  Analyses  of  individual  stalks  and 
suckers  growing  from  these  showed  there  was  not  so  great 
a difference  in  them  as  ordinarily.  Analyses  were  made  of 
other  canes  having  no  suckers  and  the  results  are  compared 
in  the  following  table: 


1 

1 

| Solids. 
Per  cent. 

1 

1 

Sucrose. 
Per  cent. 

Glucose. 
Per  cent. 

Purity. 
Per  cent. 

Solids  not 
Sugar 
Per  cent. 

j Main  Stalks 

14.48 

8.50 

3.05 

58.70 

2.93 

{ Suckers  of  same 

13.78 

7.10 

3.94 

51.52 

2.74 

j Main  stalk 

16.42 

11.60 

2.57 

70.64 

2.25 

| Suckers  of  the  same 

18.02 

12.62 

70.03 

j Main  stalk 

15.60 

10.42 

2.61 

66.79 

2.57 

1 Stickers  of  same 

14.00 

7.71 

2.96 

55.07 

3.33 

Stalk.  No  suckers 

20.22 

14.61 

2.75 

72.25 

2.86 

20.32 

15.33 

1.88 

75.44 

3.11 

f 

Few  canes  grew  without  suckers  but  when  they  did  grow 
so  they  matured  earliest  and  all  analyses  showed  them  to  be 
the  best.  From  conversation  with  many  farmers  I learned 
that  the  opinion  prevails  that  canes  with  suckers  are  as 
good  if  not  better  than  those  not  producing  suckers,  so  that 
of  course  but  few  farmers  suckered  their  cane. 

All  investigations  upon  this  matter  hitherto  have  shown 
that  canes  with  suckers  do  not  ripen  uniformly  nor  as  early 
as  canes  without  suckers,  and  the  quality  of  canes  with 


109 


suckers  is  not  as  good.  Our  analyses  gave  the  same  results. 
Therefore  instead  of  encouraging  or  permitting  the  growth 
of  suckers  they  should  be  prevented. 

VARIABILITY  OF  THE  CANE. 

Besides  the  analyses  already  recorded  others  were  made  of 
the  cane  of  various  farmers.  They  show  the  greatest  varia- 
tion in  the  composition  of  the  juice  and  are  quoted  further 
on.  This  extreme  veriability  of  sorghum  has  been  noticed 
everywhere.  If  it  is  hoped  to  make  sorghum  uniform  in  its 
quality  and  growth,  care  must  be  exercised  first  of  all  in 
selection  of  seed.  With  us  this  selection  should  be  made 
early  to  secure  (1)  early  ripening  cane  and  (2)  cane  of  high 
qualitv. 

All  experience  shows  that  Early  Amber  is  best  adapted  to 
our  conditions  and  selections  should  be  made  from  this  va- 
riety. The  earliest  ripening  canes  which  are  of  the  highest 
quality  can  be  secured  best  with  the  aid  of  analyses  of  the 
canes,  but  at  Attica,  Kansas,  last  year  it  was  observed 
that  certain  exterial  appearances  indicate  quite  closely  the 
ripeness  and  quality  of  individual  canes.  This  is  reported 
as  follows : 

^“Special  attention  was  given  to  studying  the  characteris- 
tics of  the  cane,  showing  that  certain  physical  properties 
are  associated  with  high  percentage  of  sugar.  By  studying 
these  properties  carefully,  it  is  possible  for  every  farmer  to  go 
into  his  field  and  be  able  to  determine  with  certainty  whether 
his  cane  is  ripe  or  not.  The  most  striking  of  these  proper- 
ties is  found  in  the  last  joint  of  the  cane  bearing  the  seed 
head.  By  stripping  the  cane  of  its  covering  a yellow  colora- 
tion will  be  observed  extending  more  or  less  along  the 
length  of  the  joint  as  the  cane  nears  maturity.  By  the  ex- 
tent of  this  coloration  one  is  able  to  select  the  very  best  or 
the  very  poorest  canes  in  the  field  almost  as  accurately  as 
though  tested  by  a polariscope.  It  is  found  that  the 
cane  which  has  the  highest  sucrose , lowest  glucose , and 
highest  purity  has  coloration  extending  one-half  the  length 
of  the  joint.  Should  it  be  found  to  extend  the  full  length  it 

^Bulletin  No.  29  Division  of  Chemestry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1890 
page  24. 


110 


shows  the  cane  has  already  commenced  to  deteriorate.  On 
the  other  hand  should  no  coloration  be  visible  it  shows  that 
the  cane  is  not  yet  matured.  These  observations  have 
extended  over  one  season  of  rather  remarkable  charicteris- 
tics  and  hence  they  may  not  pro  ve  equally  applicable  to  a 
crop  grown  in  a season  with  the  ordinary  rainfall.” 

It  has  been  observed  as  regards  quality  and  ripeness  that 
as  a rule  those  canes  having  the  smallest  seed  heads  are  of  the 
best  quality  and  reach  maturity  when  the  seed  grains  be- 
come hard  and  glistening.  In  the  case  of  Early  Amber  the 
seed  becomes  black. 

In  selecting  seed  therefore  choose  canes  which  are  free  from 
suckers,  ripen  earliest,  have  the  smallest  seed  heads  and 
show  by  the  coloration  of  the  seed-head  joint  that  they  con- 
tain the  most  sugar  and  highest  purity. 

For  the  successful  manufacture  of  syrup,  to  which  we  con- 
fine ourselves,  it  is  as  necessary  to  have  good  cane  as  for  the 
manufacture  of  sugar. 

As  a commencement  in  the  improvement  of  the  Early 
Amber  cane  the  seed  of  those  canes  which  were  the  best  last 
year  have  been  planted  this  spring  and  selections  of  the 
canes  for  seed  will  be  continued. 

For  the  improvement  of  the  cane  it  is  necessary  that  bet- 
ter methods  of  cultivation  should  be  obtained  ; but  very  lit- 
tle has  been  accomplished  in  this  direction  and  it  will  not  be 
necessary  to  discuss  any  methods  of  cultivation  at 
present. 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  SYRUP. 

During  a few  days  at  the  end  of  the  season  of  1889  at 
Cannon  Falls,  I kept  chemical  control  of  the  operations  in 
the  manufacture  of  syrup.  Analyses  were  made  (1)  of  the 
juice  as  it  came  from  the  mill,  (2)  after  defecation,  and  as  it 
enters  the  evaporator,  (3)  of  the  juice  after  it  had  passed  one- 
fourth,  one-half  and  three-fourths  of  the  evaporator  and 
(4)  of  the  finished  syrups. 

The  analyses  showed  great  differences  in  the  quality  of  the 
cane  and  of  the  syrup.  Special  attention  was  paid  to  the 
defecation  of  the  juice  and  the  working  of  the  evaporator. 


Ill 


Defecation  was  not  properly  conducted  but  this  was 
promptly  corrected. 

Many  analyses  showed  that  no  inversion  of  the  sugar  oc- 
cured  during  the  process  of  evaporation  to  syrup ; the  evap- 
erator  works  well  and  with  great  rapidity.  The  records  of 
three  analyses  were  consumed  with  the  Experiment  Sta- 
tion building  so  that  only  a general  statement  of  the  results 
can  be  given. 

In  1890  the  investigation  was  continued  in  the  factory  of 
J.  F.  Porter,  at  Red  Wing,  but  special  attention  was  given 
to  the  cane  itself.  The  results  of  the  seasons  work  show 
that  the  chief  cause  for  the  variability  of  sorghum  syrup  is 
in  the  variable  character  of  the  cane.  While  not  perfect,  the 
mechanical  features  in  the  production  of  sorghum  syrup,  are 
far  in  advance  of  the  agricultural  ones.  Improvement  needs 
to  be  made  in  the  nectary  of  the  cane  to  secure  a greater 
yield  of  the  juice,  in  the  defecation  and  filtering  of  the  juice  to 
make  the  quality  of  the  syrup  more  uniform.  But  uniform- 
ity of  the  syrup  now  depends  chiefly  upon  the  character  of 
the  cane,  its  cultivation  and  subsequent  treatment  before 
arriving  at  the  factory. 

To  show  the  variable  character  of  the  cane  I quote  the 
average  results  of  the  analyses  of  forty -four  lots  of  cane 
raised  by  as  many  different  farmers  and  the  analyses  of  the 
best  and  poorest  lots.  This  wide  difference  in  the  cane 
must  be  corrected  before  unifority  of  syrup  can  be  obtained. 
Some  of  the  means  to  secure  uniformly  good  cane  have 
been  suggested. 

MILL  JUICES. 


Solids. 
Per  cent. 

Sucrose.  | 
Per  cent. 

Glucose. 
Per  cent. 

Purity. 
Per  cent. 

Solids  not 
Sugar. 
Per  cent. 

Lab’y 

No. 

Average 

15.10 

8.52 

8.74 

56.54 

2.84 

Best  canes 

15.86 

10.87 

2.38 

68.53 

2.61 

12301 

16.00 

10.62 

2.72 

66.37 

2.66 

1269 

15.68 

10.53 

2.46 

67.15 

2.69 

1390 

15.42 

10.51 

2.73 

68.15 

2.18 

1378 

17.15 

11.93 

68.48 

1208 

14.70 

10.77 

73.26 

1207 

Poorest  canes 

16.22 

4.05 

6.95 

24.97 

5.22 

1323 

15.40 

6.19 

5.25 

40.19 

3.96 

1325 

16.48 

7.17 

3.90 

43.50 

5.41 

1266 

9.25 

4.84 

4.10 

52.32 

.31 

1398 

112 


The  large  amount  of  glucose  in  these  canes  is  due  partly  to 
the  unripe  condition  of  the  cane  and  partly  to  the  cane  hav- 
ng  for  some  time  stood  in  piles  in  such  a way  that  fermenta- 
tion and  inversion  occurred.  When  cane  stands  after  being 
cut  the  piles  should  be  made  so  that  the  air  can  have  access 
and  thus  keep  the  temperature  low.  If  the  cane  is  kept  at  a 
temperature  below  68°  Fahrenheit  so  fermentation  will  take 
place.  But  for  all  reasons  cane  should  stand  as  short  a time 
as  possible  after  being  cut. 

It  was  found  necessary  several  times  to  leave  the  juice 
stand  over  night  before  being  defecated.  To  learn  what 
effect  this  might  have  upon  the  sugar  some  analyses  were 
made  the  results  of  which  follow : 


I 

Sucrose. 
Per  cent. 

Glucose. 
Per  cent. 

Increase  of 
! Glucose. 

No.  1288 

12.80 

2.40 

After  standing  exposed  36  hours  

12.19 

2.59 

.19 

No.  1290 

13.67 

2.05 

After  36  hours  

2.09 

.04 

No.  1292 

12.76 

1.83 

After  36  hours  

1.92 

.09 

No.  1294 

13.93 

2.16 

After  36  hours  

2.22 

.06 

No.  1309 

13.02 

1.71 

After  48  hours  

13.80 

2.64 

.93 

No.  1311 

14.04 

2.44 

After  48  hours  

13.99 

2.44 

No.  1313 

13.35 

1.88 

After  48  hours  

3.58 

1.70 

Average  increase  of  glucose  after  36  hours 

.095 

After  48  hours  

.88 

These  results  showed  that  the  juice  suffered  no  injury  by 
standing  over  night.  It  was  therefore  subsequently  the 
practice  to  have  the  tanks  full  of  juice  in  the  morning.  This 
saved  a great  deal  of  time  in  the  morning  following.  But 
frequently  it  was  necessary  to  run  both  day  and  night. 

The  fact  that  no  appreciable  inversion  took  place  on  allow- 
ing juice  to  stand  exposed  for  36  hours  is  of  special  import- 
ance to  us  should  sugar  production  be  undertaken.  A large 
part  of  the  loss  in  sugar  making  in  more  southern  states  re- 
sults from  the  inversion  of  the  cane  sugar  after  the  juice  has 
been  secured  and  during  the  process  of  manufacture.  No 
such  loss  occurs  with  us.  But  for  syrup  production  it  is  not 
especially  important  since  the  crystalization  of  sugar  is  not 
desired. 


University  of  Minnesota. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  No.  22. 


iHJQUST,  1892. 


Q)  (1  • o 

I.  — COMPARISON  OF  CORN;  BARLEY;  CORN  AND  SHORTS  ; BAR- 

LEY AND  SHORTS ; CORN,  SHpRTS  AND  OATMEAL ; 

AND  BARLEY,  SHORTS  AND  OIL  MEAL  IN 
THE  RATION  OF  GROWING  PIGS. 

II.  — CORN  YS.  BARLEY  FOR  FATTENING  HOGS.  III. — CORN 

MEAL,  BARLEY  MEAL  AND  A MIXTURE  OF  BARLEY 
MEAL  AND  OIL  MEAL  COMPARED. 

IV.—' WET  YS.  DRY  FEED. 


I®13  The  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the 
State  who  make  application  for  them. 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK , RAMSEY  CO 
MINNESOTA. 


University  of  Minnesota. 

% 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis, 1896. 

The  HON.  GREENLEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - - 1894. 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - 1894. 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  Alexandria, 1896. 

The  HON.  JOEL  P.  HEATWOLE,  Northfield,  ....  1896. 

The  HON.  0.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth, 1896. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson,  -----  1896. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  EMERY,  Lake  City, 1895. 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  Minneapolis,  - 1895. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  R.  MERRIAM,  St.  Paul,  - - - Ex-Officio. 

The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  DAVID  L.  KIEHLE,  M.  A..  St.  Paul,  - - - Ex-Officio. 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHROP,  LL.  D.,  Minneapolis,  - Ex-Officio. 

The  President  of  the  University. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  PION.  KNUTE  NELSON. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  EMERY. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION: 

CLINTON  D.  SMITH,  M.  S.,  - - -----  Director. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S.,  - - - - - Horticulturist. 

OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  - - - - Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S.,  - Chemist. 

T.  L.  H^ECKER,  - * Dairying. 

CHRISTOPHER  GRAHAM,  - Veterinarian. 

J.  A.  VYE, - Secretary. 


CORN  YS.  BARLEY. 


CLINTON  D.  SMITH. 

While  the  popular  taste  demanded  a heavy  and  excessively 
fat  hog  to  bring  the  highest  price  in  the  general  market, 
profitable  pork  production  on  a large  scale  was  confined  to 
those  states  in  which  was  found  the  peculiar  combination  of 
soil  and  climate  best  adapted  to  corn  growing.  Corn  stands 
easily  at  the  head  of  onr  American  cereals  for  fattening 
swine,  but  it  has  not  yet  been  shown  that  its  superiority  ex- 
tends to  the  feeding  of  young  or  growing  pigs.  In  England 
and  on  the  continent  of  Europe  barley  occupies  a relation  to 
swine  production  similar  in  some  respects  to  the  place  occu- 
pied by  corn  in  America,  and  Sir  John  B.  Lawes  has  gone  so 
far  as  to  say  that  barley  is  the  natural  food  of  the  civilized 
Pig- 

The  late  frosts  of  spring  and  the  early  ones  of  autumn 
make  corn  an  exceedingly  precarious  crop  in  all  the  northern 
parts  of  this  state  while  barley  is  at  its  best  in  those  lati- 
tudes. To  study  the  question,  therefore,  whether  barley 
could  be  substituted  for  corn  in  the  ration  of  pigs,  experi- 
ments were  undertaken  during  the  summer  of  1891. 

Thirty -four  pigs  as  nearly  alike  as  possible  were  selected 
from  the  farm  herd  on  the  21st  of  July  and  divided  into  six 
groups,  two  of  five  pigs  each,  called  pens  9 and  10,  and  four 
of  six  pigs  each , called  pens  11, 12, 13  and  14.  Due  care  was 
taken  to  have  the  pigs  in  each  pen  mated  in  all  respects  with 
the  pigs  in  every  other  pen  so  that  the  results  of  the  feeding 
test  with  all  the  pens  are  comparable.  The  average  weight 
of  the  pigs  was  then  42  pounds.  After  a preliminary  feeding 
period  of  one  week,  during  which  each  pen  received  the  food 
which  was  to  constitute  its  ration  during  the  entire  experi- 
ment, each  pig  was  again 'weighed  on  two  successive  days  and 
the  average  of  these  two  weights  was  taken  as  the  original 


118 


weight  in  the  computation  of  results.  Each  pig  was  weigh- 
ed weekly  at  the  same  hour  of  the  day  during  the  progress 
of  the  experiment.  The  amount  of  food  consumed  by  each 
pen  each  week  of  the  experiment  was  also  carefully  weighed. 

During  the  entire  trial  the  groups  of  pigs  were  confined  to 
small  pens  with  exercise  yards  adjacent,  were  supplied  with 
an  abundance  of  fresh  water  and  were  allowed  all  the  char- 
coah  ashes  and  salt  they  would  eat.  The  feed  was  mixed 
with  sufficient  water  to  make  a thick  slop  and  the  clean 
drinking  water  was  given  them  in  a separate  trough . During 
the  preliminary  feeding  and  for  one  week  afterwards  each  pen 
was  allowed  one  pound  per  pig  per  day  of  green  pea  forage. 
The  ration  of  pen  9 with  this  exception  consisted  of  corn 
meal  alone;  that  of  pen  10,  of  barley  meal.  Pen  11  had 
corn  meal  and  shorts  mixed  in  equal  proportions  by  weight. 
Pen  12  had  barley  meal  and  shorts  mixed  in  equal  propor- 
tions. Pen  13  had  corn,  shorts  and  oil  meal  mixed  in  the 
proportion  of  two  parts  corn  meal,  two  parts  shorts  and 
one  part  oil  meal.  Pen  14  received  a ration  consisting  of 
two  parts  barley  meal,  two  parts  shorts  and  one  part  oil 
meal. 

A summary  of  the  results  of  the  first  feeding  period  of  five 
weeks  is  given  in  the  following  table : 

TABLE  I. 

PERIOD  I. — FIVE  WEEKS. 


Pens — 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

x jr* 

Corn 

JT* 

Bariev 

O 

« 5 0 

?3 

*?  3 
: & 

: 3 

• a 

o 

2-5  corn,  2-5 
shorts,  1-5 
oil  meal 

2-5  bar.,  2-5 
shorts,  1-5 
oil  meal 

Average  weight  July  28 

52.6 

51.4 

51. 

48.7 

54.5 

47.3 

“ “ Sep.  2 

71. 

75,2 

23.8 

84.7 

82. 

89.3 

81.3 

Average  gain,  five  weeks  

18.4 

33.7 

33.3 

34. S 

34. 

Total  weight  July  28 

263. 

257. 

306. 

292. 

327. 

284. 

“ “ Sep.  2 

355. 

376. 

508. 

492. 

536. 

488. 

Total  gain 

92. 

119. 

202. 

200. 

209. 

204. 

Food  consumed 

513.5 

554. 

811.5 

762. 

771. 

728. 

Lbs.  gain  for  each  100  of  feed 

17.9 

21.4 

24.9 

26.2 

27.1 

28. 

At  the  close  of  the  first  period  there  was  a very  noticeable 
difference  in  the  appearance  of  the  pigs  of  the  various  pens. 


119 


Those  in  pen  9,  fed  exclusively  on  corn  meal,  had  developed 
a strong  tendency  to  lay  on  fat  rather  than  make  a normal 
growth  of  bone  and  muscle.  The  pigs  were  short,  inclined 
to  be  pot-bellied,  were  all  of  them  overly  fat,  deficient  in 
vitality  and  in  every  way  gave  evidence  of  the  lack  of  bone 
and  muscle  producing  materials  in  their  diet.  The  experi- 
ence of  practical  feeders  and  a multitude  of  trials  at  experi- 
ment stations  have  demonstrated  that  com  meal  alone  does 
not  contain  all  the  elements  necessary  to  make  a healthy 
growth  in  the  young  of  our  domestic  animals.  If^theJ’at- 
tempt  is  made  to  feed  young  pigs  just  weaned,  on  corn  meal 
either  alone  or  as  the  chief  article  q{  diet  the  bowels  will  be 
found  either  constipated  or  too  loose,  the  appetite  will  be 
irregular  and  the  growth  unsatisfactory,  there  being  too 
great  a tendency  to  become  fat  and  too  small  a development 
of  the  bones  and  muscular  system.  The  results  of  this  ex- 
periment point  to  the  same  conclusion. 

The  pigs  fed  on  barley  alone  did  not  show  this  unfortunate 
tendency  to  so  great  an  extent.  They  were  more  active, 
more  muscular,  longer  bodied  and  had  not  the  potty  appear- 
ance of  the  pigs  in  pen  9.  The  other  four  pens,  although 
showing  to  some  extent  the  deleterious  effects  of  too  close 
confinement  at  that  hot  season  of  the  year,  had  none  of  this 
tendency  to  the  laying  on  of  too  much  fat  but  throughout 
the  experiment  were  lively,  vigorous  and  thrifty. 

The  average  gain  per  pig  in  the  lot  fed  barley  alone,  pen 

10,  was  23.8  lbs.  for  the  five  weeks,  while  in  the  case  of  the 
corn  fed  lot  it  was  but  18.4  lbs.,  a difference  of  5.4  lbs.  of 
gain  per  pig  in  favor  of  the  barley.  The  addition  of  shorts 
to  both  corn  and  barley  had  the  effect  of  increasing  the  gain 
very  noticeably.  The  average  gain  per  pig  in  each  of  the  lots 
fed  a mixed  diet  was  almost  identical,  namely  33.7  lbs.  and 
33.3  lbs.  where  shorts  alone  was  added,  and  34.8  lbs.  and 
34  lbs.  where  oil  meal  formed  a fifth  part  of  the  ration. 

One  hundred  pounds  of  corn  meal  fed  to  the  small  pigs  in 
pen  9 produced  but  17.9  lbs.  of  gain  but  where,  as  with  pen 

11,  one  half  of  the  corn  meal  is  replaced  by  shorts  one  hun- 
dred pounds  of  this  mixture  produced  24.9  lbs.  of  gain,  a dif- 
ference of  7 lbs.  in  favor  of  the  mixed  diet.  Where  one-fifth 


120 


of  the  ration  otherwise  composed  of  equal  parts  of  corn  and 
shorts  consists  of  oil  meal  the  gain  per  hundred  pounds  of 
the  mixture  consumed  was  27.1  lbs.  or  2.2  lbs.  of  gain  in 
excess  of  that  of  corn  and  shorts  and  9.2  lbs.  more  gain  for 
each  hundred  pounds  of  the  mixture  than  was  produced 
from  a hundred  pounds,  of  corn  meal  alone. 

Where  barley  formed  the  basis  of  the  ration  the  advan- 
tages of  adding  shorts  or  shorts  and  oil  meal  to  the  single 
grain  feed  are  not  so  apparent.  One  hundred  pounds  of  bar- 
ley meal  gave  in  pen  10  a gain  of  21.4  lbs.,  one  hundred 
pounds  of  barley  andshorts  in  pen  12  a gain  of  26.2  lbs.  and 
barley  and  shorts  with  a fifth  part  of  oil  meal  gave  in  pen 
14  a gain  of  28  lbs.  per  hundred  pounds  of  feed  consumed. 

Comparing  now  barley  either  alone  or  mixed  with  other 
feeds  with  corn  in  the  same  situation  it  is  to  be  noted  that 
while  the  gain  in  pen  10  fed  exclusively  on  barley  was  in  the 
proportion  of  21.4  lbs,  for  each  hundred  pounds  of  barley 
consumed,  that  of  pen  9 fed  on  corn  meal  was  17.9  lbs.  of 
gain  for  each  hundred  pounds  of  food  consumed,  a difference 
of  3.5  lbs.  of  gain  per  hundred  of  feed  in  favor  of  barley. 
Where  shorts  was  fed  with  the  barley  and  corn  there  is  a 
difference  of  but  1.3  lbs.  of  gain  per  hundred  weight  of  feed 
consumed  in  favor  of  barley  and  where  oil  meal  was  added 
in  the  proportions  indicated  this  difference  is  reduced  to  .9  of 
a pound. 

Two  points  are  thus  clearly  indicated  by  the  results  of  this 
period  of  the  experiment.  To  make  rapid  growth  with  young 
pigs  a mixed  diet  is  essential.  This  mixture  or  variety  of 
foods  may  be  obtained  either  by  turning  the  young  pigs  out 
to  pasture  or  if  confinement  is  necessary  by  feeding  more  than 
one  kind  of  grain.  The  addition  of  oil  meal  seemed  to  slight- 
ly increase  the  total  gain  during  this  early  period  of  their 
growth  and  gave  the  pigs  a glossiness  of  coat  and  general 
air  of  thriftiness  not  possessed  by  the  other  pens.  These  in- 
creased gains  made  by  the  pigs  having  a mixed  diet  were  put 
on  with  a noticeably  less  proportion  of  food  consumption. 
This  was  undoubtedly  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  these  pigs 
had  a better  appetite  and  consumed  a greater  amount  of 
food  than  the  pigs  having  the  corn  or  barley  alone.  For, 


121 


since  a certain  amount  of  food  must  be  consumed  in  main- 
taining the  life  of  the  animal,  supporting  the  vital  functions 
and  replacing  the  tissues  necessarily  worn  out,  the  more  an 
animal  can  be  induced  to  eat  and  digest  the  greater  will  be 
the  surplus  available  for  building  up  new  tissues  or  layingon 
fat. 

In  this  experiment  barley  seems  to  have  been  more  valuable 
pound  for  pound  than  corn  in  growing  these  young  pigs. 
Fed  alone  one  hundred  pounds  of  barley  produced  3.5  lbs. 
more  of  gain  than  one  hundred  pounds  of  corn,  and  even 
when  mixed  with  either  shorts  alone  or  shorts  and  oil  meal  a 
slight  advantage  seems  to  lie  on  the  side  of  barley. 

PERIOD  II. 

In  the  following  table  is  given  for  the  second  period  of  five 
weeks  statistics  similar  to  those  recorded  in  table  one  for  the 
first  period. 

TABLE  II. 


PERIOD  II. — FIVE  WEEKS. 


Pens — 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

Corn 

Barley 

Com  and 
shorts 

Barley  and 
shorts 

2-5  corn,  2-5 
shorts,  1-5 
oil  meal .... 

2-5  barley, 
2-5  shorts, 
1-5  oil  meal 

Average  weight  September  2 

71. 

75.2 

84.7 

82. 

89.3 

81.3 

“ “ October  7 

85.4 

112.4 

125.8 

122.5 

129.3 

119.3 

Average  gain 

14.4 

37.2 

41.1 

40.5 

40. 

38. 

Total  weight  September  2 

355. 

376. 

508. 

492. 

536. 

488. 

“ “ October  7 

437. 

562. 

755. 

735. 

776. 

716. 

Total  gain  

82. 

186. 

247. 

243. 

240. 

228. 

Food  consumed 

538. 

872. 

1131. 

1062. 

1158. 

1080. 

Lbs.  gain  for  each  100  lbs.  of  feed  

15.2 

21.3 

21.8 

22.8 

20.7 

22. 

A comparison  of  the  two  tables  shows  that  with  the  single 
exception  of  pen  9 each  pen  shows  a greater  average  gain  per 
pig  and  a greater  aggregate  gain  in  the  second  period  than 
in  the  first.  In  the  case  of  pen  9 the  appetite  of  the  pigs 
owing  to  the  confinement  of  the  diet  to  the  single  very  im- 
perfect food,  Indian  corn,  was  very  irregular  and  the  gain 
was  unsatisfactory.  With  barley  on  the  other  hand  the 
appetite  was  noticeably  better  and  the  average  gain  nearly 
as  great  as  in  the  pens  which  received  a mixed  diet.  The 


122 


superiority  of  barley  over  corn  as  a food  for  young  pigs  is 
evidenced  by  the  behavior  of  these  two  pens,  9 and  10,  in 
both  feeding  periods. 

As  in  the  former  period,  when  mixed  with  shorts,  barley 
seems  to  be  more  effective  with  these  pigs  than  corn  in  a 
similar  mixture.  As  was  to  be  expected,  since  older  animals 
are  never  able  to  show  as  great  gain  in  proportion  to  food 
consumed  as  younger  ones,  the  gain  for  each  hundred  pounds 
of  feed  is  less  with  each  pen  in  this  period  than  in  the  former 
one,  but  here  also  the  advantage  lies  with  the  barley.  Pen 

10  showed  in  the  second  period  a gain  of  21.3  lbs.  for  each 
hundred  pounds  of  food  consumed,  in  period  one  a gain  of 
21.4  lbs.  for  each  hundred  pounds  of  barley,  the  decrease  for 
this  pen  being  less  than  for  any  other. 

When  fed  as  the  exclusive  feed,  one  hundred  pounds  of 
barley  produced  6.1  lbs.  more  gain  than  one  hundred  pounds 
of  corn;  when  mixed  with  shorts  one  hundred  pounds  of  the 
mixture  gave  a gain  greater  by  one  pound  than  corn  and 
shorts  and  when  oil  meal  was  added  to  each  mixture  the  dif- 
ference in  gain  in  favor  of  barley  was  1.3  lbs.  The  pens  11 
and  13,  however;  in  both  periods  made  a slightly  larger  gain 
than  did  pens  12  and  14  but  consumed  also  more  feed.  The 
addition  of  oil  meal  to  the  ration,  seemed  in  this  period  to 
lessen  rather  than  increase  its  effectiveness.  The  total  gains 
were  slightly  less  with  the  pigs  to  which  the  oil  meal  was 
given  and  the  amount  consumed  was  slightly  greater.  As 
the  average  weight  of  the  pigs  was  at  this  time  not  far  from 
100  pounds  the  indications  of  this  one  experiment  are  that 

011  meal  is  more  valuable  with  pigs  under  this  weight  than 
with  larger  ones.  Oil  meal  is  a food  for  which  pigs  have  not 
the  craving  which  is  essential  to  make  its  use  in  fattening 
swine  profitable. 

The  appetite  of  the  pigs  in  pen  9 was  very  irregular  and 
they  could  be  induced  to  eat  but  little  more  than  enough  to 
sustain  life,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  they  had  condi- 
mental  food,  ashes,  charcoal  and  salt,  in  abundance.  Where 
however,  the  corn  is  mixed  with  shorts  or  with  shorts  and 
oil  meal  the  pigs  ate  considerably  more  of  it  than  they  did  of 
similar  mixtures  of  barley.  They  made  correspondingly 


123 


larger  gains  and  at  no  greater  proportional  expense  of  food 
consumption. 

PERIOD  III. 

At  the  close  of  the  second  period  the  pigs  had  attained  an 
average  weight  of  120  pounds  and  the  fattening  period 
proper  began.  One  pig  was  taken  from  each  pen  and  the 
same  system  of  feeding  was  carried  on  with  the  remaining 
ones  during  a period  of  four  weeks  ending  November  4th. 
The  results  for  this  period  are  given  in  table  hi. 

TABLE  III. 


PERIOD  III.— FOUR  WEEKS. 


Pens — 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

Corn 

1 

: 

Barley 

Corn  and 
shorts 

Barley  and 
shorts 

2-5  com,  2-5 
shorts,  1-5 
oil  meal 

2-5  barley, 
2-5  shorts, 
1-5  oil  meal 

Average  weight  October  7 

88.5 

117.5 

129. 

125. 

139.2 

123.8 

“ “ November  4 

98.7 

138. 

160. 

149. 

169. 

158. 

Average  gain  4 weeks 

10.2 

20.5 

31. 

24. 

29.8 

20.2 

Total  weight  October  7 

354. 

470. 

645. 

625. 

696. 

639. 

“ “ November  4 

395. 

552. 

800. 

745. 

845. 

740. 

Total  gain 

41. 

82. 

155. 

120. 

149. 

101. 

Feed  consumed 

328.5 

525.5 

893. 

821.5 

924.5 

853. 

Lbs.  gain  for  each  100  lbs.  of  feed  

12.4 

15.6 

17.4 

14.6 

16.1 

11.9 

It  is  to  be  noted  in  the  first  place  that  the  pens  to  which 
oil  meal  was  fed  gave  a less  return  for  each  hundred  pounds 
of  feed  consumed  than  did  the  corresponding  pens  fed  corn 
and  shorts  or  barley  and  shorts.  That  is  : pen  13  returned 
but  16.1  pounds  of  gain  for  each  100  pounds  of  feed  con- 
sumed, while  pen  11  produced  17.4,  showing  a positive  dis- 
advantage in  this  case  in  the  use  of  oil  meal.  A comparison 
of  pen  14  with  pen  12  leads  more  emphatically  to  the  same 
conclusion.  Pen  13,  however,  consumed  31.5  pounds  more 
feed  than  pen  11  and  pen  14  consumed  31.5  pounds  more 
feed  than  pen  12,  yet  the  total  gain  is  six  pounds  less  in  pen 
13  than  pen  11  and  19  pounds  less  in  pen  14  than  in  pen  12. 
The  behavior  of  the  pigs  in  this  period  goes  to  confirm  the 
results  of  the  previous  period  and  clearly  indicates  that  for 
this  lot  of  swine  oil  meal,  however  valuable  for  young  and 


124 


growing  pigs,  is  not  adapted  to  fattening  swine. 

Comparing  now  the  results  obtained  by  feeding  corn  with 
those  where  barley  was  used  we  find  that  with  the  exception 
of  pens  9 and  10  the  gain  is  greater  with  the  pens  fed  on 
corn  than  with  the  pens  fed  on  barley.  The  total  gain  of  the 
five  pigs  in  pen  11  was  155;  in  pen  12,  120.  In  the  lots  fed 
with  oil  meal  the  corn  fed  pigs  gained  149  while  those  con- 
suming barley  gained  but  101.  Moreover,  this  gain  was 
accomplished  with  a much  less  proportional  food  consump- 
tion on  the  part  of  corn  than  of  the  barley.  One  hun- 
dred pounds  of  corn  and  shorts  made  with  pen  11,  16.4  lbs. 
of  gain,  while  the  pigs  in  pen  12  gained  but  14.6  pounds  for 
each  one  hundred  pounds  of  barley  and  shorts  consumed. 
A similar  difference  of  4.2  lbs.  of  gain  per  hundred  weight  of 
feed  consumed  in  favor  of  corn  is  noticed  when  pens  13  and 
14  are  compared.  These  results  are  diametrically  opposed 
to  those  obtained  in  the  first  two  feeding  periods,  where  the 
advantage  in  every  case  lay  on  the  side  of  the  barley.  This 
leads  us  to  the  conclusion  that  barley  is  inferior  to  corn  for 
fattening  swine  while  it  will  compare  favorably  with  corn 
in  the  ration  of  young  pigs. 

*In  an  experiment  conducted  by  Prof.  W.  A.  Henry,  at  the 
Wisconsin  station,  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  value 
of  barley  in  comparison  with  corn ' for  fattening  hogs,  ten 
hogs,  fourteen  months  old  and  weighing  on  the  average  208 
pounds  each,  were  used.  They  were  divided  into  two  even 
lots  of  five  hogs  each  to  one  of  which  barley  meal  was  fed 
and  to  the  other  corn  meal.  He  found  after  continuing  the 
experiment  eight  weeks  that  it  required  8 per  cent  more  bar- 
ley meal  than  corn  meal  to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain. 
These  results  are  substantially  in  accord  with  those  obtain- 
ed in  the  third  period  of  this  experiment.  In  both  cases  the 
hogs  were  being  fed  for  fattening  and  not  for  growth,  and 
for  this  purpose  there  is  no  question  but  that  corn  is  bet- 
ter. 

In  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  Vol.  14, 
O.  S.,  page  459,  is  recorded  an  experiment  performed  by  Sir 
J.  B.  Lawes  at  Rothamstead  in  February,  1850.  He  fed  a 


*Seventh  Annual  Report  Wisconsin  Station,  pa^e  64. 


125 


pen  of  three  pigs  on  com  meal  alone  for  eight  weeks. 
The  pigs  consumed  1086  pounds  of  corn  meal  and  made  a 
gain  of  221  lbs.,  or  a return  of  20.3  lbs.  of  gain  for  each 
hundred  pounds  of  meal  consumed.  The  average  weight  of 
these  pigs  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  was  143  lbs. 

In  May  of  the  same  year  he  fed  a pen  of  three  pigs  averag- 
ing 147  lbs.  in  weight  on  barley  meal.  The  conditions  of 
this  feeding  period  were  the  same  as  those  of  the  corn  fed  lot 
in  the  February  previous,  except  that  the  weather  was  ex- 
ceedingly hot  for  several  days  during  its  progress.  These 
pigs  made  a total  gain  of  291  lbs.  consuming  1644  lbs.  of 
barley,  a gain  of  17.7  lbs.  per  hundred  lbs.  of  barley.  These 
pigs  were  also  nearly  as  mature  as  the  pigs  in  our  experi- 
ment at  the  beginning  of  the  third  period,  hence  our  results 
are  not  contradictory. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

In  order  to  exclude  the  uncertain  factor,  the  amount  of 
pasture  which  pigs  would  consume,  it  was  impossible  in  this 
experiment  to  allow  the  pigs  to  run  either  to  clover,  peas  or 
even  good  blue  grass  pasture.  The  gains  made  by  the  pigs 
even  in  the  pens  which  showed  the  best  results  are  therefore 
small.  To  make  pig  growing  profitable  the  brood  sows  and 
the  young  pigs,  all  their  lives  up  to  the  time  when  they  are 
shut  up  for  fattening,  should  have  the  run  of  a good  pasture, 
preferably  clover  or  peas  ; but  to  reach  conclusions  anything 
like  definite  in  this  experiment  we  were  obliged  to  keep  the 
pigs  closely  confined. 

(1)  When  fed  as  the  entire  ration  of  pigs  weighing  on  the 
average  52  lbs.  at  the  beginning  of  the  test,  one  hundred 
pounds  of  barley  meal  was  found  to  produce  as  great  a gain 
as  119.5  lbs.  of  corn  meal. 

(2)  When  mixed  with  shorts  in  equal  parts  and  fed  to  v 
pigs  of  the  average  weight  of  50  lbs.,  one  hundred  pounds 
of  barley  meal  and  shorts  produced  as  great  a gain  as  105.2 
lbs.  of  corn  meal  and  shorts. 

(3)  When  to  the  mixtures  with  shorts  one-fifth  part  of 
oil  meal  is  added  then  one  hundred  pounds  of  barley  meal, 
shorts  and  oil  meal  produced  as  great  a gain  as  103.3 lbs.  of 
corn  meal,  shorts  and  oil  meal. 


126 


(4)  The  older  the  pig  grows  the  more  food  it  takes  to  pro- 
duce a pound  of  gain. 

(5)  In  this  experiment  the  addition  of  oil  meal  to  the 
<1^  ration  of  either  barley  meal  and  shorts,  or  corn  meal  and 

shorts  after  the  pig  had  attained  an  average  weight  of  slight- 
ly over  a hundred  pounds,  was  deleterious. 

(6)  The  continued  use  of  corn  meal  as  the  sole  food  of 
growing  pigs  was  found  to  be  productive  of  too  great  a 
tendency  to  become  excessively  fat  without  a normal  growth 
of  bone  and  muscle  and  to  produce  unhealthy  pigs,  while  the 
use  of  barley  alone  was  not  attended  with  this  result. 

(7)  The  pigs  throughout  the  experiment  consumed  more 
corn  meal  and  shorts  than  barley  meal  and  shorts,  produced 
a greater  gain  with  the  former  than  the  latter  but,  except  in 
the  third  period,  at  a greater  expense  of  food  consumption. 

(8)  * The  same  relation  holds  good  where  oil  meal  forms  a 
fifth  part  of  the  ration. 

(9)  When  fed  to  pigs  weighing  125  pounds  or  more  one 
hundred  pounds  of  corn  meal  and  shorts  produced  as  great  a 
gain  as  119.1  of  barley  meal  and  shorts. 

(10)  When  fed  to  pigs  weighing  125  pounds  or  more  one 
hundred  pounds  of  corn  meal,  shorts  and  oil  meal,  mixed  as 
indicated,  produced  as  great  a gain  as  135.2  pounds  of  bar- 
ley meal,  shorts  and  oil  meal. 


CORN  VS.  BARLEY  FOR  FATTENING  HOGS. 


W.  M.  HAYS. 

On  the  6th  of  October,  1891,  two  groups  of  hogs,  taken 
from  a woods  pasture  where  they  had  been  kept  in  fair  grow- 
ing condition  by  some  grain  food,  were  placed  in  pens  with 
ample  yard  room  for  exercise,  and  were  fed,  one  corn  meal  and 
the  other  barley  meal,  to  compare  these  grains  for  fattening 
hogs.  In  each  group  was  a young  Essex  sow  weighing  at 
the  beginning  about  160  pounds,  one  Berkshire  sow,  one 
Berkshire  barrow,  and  two  cross  bred  Jersey  Red  Poland 
China  sows,  all  four  of  which  weighed  in  the  neighborhood 
of  three  hundred  pounds  each.  The  two  groups  were  well 
matched  as  to  breeding,  appearance,  size,  etc.  They  were  all 
in  good  condition  to  make  rapid  gains  and  the  individuals 
in  each  pen  on  the  same  ration  made  comparativel}7  uniform 
gains.  Pen  A was  fed  corn  meal  of  good  quality  and  made 
on  an  average  for  the  entire  period  of  51  days  one  pound  of 
pork  for  each  five  pounds  of  grain  eaten  or  11.2  pounds  of 
pork  for  each  bushel  of  corn.  Barley  meal  was  fed  to  pen  B, 
the  meal  simply  being  moistened  as  with  the  corn.  The  bar- 
ley used  was  from  four  small  lots  purchased  for  feeding  our 
general  stock  of  hogs.  As  the  hogs  in  pen  B showed  a de- 
cided dislike  for  one  or  two  lots  of  this  barley  the  notes  were 
so  kept  that  the  results  of  feeding  each  lot  or  quality  of  bar- 
ley could  be  shown  in  comparison.  The  barley  fed  pen  B 
during  several  days  of  preliminary  feeding  and  during  the 
first  period  of  sixteen  days,  October  6th  to  21st  inclusive, 
was  not  relished  by  the  hogs.  It  was  “off  color”  and  had  a 
slightly  musty  odor.  Duringthe  second  period  of  seven  days, 
Oct.  22nd  to  28th  inclusive,  good  barley  was  given  and  was 
eaten  with  greater  relish  by  the  hogs.  During  the  third 
period  of  fourteen  days,  Oct.  29th  to  Nov.  11th  inclusive, 
another  lot  of  barley  almost  as  poor  as  that  fed  during  the 


128 


first  period  was  given  and  with  a similar  lack  of  relish  shown 
by  the  hogs.  During  the  fourth  period  of  fifteen  days,  Nov. 
12th  to  26th  inclusive,  barley  of  good  quality  was  fed  again. 
The  accompanying  tabular  statements  gives  the  summarized 
results.  Not  forgetting  the  comparison  of  corn  with  good 
barley  special  attention  is  directed  to  the  lesser  amount  of 
barley  eaten  per  hundred  weight  of  hog  when  barley  lacking 
flavor  was  fed  as  compared  with  bright  barley  of  good  flavor; 
also  to  gains  resulting. 

CORN,  GOOD  BARLEY  AND  POOR  BARLEY  COMPARED. 


2 

W 

O 

H 

> 

> 

0 

cr 

gL& 

a 3 

0 

rt- 

P 

verage 
per  day 
head, lb 

<+o 

0 

~p 

rt-  O ^ 

0 

Crq 

CO 

? g 

SB 

W a 

P 

era 

• 05 

OKI 

h-i  ►-»  ft 

n crP 
^ o 

5’ 

: n> 

: El 

: £1 

B’ 

05  (7Q 

: P 

: n S’ 

P S 

S** 

0 

& 

c+ 

CO 

• ft  i-t 

1st  period 

Cornys. 

Pen 

A. 

5 

033. 

207. 

2 3-5 

4.5 

4. 

16 

poor 

days. 

barley. 

Pen 

B. 

5 

628.5 

77. 

1 

8.2 

2.8 

2d  period 

Corn  vs. 

Pen 

A. 

5 

451.5 

116. 

/ nearly  \ 

\ 3ya  / 

3.9 

4. 

7 

good 

days. 

barley. 

Pen 

B. 

5 

374. 

94. 

2 4-5 

4. 

3.6 

3d  period 

Corn  vs. 

Pen 

A. 

5 

829.5 

170. 

2 3-7 

4.9 

3.2 

14 

poor 

days. 

barley. 

Pen 

B. 

5 

507.5 

33. 

y2 

15.4 

2.3 

4th  period 

Corn  vs. 

Pen 

A. 

5 

935. 

135 

1 4-5 

6.9 

3.4 

14 

days. 

good 

barley. 

Pen 

B. 

5 

784. 

101 

/ nearly  \ 
l 12-5/ 

7.8 

3.4 

SUMMARIZED  AVERAGE  RESULTS. 


Wt.  at  begin- 
ning of  1st 
period 

j Wt.  at  end  of 
j 4th  period.. 

4 Corn  to  1 lb. 
gain  for  the 
whole  time. 

Barley  to  lib. 
gain  for  the 
whole  time. 

Good  barley 
to  lib.  gain 

Poor  barley 
to  11b.  gain 

Pen  A 

1362 

1364 

1990 

1669 

5. 

7.5 

5.9 

10.3 

Pen  B 

The  comparison  of  corn  and  good  barley  was  hardly  fair 
at  any  time.  The  fact  that  good  bright  malting  barley  is  of 
more  feeding  value  than  that  considerably  “off”  color  and 
flavor  is  certainly  here  illustrated. 


CORN  MEAL,  BARLEY  MEAL  AND  A MIXTURE  OF 
9-10  BARLEY  MEAL  AND  1-10  OIL  MEAL 
COMPARED. 

W.  M.  HAYS. 

June  22nd  to  July  21st  inclusive,  1891,  five  groups  of  hogs 
were  fed  to  compare  corn,  barley  and  a ration  of  9-10  barley 
and  1-10  old  process  linseed  oil  meal.  Groups  A and  B were 
made  up  of  a lot  of  shoats  of  mixed  breeding  farrowed  the 
fall  previous.  Each  of  these  two  groups  contained  two  sows 
and  one  barrow  % Jersey  Red  and  14  Poland  China;  one  sow 
and  one  barrow  % Berkshire,  14  Jersey  Red  and  14  Poland 
China;  and  three  14  Jersey  Red  and  14  Essex,  in  all  eight,  and 
so  divided  that  each  pen  was  of  the  same  weight  and  other- 
wise well  mated.  Groups  C,  D and  E each  had  one  yearling 
full  blood  Berkshire  sow  of  the  family  known  on  the  station 
farm  as  Bell,  one  of  the  Nora  family  and  one  of  the  Hipple- 
waith  family,  making  three  hogs  in  each  pen,  the  groups 
being  well  proportioned.  To  pen  C corn  was  given  thesame 
as  to  pen  A;  pen  D was  fed  barley  the  same  as  B and  pen  E 
was  fed  a ration  of  9-10  barley  and  1-10  oil  meal.  The  meal 
for  all  groups  was  mixed  with  only  enough  water  to  moisten 
it  without  making  the  mixture  sloppy!  The  feed  for  morn- 
ing was  mixed  in  the  evening  and  noon  and  evening  feeds 
were  mixed  in  the  morning,  thus  always  insuring  that  the 
meal  was  not  sour.  The  hogs  were  all  given  access  to  salt, 
sulphur  and  charcoal  mixed  together  in  boxes.  They  were  all 
similarly  situated  as  to  shade,  small  yard  to  exercise  in, 
water  adlibitum,  etc.  The  desire  for  green  feed  at  this  time 
of  year  so  strongly  manifested  itself  that,  on  July  2nd  the 
feeding  of  mixed  oats  and  peas,  nearing  the  flowering  stage 
was  begun  and  continued  to  the  end.  For  six  days  pens  A 
and  B were  given  eight  pounds  daily  of  this  green  stuff  and 
pens  C,  D and  E were  given  five  pounds  each.  On  July  7th 


130 


the  allowance  of  green  peas  and  oats  to  pens  A and  B was 
increased  to  13  pounds  daily  and  without  farther  change  the 
feeding  was  thus  continued  to  the  end.  Each  group  was  fed 
all  the  meal  it  was  found  safe  to  give  and  avoid  overfeeding. 
The  following  tabular  statement  shows  the  general  result: 

CORN  MEAL,  BARLEY  MEAL  AND  9-10  BARLEY  1-10  OIL  MEAL 

COMPARED. 


Pen. 

Pounds  grain 
fed 

Pounds  green 
peas  & oats 
fed 

Average  gain 
per  day  and 
head 

Pounds  grain 
to  1 lb.  gain  .. 

Total  gain 

Pounds  grain 
eaten  per  day 
per  100  lbs. 
live  weight... 

A 

Corn  meal 

1277.5 

259 

1.14 

4.7 

273.3 

4 

B 

Barley  meal.. 

1274. 

159 

1.04 

5.08 

250.8 

4. 

C 

Corn  meal 

675. 

100 

1.15 

6.3 

106.6 

3.4 

D 

Barley  meal.. 

868. 

100 

1.06 

5.8 

149.2 

4. 

/9-10  barley. 

811.8 

100 

1.07 

5.6 

106. 

4.2 

E 

\1-10  oil  meal 

90.2 

With  pens  A and  B considerable  less  corn  than  barley  was 
consumed  to  make  a pound  of  pork  while  in  pens  C and  Dthe 
result  is  reversed.  The  addition  of  1-10  of  oil  meal  to  the 
barley  given  in  pen  E made  only  a slight  decrease  in  the 
pounds  of  grain  needed  to  make  a pound  of  gain. 


WET  VS.  DRY  FEED. 


CLINTON  D.  SMITH. 

The  object  of  this  experiment  was  to  aid  in  determining 
whether  a ration  composed  of  two  parts  corn  meal,  two 
parts  shorts  and  one  part  old  process  oil  meal  would  pro- 
duce when  fed  dry,  greater  or  less  gain  than  when  mixed 
with  sufficient  water  to  form  a thick  slop.  Incidentally  a 
study  was  made  of  the  value  of  charcoal. 

Twelve  pigs  were  selected  for  this  experiment,  six  from  a 
litter  whose  dam  was  a half  Duroc  and  half  Yorkshire  sow, 
the  sire  an  Essex  boar.  These  pigs  were  either  black-  or 
white  and  were  farrowed  June  11,  1891.  The  litter  from 
which  the  other  six  pigs  were  selected  was  farrowed  June 
7th  by  a Duroc  Jersey  sow,  the  sire  being  a recorded  Berk- 
shire. These  pigs  were  all  red. 

On  the  first  day  of  August  these  twelve  pigs  were  divided 
into  four  groups  of  three  each  and  a preliminary  feeding 
period  of  one  week  began.  The  average  weight  of  the  pigs 
at  that  time  was  28 V2  pounds.  At  the  close  of  the  week, 
August  8,  it  was  found  that  the  gains  of  the  pigs  had  not 
been  uniform  but  it  was  decided  to  carry  forward  the  experi- 
ment with  the  pigs  arranged  as  they  were,  due  care  having 
been  taken  at  the  outset  to  have  the  pens  as  evenly  matched 
as  to  thriftiness,  weight  and  breeding  as  possible.  The  pigs 
were  accordingly  re- weighed  August  8th  and  the  experiment 
proper  began.  Pens  I and  IV  received  their  feed  mixed  into  a 
thick  slop  with  cold  water,  pens  II  and  III  were  fed  the  same 
kind  of  food  but  dry.  The  feed  for  all  pens  was  a mixture  by 
weight  of  two  parts  corn  meal,  two  parts  shorts  and  one 
part  old  process  oil  meal.  Each  lot  was  fed  in  a small  pen 
with  a large  yard  adjacent  giving  the  pigs  the  necessary  ex- 
ercise. Pens  I and  II  were  fed  all  the  charcoal  they  would 
eat  while  pens  III  and  IV  had  none.  The  results  of  the  trial 
which  extended  over  a period  of  sixteen  weeks  ending  Novem- 
ber 28th  are  recorded  in  the  following  table : 


Feed  Wet.  I Feed  Dry 


132 


Black  Sow 

to  to  # tq  ^ 00 
00*  05  6 0)  CO  u h 
ttC*O<0C0  OM 
fl 
rH 

Bl’k  Barrow.. 

26 

95 

69 

none 

Red  Sow 

36.5 
136. 

99.5 

none 

Bl’k  Barrow.. 

24.5 
91. 

66.5 
249. 

1140.5 

none 

21.8 

Red  Barrow.. 

32.5 
124. 

91.5 

none 

Red  Sow 

41.5 

132.5 

91. 

none 

Red  Sow 

to  .tq to  . .CO 
d h*  to  to  o d 

CO  05 00  00  01 
H (NO 
H 

• 

Bl’k  Barrow.. 

20.5 
86. 

65.5 

Black  Sow 

30.5 
119. 

88.5 

Red  Barrow.. 

to  to  to  <n 

co*  oo  to  co  o <n 

Tf  t>  CONOCO  N 
ri  H CO  10 
H 

Red  Sow 

36. 

147. 

111. 

Black  Bar- 
row  

21.5 

118.5 

97. 

§9 

3 c 
+>+> 


ftrd  s,o 

(U  <U-H 

°at3o 

.gS^S 

g,ogfc 

'ft 


•s-s’-S-S'S  «j.S 


133 


The  greatest  gain  made  by  any  pen  was  346  lbs.,  made  by 
pen  I,  which  consumed  1500.5  lbs.  of  feed.  This  was  again  of 
22.2  lbs.  for  each  hundred  pounds  of  food  consumed.  Pen  II 
consumed  but  1085  lbs.  of  feed  and  made  a gain  of  245.5 
lbs.  or  at  the  slightly  better  rate  of  22.6  lbs.  of  gain  for  each 
hundred  pounds  of  grain  eaten.  Pen  II  consumed  80  pounds 
of  charcoal,  25  per  cent,  more  than  the  amount  eaten  by  pen 
I.  Whether  this  was  due  to  the  feed  being  given  dry  to  pen  II 
and  wet  to  pen  I there  was  nothing  in  the  behavior  of  the 
pigs  to  indicate.  Looking  at  the  economy  of  food  consump- 
tion alone  no  great  advantage  seems  to  lie  with  either 
method  of  food  preparation;  but,  when  we  consider  that 
the  one  pen  converted  50  per  cent,  more  feed  than  the  other 
into  pork  in  the  same  length  of  time  and  equally  as  economi- 
cally, if  there  is  any  profit  in  feeding  the  grain  at  all  the 
aggregateprofit  of  one  pen  must  be  50  per  cent,  greater  than 
that  of  the  other. 

Pen  III  received  no  charcoal  and  was  fed  dry  feed.  Of  this 
these  three  pigs  consumed  1140.5  lbs.  and  made  a gain  of 
249  lbs.  Pen  IV  received  no  charcoal  but  the  feed  was  fed  in 
the  form  of  a thick  slop.  The  pigs  in  this  pen  made  a gain 
of  269  lbs.  from  1233.5  lbs.  of  feed.  The  rate  of  gain  in  pro- 
portion to  food  consumed  is  identical  with  that  of  pen  III, 
with  which  it  is  comparable.  As  in  the  case  of  the  other  two 
pens  the  pigs  receiving  the  feed  wet  ate  more  of  it  and  made 
a correspondingly  larger  gain.  Judging  from  the  behavior 
of  the  pigs  in  these  four  pens  it  may  be  safe  to  conclude  that 
for  the  ordinary  farmer  who  desires  his  pigs  to  grow  as 
rapidly  as  possible  it  is  an  advantage  to  feed  the  food  wet 
rather  than  dry. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  pens  fed  charcoal  produced  22.2 
and  22.6  pounds  of  gain  for  each  hundred  pounds  of  food 
consumed  while  the  pens  without  charcoal  produced  but 
21.8  pounds  a difference  of  .6  of  a pound  in  favor  of  the  pens 
receiving  the  charcoal. 

The  two  pens  receiving  charcoal  taken  together  made  a 
gain  greater  by  70.5  pounds  than  the  pens  receiving  none 
and  consumed  but  211.5  pounds  more  feed,  showing  a dis- 
tinct benefit  from  the  use  of  the  charcoal. 


134 


A point  of  importance  as  to  its  bearing  on  the  experiment 
as  a whole  is  the  difference  in  gain  made  by  the  individual 
pigs  in  each  pen.  While  fed  and  treated  in  every  way  the 
same,  the  six  red  pigs  gained  619.5  pounds  and  the  six  black 
ones  487  pounds,  a difference  of  132.5  pounds  or  more  than 
one  third  of  the  entire  gain  of  the  black  pigs.  Unfortunately 
the  amount  eaten  by  each  pig  was  not  separately  kept  and 
we  can  only  presume  that  the  red  pigs  ate  proportionately 
more  feed  than  the  black  ones.  However  this  may  be  it  is 
evident  that  the  profit  in  swine  feeding  depends  largely  upon 
the  quality  of  the  hogs  selected  to  feed.  Individuality  plays 
too,  an  important  part  in  all  feeding  experiments. 

A German  writer  in  the  Milch-Zeitung,  page  421,  May  30th, 
1888,  has  this  to  say  in  regard  to  feeding  meal  dry  or  wet: 
“Though,  it  is  true  that  the  two  methods  of  feeding  meal, 
dry  and  mixed  directly  in  the  drinking  water  of  swine,  ob- 
tain, it  may  be  said  that  the  last  method  though  the  more 
common  is  the  least  practical.  It  should  be  remembered  al- 
so that  the  hog  has  a very  simple  digestive  apparatus  and 
that  in  his  voracity  he  gulps  down  without  chewing  what- 
ever he  can  thus  swallow.  Chewing,  that  is  the  mixing  of 
the  dry  food  with  the  saliva,  is  the  first  act  of  digestion.  If 
now  the  meal  is  put  directly  in  the  drinking  water,  the  hog 
gulps  it  down  without  mixing  with  it  any  appreciable 
quantity  of  saliva.  Digestion  which  is  the  abstraction  of 
the  valuable  ingredients  from  the  food  is  thereby  decidedly 
lessened  and  the  food  materials  passthrough  the  alimentary 
canal  unutilized.  But  if  the  meal  is  given  dry  the  hog  can 
not  swallow  it  without  mixing  saliva  with  it.” 

“Dr.  Bruemmer,  director  of  the  agricultural  school  in 
Kappeln,  (Schleswig-Holstein)  has  concluded  from  his  ex- 
periments that  cracked  and  whole  grain  are  better  digested 
and  more  effective  on  account  of  a more  thorough  mixture 
with  saliva  taking  place  before  swallowing.  Unfortunately 
the  record  of  his  experiments  are  trot  at  hand.” 

“I  have  for  several  years  fed  meal  dry,  using  two  troughs 
in  the  pig  pen  so  that  the  pigs  could  get  the  meal  from  one 
trough  and  drink  from  the  other  and  I have  been  very  well 
satisfied  with  the  result.” 


135 


On  page  83  of  the  fourth  annual  report  of  the  Wisconsin 
station  Professor  Henry  urges  the  farmers  to  “try  giving 
corn  meal,  shorts,  bran  or  barley  meal  dry  in  troughs  sup- 
plying plenty  of  water  of  course/ ’ In  the  year  following  he 
performed  some  experiments  to  more  thoroughly  test  this 
question.  He  took  six  hogs  and  divided  them  into  lots  of 
three  each.  The  three  hogs  of  one  lot  weighed  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  experiment  343.5  lbs.  and  of  the  other  lot  346 
lbs.  Both  lots  were  supplied  with  water  in  a separate 
trough.  The  ration  consisting  of  equal  parts  of  corn  meal 
and  shorts  was  fed  dry  to  one  lot  and  wet  with  cold  water 
to  the  other.  After  feeding  for  34  days  the  lots  were  re- 
versed and  after  a preliminary  feeding  of  a week  the  experi- 
ment was  repeated  placing  each  hog  on  both  sides  of  the 
trial.  A duplicate  trial  was  being  conducted  with  four 
other  hogs  with  a ration  of  two  parts  corn  meal  and  one 
part  shorts  fed  dry  to  two  of  the  hogs  and  wet  to  the  other 
two.  The  tables  below  show  the  result  of  the  trials: 


FIRST  EXPERIMENT— THREE  HOGS  ON  EACH  SIDE.  EACH  PERIOD 

34  DAYS. 


Wet  Feed. 

Dry  Feed. 

Weight  at  be- 
ginning  

joain 

Feed  Eaten  ... 

• 

| Weight  at  be- 
ginning   

Gain 

Feed  Eaten  ... 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

First  Period,  Lot  1 

346 

165 

622 

Lot  II 

343 

127 

570 

Second  Period,  Lot  2.. 

504 

172 

739 

Lot  I 

512 

128 

658 

337 

1,361 

255 

1,228 

SECOND  EXPERIMENT— TWO  HOGS  ON  EACH  SIDE.  EACH  PERIOD 

34  DAYS. 


First  Period,  Lot  1 

343 

111 

508 

Lot  II 

331 

63 

472 

Second  Period,  Lot  2.. 

448 

109 

532 

Lot  I 

467 

98 

511 

220 

1,040 

161 

983 

In  this  experiment  by  Professor  Henry  the  pigs,  where  the 
feed  was  wet,  ate  more  of  it  than  where  dry,  made  a larger 


136 


gain  and  a less  relative  consumption  of  food.  One  hundred 
pounds  of  the  corn  and  shorts  produced  a gain  of  24.8 
pounds  when  fed  wet  and  but  20.7  pounds  when  fed  dry. 
The  results  of  our  experiment  are  not  in  accord  with  the  re- 
sults here  given  in  this  one  respect.  Although  our  pigs  ate 
more  of  the  wet  feed  than  of  the  dry,  they  made  no  greater 
gain  on  the  same  quantity  of  feed  in  one  case  than  in  the 
other.  While  it  is  true  as  a general  rule  that  the  more  feed 
an  animal  can  be  induced  to  eat  and  digest  the  greater  is  the 
profit  from  feeding  and  the  greater  gain  made  by  the  animal, 
the  statement  above  cited  from  the  German  writer  is  entitled 
to  some  weight.  The  difference  between  the  amount  which 
an  animal  can  be  induced  to  eat  and  the  amount  required  to 
maintain  his  existence  is  at  the  best  but  very  small  and  is  a 
very  small  per  cent  of  the  total  amount  eaten.  While  the  ra- 
tion of  maintenance  is  an  indefinite  quantity  the  results  of  our 
experiment  seem  to  indicate  that  a greater  proportion  of  the 
feed  was  actually  digested  and  assimilated  when  fed  dry 
than  when  fed  wet.  To  the  practical  pig  feeder,  however, 
who  is  anxious  to  make  with  his  hogs  the  greatest  gain  in 
the  shortest  possible  time  this  advantage  is  completely  over- 
balanced by  the  other  consideration  that  the  hogs  take  more 
kindly  to  the  wet  feed  and  make  with  it  the  greatest  gains 
in  a given  time. 

When  pigs  are  shut  up  in  close  quarters  some  food,  perhaps 
condimental  in  its  nature  like  charcoal  or  mixtures  of  char- 
coal, ashes,  salt  and  other  ingredients  is  highly  relished  by 
them  and  as  our  figures  show  is  a source  of  profit  to  the 
farmer. 


University  of  Minnesota. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  No.  23. 


SEPTEMBER,  1892. 


WHEAT. 

I. — MILLING  AND  KAKING  TESTS.  II. — CO-OPERATIVE  TESTS 

WITH  SELECTED  SEED  WHEAT. 

III. — THE  FRIT  FLY — PRELIMINARY  REPORT  UPON  AN  INSECT 
INJURIOUS  TO  WHEAT. 


The  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the 
State  who  make  application  for  them. 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK,  RAMSEY  CO., 

MINNESOTA. 


University  of  Minnesota 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis, 1896 . 

The  HON.  GREENEEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - - 1894 . 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - 1894 . 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  Alexandria, 1896. 

The  HON.  JOEL  P.  HEATWOLE,  Northfield,  ....  1896 . 

The  HON.  0.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth,  -------  1896. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson,  -----  1896. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  EMERY,  Lake  City,  ------  1895. 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  Minneapolis,  - 1 895. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  R.  MERRIAM,  St.  Paul,  - - - Ex-Officio. 

The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  DAVID  L.  KIEHLE,  M.  A..  St.  Paul,  - - - Ex-Officio . 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHROP,  LL.  D.,  Minneapolis,  - Ex-Officio . 

The  President  of  the  University. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  EMERY. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION: 

CLINTON  D.  SMITH,  M.  S.,  - - -----  Director* 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S.,  - - Horticulturist. 

OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  - Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S., Chemist. 

T.  L.  H DECKER, Dairying. 

CHRISTOPHER  GRAHAM,  - Veterinarian. 

J.  A.  VYE, - Secretary. 


WHEAT. 


MILLING  AND  BAKING  TESTS. 


D.  N.  HARPER. 

Twenty-five  bushels  of  each  of  the  following  varieties  of 
wheat  were  milled : 

Test  weight  as  milled. 

1.  Pure  Scotch  Fife 63.5  lbs. 

2.  Pure  Blue  Stem 59 

3.  Pure  Ladoga 57 

4.  Scotch  Fife 61.25 

5.  Scotch  Fife  slightly  bleached 60 

6.  Scotch  Fife  slightly  frosted  58.5 

7.  Scotch  Fife  badly  frosted  v 58  “ 

8.  Scotch  Fife  badly  bleached 57.25  “ 

All  of  the  wheats  were  grown  upon  average  Red  River  valley 
soil  near  Hallock.  Numbers  4,  5,  6 and  7 were  from  the  same 
farm  and  grown  from  the  same  seed,  any  differences  were  the 
effects  of  bleaching  or  frost.  The  Ladoga  was  the  poorest 
appearing  wheat,  smutty,  and  in  a characteristic  shrunken 
condition.  The  slightly  frosted  wheat  was  of  the  kind  com- 
monly called  “brae'’  frosted,  and  the  badly  frosted  had 
green  grains,  and  all  were  shrunken. 

The  pure  Scotch  Fife  was  not  in  perfect  milling  condition, 
as  it  was  a little  too  hard,  and  should  have  been  steamed  be- 
fore milling ; it  broke  flinty  and  the  shorts  contained  more 
granules  of  the  heart  of  the  wheat  than  it  should  have  con- 
tained. The  Ladoga  was  in  the  best  condition  for  milling, 
the  Blue  Stem  next.  No.  4 [Scotch  Fife]  had  been  threshed 
while  wet,  and  had  been  dried  out  on  the  floor  of  the  gran- 
ary and  was  not  in  perfect  condition  on  that  account.  The 
bleached  and  frosted  wheats  were  in  good  condition  except 
for  the  characteristics  mentioned. 

The  mill  used  was  a Norman  & Nordyke  short  system,  be- 
longing to  Russell  & Hughs  of  Hallock.  The  daily  capacity 
of  the  mill  was  fifty  barrels.  In  the  mill  two  reductions  are 
made  on  the  wheat,  and  four  smooth  roll  reductions  on  the 


142 


middlings.  The  bolting  and  purifying  system  comprises  one 
purifier  and  aspirator,  four  scalpers,  four  interelevator  rolls 
and  one  bran  duster. 

The  Ladoga  milled  the  most  easily,  the  bran  cleaned  the 
best,  the  middlings  purified  best  and  came  out  in  the  best 
form.  Pure  Scotch  Fife  came  second  as  to  mechanical  loss  of 
milling  and  then  the  Fife  No.  4 and  Blue  Stem.  The  bleached 
wheats  milled  well  but  did  not  finish  well.  The  frosted 
wheats  milled  badly,  the  bran  was  brittle,  pulverized  easily 
and  could  not  be  cleaned  up  well;  the  middlings  were  corres- 
pondingly dark  and  hard  to  reduce  and  purify. 

In  milling,  the  conditions  were  kept  as  nearly  uniform  in  all 
cases  as  possible,  and  the  yields  of  the  various  flours,  and 
other  products  are  strictly  comparable.  In  the  following 
table  the  number  of  pounds  of  flour  returned  as  well  as  of  all 
other  products  are  given,  together  with  the  total  number  of 
pounds  of  wheat  run  through,  exclusive  of  screenings,  and 
the  total  number  of  pounds  recovered  from  the  mill. 

POUNDS  OF  WHEAT  MILLED  AND  RETURNED. 


a 

0 

FLOURS. 

OFFALS. 

TOTALS. 

Per  cent 

Loss — , Gain  x 

0 

U) 

p 

3 

a 

Kind  of  Sample. 

p 

?? 

3 

rt- 

Straight.. 

Four  X.... 

Bran 

Shorts 

Germ 

From  mill 

Wheat  run 
through... 

1 

Pure  Scotch  Fife... 

339 

544i/2 

96.5 

192 

25 

121.5 

i3isy2 

1341 

-1.83 

2 

Pure  Blue  Stem.... 

335y2 

690.5 

67 

232 

33.5 

74 

1432y2 

1460 

-1.91 

3 

Pure  Ladoga 

290.5 

504 

62 

210 

26 

77y2 

1170 

1249 

-6.35 

4 

Scotch  Fife 

321 

62614 

15 

263 

138 

88.5 

1452 

1457y2 

-1.39 

5 

Scotch  Fife 
slightly  bleached 

317 

651 

38 

226 

151 

75 

1458 

145614 

x .10 

6 

Scotch  Fite 
slightly  frosted .. 

302 

559.5 

64 

252y2 

220.5 

108.5 

1507 

1437 

x4.87 

7 

Scotch  Fife 

badly  frosted .... 

198 

507 

131 

234 

36 

139.5 

1245.5 

1434 

-13.2 

8 

Scotch  Fife  badly 
bleached 

301 

628 

35 

248 

125 

52 

1389 

1453y2 

-4.43 

These  results  when  expressed  in  percentages  for  the  pur- 
pose of  affording  a more  uniform  basis  of  comparison,  are 
tabulated  below.  In  the  first  row  of  figures  opposite  each 
kind  of  wheat  the  per  cent,  of  each  milled  product  is  given, 
based  upon  the  amount  of  all  returned  from  the  process  ; in 
the  second  row  is  given  the  per  cent,  returned  based  upon 
the  amount  put  into  the  hopper  exclusive  of  the  amount  of 
screenings. 


143 


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Tljese  results  when  expressed  in  percentages,  taking  as  a 
basis  the  result  of  the  largest  amount  of  flour  received  in 
each  case  as  100,  will  stand  in  the  following  relation  to  each 


other  for  the  flours  : 

Pure  Scotch  Fife  

Pure  Blue  Stem  

Pure  Ladoga 

Scotch  Fife 

Scotch  Fife  bleached  

Scotch  Fife  badly  bleached 
Scotch  Fife  badly  frosted.... 
Scotch  Fife  slightly  frosted 


Patent. 

100. 

91.09 

96.58 
85.99 

84.59 
84.29 
61.80 
77.94 


Straight. 

85.66 

100. 

89.38 

89.50 

92.57 

93.82 

84.56 

77.24 


Four  X 
69.77 
44.39 
50.38 
9.98 
25.76 
23.95 
100. 
40.49 


Total. 

97.44 

100.00 

95.96 

86.91 

90.42 

90.98 

87.98 
80.51 


The  amounts  of  wheat  taken  for  the  tests  were  nearly  the 
same  in  all  cases,  and  the  lengths  of  time  required  for  milling 
as  given  in  the  table  are  comparable. 

As  to  the  character  of  the  flour  the  pure  Scotch  Fife  had 
the  best  feel  and  appearance ; the  Ladoga  the  worst,  and 
the  others  range,  after  the  Scotch  Fife,  in  this  order:  Blue 
Stem,  No.  4,  badly  bleached,  slightly  bleached  and  frost- 
ed. These  last  have  a weak,  sticky  feel  and  a greyish  caste. 
The  bleached  flours  are  weak  and  very  white.  The  Ladoga 
has  a very  peculiar  saffron  color,  quite  different  from  any- 
thing else. 


BAKING  TESTS. 


Bread  was  baked  from  each  lot  of  flour,  and  of  the  patent  and 
straight  flours  a great  many  loaves  of  each  were  baked  at  dif- 
ferent times  to  secure  reliable  results  on  the  following  points  : 
(l)the  amount  of  flour  necessary  to  make  the  best  bread  with 
a definite  quantity  of  yeast  liquid,  (2)  the  “ strength  ” of  the 
flour  as  determined  by  the  dimensions  of  the  loaf  made  from 
a definite  quantity  of  flour  and  yeast  mixture,  (3)  the  ab- 
sorptive and  retentive  capacity  of  the  flour  as  determined 
by  the  weight  of  the  bread  made  with  a definite  quantity  of 
yeast  mixture  and  flour,  (4)  the  quality  of  the  bread  as  de- 
termined by  its  color  and  texture.  The  results  are  as  follows: 
I.  Amount  of  flour  needed  to  definite  quantity  of  yeast 
mixture.  The  ratios  of  the  weight  of  flour  taken  are  as  fol- 


lows : 

Badly  bleached 95.52 

Bleached : 97.18 


Slightly  frosted 92.84 

Badly  frosted 94.74 


145 


No.  4 93.68 

Pure  Blue  Stem  94.61 

Pure  Scotch  Fife 93.46 

Ladoga 98.62 

The  above  figures  are  the  averages  of  the  ratios  obtained 
in  separate  tests. 

II.  The  ratios  of  strength  as  obtained  by  the  measurement 
of  the  dimensions  of  the  loaves  are  as  follows  : 

Badly  bleached 95.89 

Slightly  bleached 90.45 

Slightly  frosted 96.77 

Badly  frosted 95.85 

No.  4 93.71 

Pure  Blue  Stem 98.73 

Pure  Scotch  Fife  92.74 

Ladoga 88.16 

III.  The  absorptive  and  retentive  capacity  of  the  flours 
are  in  the  following  ratios  : 

Badly  bleached  wheat 92.31 

Slightly  bleached 94.05 

Slightly  frosted 92.09 

Badly  frosted ;.  92.21 

No.  4 [Scotch  Fife]  92.72 

Pure  Blue  Stem 92.55 

Pure  Scotch  Fife f 99.27 

Ladoga  93.82 

IV.  Color  and  texture  in  following  ratios  : 

Badly  bleached , _ 99. 

Slightly  bleached 95. 

Slightly  frosted 93. 

Badly  frosted 91 . 

No.  4 (Scotch  Fife)  98. 

Pure  Blue  Stem 97. 

Pure  Scotch  Fife 100. 

Ladoga 50. 

The  color  and  texture  are  matters  of  individual  judgment. 
To  eliminate  or  reduce  this  as  much  as  possible  I had  my  as- 
sistant weigh  out  the  flours  and  number  them  indiscrimin- 
ately, keeping  the  names  and  numbers  secret  from  me.  In 


146 


every  case  my  judgment  arranged  the  loaves  in  the  order 
stated  while  the  percentages  varied  slightly. 

The  pure  Scotch  Fife  bread  was  clearly  the  best  in  every 
case  as  to  color,  texture,  and  odor.  It  was  a bright,  rich, 
creamy  white.  The  badly  bleached  Fife  came  next  but  was 
deficient  in  the  richness  of  appearance.  The  Fife  (No.  4)  was 
richer  looking  than  the  bleached  but  a little  dingy  in  color. 
Blue  Stem  was  as  rich  looking  as  any  and  of  good  texture 
and  had  a very  slight  bluish  or  greenish  tinge.  The  slightly 
bleached  wheat  looked  weak  and  rather  dingy.  The  slightly 
frosted  was  greyish  and  the  worse  frosted  noticeably  more 
so.  The  Ladoga  retained  its  saffron  color  but  intensified 
and  was  of  quite  a disagreeable  appearance. 

All  these  remarks  and  ratios  are  drawn  directly  from  the 
results  with  patent  flours  but  are  equally  applicable  to  re- 
sults from  the  straight  and  red  dogs. 

In  the  straight  flours  the  characteristic  colors  of  the  Lado- 
ga and  Blue  Stem  were  more  noticeable  than  in  the  patent. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

The  pure  Scotch  Fife  wheat  proves  to  be  the  best  wheat, 
the  Blue  Stem  wheat  next  and  the  Ladoga  very  poor.  Any 
injury  done  to  wheat  by  reason  of  its  being  threshed  while 
wet,  bleached  or  frosted,  injures  it  for  milling  and  for  making 
good  bread,  the  extent  of  injury  varying. 

The  Ladoga  has  been  shown  to  be  a failure  as  to  yield, 
both  as  to  quantity  and  quality,  and  the  milling  and  baking 
tests  show  it  to  be  equally  worthless. 


SEED  WHEAT. 


CO-OPERATIVE  TESTS  WITH  SELECTED  SEED. 

In  bulletin  No.  15  of  this  Station  issued  in  February,  1891, 
notice  was  given  that  the  Hon.  Chas.  A.  Pillsbury  had  kind- 
ly placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Station,  for  free  distribution, 
some  pure  scotch  fife  wheat.  The  object  of  this  generous 
gift  was  to  demonstrate  the  benificial  results  arising  from 
the  careful  selection  of  seed.  The  wheat  was  distributed 
under  the  following  conditions  : 

“ 1.  It  shall  be  planted  on  new  ground,  that  which  has  not 
grown  a crop,  or  on  summer  fallowed  land,  or  on  land  which 
has  just  raised  a crop  of  potatos,  corn  or  millet. 

2.  A record  shall  be  kept  of  the  date  when  planted,  size  of 
plot,  time  when  ripe,  and  dates  when  harvested  and  threshed. 

3.  A small  sample  of  the  crop  together  with  a cop}"  of  the 
record  shall  be  sent  to  the  Station. 

4.  It  shall  be  seeded  at  the  rate  of  at  least  one  bushel  per 
acre.  The  wheat  will  be  distributed  in  packages  not  to  ex- 
ceed five  bushels,  and  it  is  suggested  that  one  bushel  be  the 
rate  at  which  it  is  seeded  when  a press  drill  is  used,  and  a 
bushel  and  a peck  when  seeded  broadcast. 

5.  A bushel  from  the  crop  shall  be  sent  b}T  each  farmer  to 
the  State  Fair  of  1891.  Mr.  Pillsbury  will  give  a premium 
of  $100,  divided  in  three  different  prizes,  for  the  best  samples 
submitted  there.  The  expense  of  transportation  to  the  State 
Fair  will  be  borne  by  the  Experiment  Station  and  the  wheat 
will  then  be  the  property  of  the  Experiment  Station.  This 
wheat  will  be  distributed  next  year. 

Those  desiring  this  seed  will  need  to  make  early  applica- 
tion, stating  the  amount  of  land  under  cultivation,  whether 
light  or  heavy  prairie  land  or  timber,  and  that  they  will  ob- 
serve the  requirements.  ” 

Over  seven  hundred  applications  were  received  for  seed  and 


148 


the  supply  was  soon  exhausted.  All  of  the  railroads  in  the 
state  generously  aided  in  carrying  out  this  experiment  by 
distributing  free  of  charge  the  wheat  along  their  lines. 

The  seed  selected  for  this  experiment  was  pure  scotch  fife 
wheat. 

Owing  to  unavoidable  delay  in  procuring  this  wheat  it  was 
impossible  to  clean  it  by  suction  blast  as  was  intended.  It 
was,  however,  well  cleaned  through  a Champion  cleaning 
mill  and  cockle  machine,  and  was  in  good  condition  for  seed- 
ing. Its  germinating  power  had  been  tested  and  found  to 
be  high. 

This  wheat  was  perfect^  pure  scotch  fife,  having  been  care- 
fully selected  for  a number  of  years.  The  history  of  the 
wheat  during  this  time  may  be  interesting  and  should  prove 
profitable  now.  It  should  suggest  to  each  farmer  receiving 
this  seed  means  to  keep  it  pure  and  improve  it. 

In  1881  a Red  River  Valley  farmer  found  a clump  of  22 
stalks  of  wheat  growing  from  a single  grain,  and  which 
matured  much  earlier  than  the  remaining  stalks  of  wheat  in 
that  field.  These  stalks  were  pulled  when  ripe,  carefully  pre- 
served and  threshed  by  hand.  There  were  obtained  860 
grains  of  wheat,  760  of  which  were  selected  for  seed  and 
planted  in  1882  six  inches  apart  each  way  on  a clean  piece 
of  land.  These  grains  yielded  12  pounds  of  wheat,  or  at  a 
rate  of  40  bushels  per  acre.  In  1883  the  seed  of  1882  was 
sown  on  another  piece  of  clean  land  in  rows  12  inches  apart 
and  thick  in  the  rows.  The  wheat  was  given  thorough  cul- 
tivation and  yielded  17  bushels,  or  at  a rate  of  72  bushels 
per  acre.  The  crop  was  harvested  by  itself  and  garnered  in 
a spare  room  in  the  farm  house.  It  was  threshed  out  by 
hand.  In  1884,  after  cleaning,  the  wheat  was  sowed  on 
land  which  had  for  the  preceding  five  years  been  in  pasture. 
This  land  had  been  turned  down  and  seeded  to  timothy  be- 
cause of  a rank  growth  of  wild  buckwheat.  In  1884  the 
buckwheat  appeared  again  and  overran  the  crop,  cutting 
the  yield  down  to  15  bushels  per  acre,  but  the  quality  was 
good.  The  crop  was  carefully  harvested  and  threshed,  keep- 
ing the  wheat  separate  from  all  other  lots.  Before  threshing 
a half  day  was  spent  by  two  men  in  cleaning  out  of  the 


149 


threshing  machine  all  grains  of  wheat  and  weed  seeds. 

The  same  care  has  been  observed  to  keep  the  wheat  pure 
since  that  time.  It  has  been  grown  on  new  or  summer-fal- 
lowed land  and  harvested  and  threshed  separately  as  long 
as  two  kinds  of  wheat  were  raised  on  the  same  farm.  In 
1886  it  averaged  44  bushels  per  acre;  in  1887  the  quality 
was  fine  but  the  winds  decreased  the  yield ; in  1888  it 
escaped  the  rust  and  frosts  then  prevalent;  in  1889  and 
1890  the  quality  and  yield  has  been  good,  the  latter  averag- 
ing in  1890  27^2  bushels  per  acre. 

Every  two  years  this  seed  has  been  exchanged  between 
two  farms  30  miles  apart.  Although  both  are  prairie  farms 
the  beneficial  results  have  been  noticeable. 

To  continue  the  purity  of  this  wheat  and  to  improve  its 
quality  should  be  the  aim  of  every  farmer.  This  can  be  done 
by  observing  the  conditions  of  the  distribution;  by  seeding 
on  clean  ground,  harvesting  and  threshing  separately  from 
all  other  varieties  of  wheat. 

Seed  was  sent  into  every  count\rof  the  state,  and  owing  to 
the  lateness  of  the  following  season  at  which  many  farmers 
were  compelled  to  do  their  threshing  on  account  of  the  large 
yield  of  all  grain  crops  for  that  year,  full  reports  were  not 
received  from  many  until  early  in  the  present  year.  A few 
reported  loss  by  a heavy  hail  storm,  while  others,  especially 
from  the  extreme  northern  portion  of  the  state  reported  that 
the  wheat  crop  in  general  was  late  on  account  of  heavy 
spring  rains;  others  reported  damage  from  chinch  bugs  and 
late  sowing.  A large  quantity  of  seed  was  sent  into  ever\- 
wheat  growing  section  of  the  state,  and  the  season  was  very 
favorable  for  this  crop;  hence  the  results  are  strictly  com- 
parable as  to  yield  and  weight  per  bushel  and  time  of  matur- 
ing, except  for  the  samples  damaged  by  hail,  late  sowing  or 
chinch  bugs  as  noted.  The  difference  in  yield  per  acre, 
weight  per  bushel  and  time  of  maturing,  color  and  plump- 
ness are  due  to  the  different  climatic  and  soil  conditions. 

The  report  of  the  samples  entered  for  the  premium  given 
by  Mr.  Pillsbury  is  given  first;  and  then  the  report  on  all 
other  samples  received  up  to  January  15th,  1892,  are  tabu- 
lated in  subsequent  pages: 


150 


W.  F.  Cross,  Secretary  State  Fair,  Hamline,  Minn.: 

Dear  Sir:  The  samples  of  wheat  entered  for  the  prizes  of  the 
Hon.  Charles  A.  Pillsbury  have  been  adjudged  according  to 
the  basis  of  award  published  in  the  premium  list,  and  which 
we  quote: 

BAvSlS  OF  AWARD. 


Points. 


Weight  per  bushel  on  a scale  of. 100 

Color  of  grain 100 

Plumpness 100 

Percentage  of  glutin 100 

Quality  of  glutin 100 


The  prizes  will  be  awarded  to  the  five  best  samples  in  the 
order  in  which  they  approach  the  500  points  mark.  Of  all 
the  samples  entered  thirteen  are  much  the  best  and  are  of 
nearly  equal  value,  and  the  result  of  judging  these  is  given 
in  detail. 


First — A.  N.  Johnson,  Hoffman,  Grant  county. 


Points. 

Weight  per  bushel — 62  pounds 100.0 

Color.. 96.5 

Plumpness 98.0 

Amount  of  glutin 100.0 

Quality 97.5 


Total, 492.0 

Second — Fred  Musner,  Millerville,  Douglas  county. 

Weight — 62  pounds 100.0 

Color 98.0 

Plumpness 98.0 

Glutin .................  91.8 

Glutin,  quality 96.5 


Total, 484.3 

Third — 0.  E.  Samuelson,  Vasa,  Goodhue  county. 

Weight — 61  pounds 98.4 

Color 100.0 

Plumpness 100.0 

Glutin % 92.0 

Glutin,  quality 90.0 


Total, 


480.4 


151 


Fourth — Peter  Thompson,  Cottage  Grove,  Washington 
county. 

Weight,  61.5  pounds  99.2 

Color 96.5 

Plumpness 96.5 

Glutin ..# 88.7 

Glutin,  quality ; 96.5 


Total, 477.4 

Fifth — E.  S.  Olsen,  Milan,  Chippewa  county. 

Weight,  61  pounds 98.4 

Color,  96.5 

Plumpness,  97.0 

Glutin 91.33 

Glutin,  quality 92.5 


Total, 475.73 

Sixth — A.  J.  Hurley,  Lanesboro,  Fillmore  county. 

Weight,  62  pounds 100. 

Color 98. 

Plumpness 98. 

Glutin 83.33 

Glutin,  qualit}"  95.5 


Total 474.83 

Seventh — M.  H.  Smith. 

Weight,  61  pounds  98.4 

Color  97. 

Plumpness 99. 

Glutin 77.33 

Glutin,  quality 99. 


Total, 470.73 

Eighth — D.  L.  Wellman,  Frazee  City,  Becker  count}". 

Weight,  61  pounds 98.4 

Color 96.5 

Plumpness 98. 

Glutin 79.3 

Glutin,  quality 97.5 


Total, 


469.7 


152 


Ninth— L.  Kiel. 

Weight,  61  pounds 98.4 

Color 96.5 

Plumpness 98.6 

Glutin 81.3 

Glutin,  quality 91.5 


Total, 466.3 

Tenth — Theodore  Lukens,  Lukens,  Wadena  county. 

Weight,  61.5  pounds 99.2 

Color 97.0 

Plumpness 98.0 

Glutin 75.8 

Glutin,  quality 95.5 


Total, 465.5 

Eleventh — R.  E.  Patterson,  Pelican  Rapids,  Otter  Tail  Co. 

Weight,  61.5  pounds 99.2 

Color . 96.5 

Plumpness 98.0 

Glutin 73.8 

Glutin,  quality 98.0 


Total, 465.5 

Twelfth— J.  G.  Nelson,  Parker’s  Prairie,  Otter  Tail  county. 

Weight,  61  pounds 98.4 

Color 96.0 

Plumpness 97.5 

Glutin 70.2 

Glutin,  quality 95.5 


Total, 457.6 

Thirteenth — D.  W.  Swingh,  Appleton,  Swift  county. 

Weight,  62  pounds 100.0 

Color 96.5 

Plumpness 97.5 

Glutin 70.0 

Glutin , qu ality 92.0 


Total, 


456.0 


153 


The  prizes  are  therefore  awarded,  in  the  order  named,  to 
A.  N.  Johnson,  Fred  Meisner,  0.  E.  Samuelson,  Peter  Thomp- 
son and  E.  S.  Olsen.  One  requirement  in  sending  samples 
was  that  all  grain  submitted  should  be  taken  from  the  ma- 
chine, and  not  specially  cleaned.  As  a result  all  the  samples 
have  some  weed  seeds  which,  by  cleaning,  would  be  removed 
and  the  weight  per  bushel  would  be  thus  increased. 

But  eighty -nine  entries  were  received  in  time  for  the  fair, 
and  it  is  quite  probable  that  better  samples  could  have  been 
sent  were  it  not  that  the  fair  came  too  early  for  the  late  crop 
of  the  year.  The  major  part  of  the  seed  was  sent  into  the 
more  northern  portions  of  the  state,  and  at  the  time  the  fair 
was  held  only  a few  farmers  there  had  been  able  to  thresh  the 
grain. 

D.  N.  Harper, 

A.  C.  Clausen, 
Thomas  C.  Hodson. 


Abreviations  used  in  the  following  tables:  pot. — potatoes  the  previous  crop.  B’t 
— bright,  b.c. — broat  cast  seeder,  subs. — subsoil.  B.  S. — Blue  Stem.  Blk. — black. 


BLUE  EARTH  COUNTY. 


154 


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LINCOLN  COUNTY. 


159 


MARSHALL  COUNTY. 


160 


Notes  and  Remarks. 

Potatoes  in  1890.  Seeded  y2  bu.  length- 
wise and  then  l/2  bn.  crosswise. 

Millet  in  1890. 

Badly  frosted. 

Land  too  rich,  wheat  lodged. 

Gr 

ade 

rl  rl  CO  fl 

Yield  per  acre. 

46.2 

35 

32 

30 

W< 
i 1 

dght  per 

O 

CO 

Da 
| i 

ys  Matur- 
ng 

t*05  TfWNCLDH 
Hri  01  01  rl  Ot  rl  01 

rl  H H H H t-i  H H 

Ripe 

CD  10  05  l"  10 

10  01  OIOIOIOIO^CI 

05  GO  X X X X X X 

Seeded 

^ 05  CO  05  t>  rH  CD 

rjl  01  OIOINOIOIOI 

lO-^  ^ Th  10 

Kind  of  Soil. 

Black  loam,  clay  subsoil... 
Seven  Year  old  prairie  

Light  prairie 

Heavy  prairie 

Light  prairie 

Light  sandy,  brush  cleared 
Sandv  loam 

Town. 

Stephen 

Stephen 

Stephen 

Stephen 

Holt 

Fohldahl 

Fohldahl 

Argyle 

Name  of  Person. 

John  Whalen  

J.  L.  Robertson... 

R.  A Whitney  

Henry  Hoper  

N.  J.  Engelbratson 
M.  A.  Beekstrom.. 

Otto  Haug 

Chas.  Tohmer 

No. 

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REDWOOD  COUNTY. 


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SUMMARY  OF  RESULTS. 


Number.  Per  cent. 


Total  reports  tabulated 169 

Total  number  reporting  rust 14 

Total  number  injured  by  frost 4 

Total  number  with  reports  on  weight  per  bushel 119 

Total  numbei  weighing  64  pounds  or  over  per  bushel 16  15 

Total  number  weighing  63  pounds  per  bushel 26  24 

Total  number  weighing  62  pounds  per  bushel 24  22 

Total  number  weighing  61  pounds  per  bushel 23  21 

Total  number  weighing  60  pounds  per  bushel 9 8.2 

Total  number  weighing  59  pounds  or  less  per  bushel 11  11 

Total  number  yielding  40  bushels  per  acre  and  over 6 5 

Total  number  yielding  from  35  to  40  bushels  per  acre 10  12 

Total  number  yielding  from  30  to  35  bushels  per  acre 19  16 

Total  number  yielding  from  25  to  30  bushels  per  acre 17  lO 

Total  number  yielding  from  20  to  25  bushels  per  acre. 27 

Total  number  yielding  from  17  to  20  bushels  per  acre 13 

Total  number  yielding  under  17  bushels  per  acre 26 

Shortest  time  for  maturing,  90  days  ; longest,  118  days. 

Average  yield  per  acre,  34.1  buslieis. 

Average  weight  per  husliel,  62  pounds. 

Average  of  days  maturing,  106. 


In  conclusion  little  remains  to  be  said  that  is  not  already 
recorded  in  the  tables  or  summary. 

The  use  of  good  seed  wheat,  of  uniform  sized  grains,  free 
from  foreign  matters  or  other  varieties  of  wheat,  when  not 
hampered  by  rust,  dry  weather,  frost,  or  insects,  results  in 
uniformity  in  the  time  of  maturing  of  the  crop,  a large  aver- 
age yield  per  acre,  and  a high  average  weight  per  bushel. 


PRELIMINARY  REPORT  UPON  AN  INSECT  INJURIOUS 
TO  WHEAT. 


OTTO  LUGGER. 

This  report,  though  very  incomplete  in  all  details,  is  made 
at  this  time  to  warn  farmers  against  an  insect  not  observed 
before  in  Minnesota,  and  to  enable  them  to  prevent  more 
serious  losses  in  1893.  As  soon  as  the  life-histoi^  of  this  in- 
sect has  been  studied  more  thoroughly  it  will  be  given  in  a 
future  bulletin. 

During  the  early  part  of  September  a number  of  letters 
were  received  from  different  parts  of  the  Red  River  Valley, 
both  from  the  Minnesota  and  North  Dakota  side,  in  which 
the  writers  complained  about  an  insect  of  some  kind 
that  had  reduced  the  wheat  crop  very  materially  by  partial- 
ly cutting  off  the  culm  (stem)  just  above  a joint  from  three 
to  four  inches  above  the  ground.  This  took  place  at  a time 
when  the  head  was  filling.  The  culm  above  the  injured  joint 
wilted,  gradually  turned  yellow,  and  soon  after  broke  down 
entirely  by  bending  over  at  the  infested  spot.  Some  of  the 
writers  discovered  that  the  injury  was  caused  by  an  insect 
of  some  kind,  while  many  others,  less  observant,  claimed 
that  the  injury  was  due  to  hail,  to  a blistering  hot  sun,  or 
to  some  other  cause.  Two  gentlemen  specially  interested  in 
this  insect,  and  fearing  greater  trouble  for  next  year,  invited 
the  entomologist  of  this  station  to  make  an  investigation 
and  to  suggest  remedies.  The  farm  of  Mr.  Chas.  T.  Ohmer, 
of  Argyle,  Marshall  county,  was  visited  first.  In  one  of  his 
fields,  from  which  the  crop  had  been  harvested  and  removed, 
very  many  heads  of  wheat  were  found  upon  the  ground. 
The  supporting  culms  had  been  broken  down  before  harvest, 
and  were  consequently  not  cut  by  the  reaper.  These  heads 
were  all  partly  filled  with  berries  more  or  less  badly  shrunken, 
and  the  culms  were  still  adhering  to  the  roots.  The  break- 


168 


age  of  the  calms  had  taken  place  most  frequently  above  a 
node  or  joint  about  three  inches  from  the  ground.  Just  below 
this  breakage,  and  immediately  above  the  joint,  the  culprits 
were  found.  In  most  cases  but  one  puparium,  but  in  a few 
cases  two,  three,  and  even  more  puparia  could  be  found.  A 
puparium  is  the  hardened  skin  of  the  larva  or  worm,  made 
strong  by  a deposit  of  horny  material.  These  puparia  are 
glossy  chestnut-brown,  shading  to  a yellowish-brown  to- 
wards the  smaller  end;  faint  indication  of  sutures  or  seg- 
ments are  visible.  All  these  seed-like  objects  contained  at 
that  time  the  larvae  or  worms  which  are  of  a white  color. 
No  pupae  could  be  detected  during  the  investigation,  nor  can 
they  be  found  at  this  date  (Sept.  28).  Larvae  could  not,  as 
a matter  of  course,  exist  in  such  dry  culms.  These  puparia 
are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  Hessian  fly,  or  to  the  “flax 
seed  stage”  of  that  insect,  and  this  resemblance  had  given 
color  to  the  belief  of  some  that  this  injurious  insect  had 
found  a home  in  the  valley.  It  seems,  therefore,  most  likely 
that  the  insect  investigated  hibernates  in  this  stage,  and  that 
the  puparia  are  really  well  protected  in  this  condition,  and 
in  the  position  assumed  inside  the  culm.  They  are  inserted 
in  the  material  of  the  upper  part  of  the  node,  inaccessible  by 
any  moisture  from  the  outside,  as  the  culm  above  does  not 
break  off  entirely  but  simply  bends  in  a more  or  less  acute 
angle  a short  distance  over  the  puparia,  and  thus  prevents 
the  entrance  of  moisture.  Yet  the  culm  is  sufficiently  frac- 
tured to  permit  a free  exit  of  the  future  fly  in  spring. 

A number  of  other  places  were  visited  in  the  adjoining 
counties  of  Polk  and  Kittson,  and  it  was  found  that  similar 
conditions  prevailed  in  many  fields.  In  fact  the  numerous 
inquiries  among  farmers  plainly  indicated  that  this  insect 
has  caused  more  or  less  damage  over  a large  area,  and  that 
remedies  should  be  applied  wherever  necessary. 

It  is  not  always  easy  or  even  possible  to  explain  why  any 
one  insect  should  suddenly  appear  in  such  numbers  over  a 
large  area.  It  is  only  by  a very  careful  and  long  continued  in- 
vestigation that  we  may  sometimes  arrive  at  a true  ex- 
planation. Here  it  is  readily  found  in  the  fact  that  owing  to  the 
wet  autumn  of  1891,  and  the  equals  wet  spring  of  1892,  not 


169  - 


much  more  than  one  half  of  the  usual  acreage  of  wheat  was 
plowed,  and  in  many  places  the  shocks  of  grain  had  to  be 
left  upon  the  fields.  Many  inquiries  also  plainly  indicated 
that  small  patches  of  wheat  had  been  noticed  in  1891  which 
showed  bleached  heads  long  before  harvest,  and  no  doubt 
these  white  culms  harbored  the  insect  unknown  to  anyone. 
Since  the  culms  infested  with  these  puparia  were  left  upon 
the  fields  the  resulting  winged  insects  were  not  destroyed, 
but  they  issued  during  the  spring  of  1892  and  greatly  ex- 
tended their  domain.  The  very  causes  that  killed  oft  the 
armies  of  young  migratory  locusts,  i.  e.  excessive  moisture, 
protected  this  new  pest. 

From  all  appearances  this  insect  is  one  of  the  Frit  flies, 
but  which  one,  remains  to  be  seen  by  breeding  it  to  maturity. 
The  name  Frit  ffy  was  given  this  insect  from  the  fact  that 
Swedish  farmers  call  the  worthless  grain  resulting  from  in- 
juries caused  by  such  flies  “frits.” 

From  the  rather  few  facts  we  at  present  possess  in  regard 
to  this  insect  in  Minnesota  one  very  important  conclusion 
may  be  reached.  As  the  insects  hibernate  in  the  culms  of 
wheat  in  stubble  fields,  and  very  likely  remain  in  that  con- 
dition until  spring,  simple  remedies  are  evident  and  can 
readify  be  applied.  All  that  is  necessary  to  kill  the  great 
majority  of  these  insects  is  to  destroy  the  stubble  at  this 
time  of  the  year,  or  as  soon  as  possible.  Two  methods  are 
feasible:  burning  the  stubble,  or  plowing  it  under.  Burning 
can  be  practiced  in  some  few  cases  but  in  many  fields  there  is 
not  sufficient  material  to  do  it  thoroughly.  Plowing  there- 
fore, is  our  best  remedy,  and  no  field  should  be  left  unplowed 
that  contains  such  insects,  or  is  suspected  of  containing 
them.  A very  superficial  inspection  of  the  fields  will  show 
the  whereabouts  of  these  insects,  ifthe  owner  has  not  already 
detected  the  broken  culms  or  heads.  By  splitting  with  a 
knife  thejoint  just  below  the  broken  culm  the  darkpuparium 
will  be  readily  seen.  If  not  the  discolored  interior  of  the 
culm  above  will  indicate  its  presence,  and  closer  inspection 
will  reveal  the  culprit.  All  such  fields  that  contain  infested 
straw  should  be  plowed,  and  this  as  soon  as  possible  to  make 
sure;  the  rest  of  the  fields  can  be  plowed  later.  In  doing 


170 


this  now  we  will  be  sure  of  one  thing:  the  insects  although 
well  protected  against  moisture  will  come  in  lasting  contact 
with  the  moist  soil,  the  broken  tube  above  will  be  filled  with 
earth,  and  the  fly  can  not  escape  next  spring  to  carry  destruc- 
tion near  and  far. 

The  damage  caused  by  this  insect  in  1892  is  by  no  means 
a small  one.  In  many  places  fully  one  fourth  of  the  entire 
crop  of  wheat  has  been  destroyed,  and  in  a great  many  more 
the  losses  amount  to  at  least  one  tenth.  As  many  places  are 
badly  infested  the  total  amount  is  quite  large,  and  if  no  steps 
are  taken  to  prevent  it,  a repetition  may  become  ruinously 
large  in  1893. 


University  of  Minnesota. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  No.  24. 


HORTICULTURAL  DIVISION. 


OCTOBER,  1892. 


ORNAMENTAL  AND  TIMBER  TREES,  SHRUBS  AND  HERBACEOUS 
PLANTS  IN  MINNESOTA. 

NOTES  ON  THEIR  HARDINESS  AND  DESIRABILITY. 


The  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the 
State  who  make  application  for  them. 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK,  RAMSEY  CO., 

MINNESOTA. 


University  of  Minnesota. 

BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis, 1896 . 

The  HON.  GREEN-LEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - - 1894. 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - 1894 . 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  Alexandria,  -----  1896. 

The  HON.  JOEL  P.  HEAFWOLE,  Northfield,  - 1896. 

The  HON.  O.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth,  -------  1896. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson,  -----  1896 . 

The  HON.  S.  M.  EMERY,  Lake  City,  - 1895. 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  Minneapolis,  - 1895 . 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  R.  MERRIAM,  St.  Paul,  - - - Ex-Officio . 

The  Governor  of  the  State.  * 

The  HON.  DAVID  L.  KIEHLE,  M.  A..  St.  Paul,  - - - Ex-Officio . 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHROP,  LL.  D.,  Minneapolis,  - - - - Ex-Officio . 

The  President  of  the  University. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  EMERY. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION: 

CLINTON  D.  SMITH,  M.  S.,  - - -----  Director. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S.,  - - Horticulturist. 

OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  - - - - Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S.,  - Chemist. 

T.  L.  H DECKER, - Dairying. 

CHRISTOPHER  GRAHAM,  - Veterinarian. 

J.  A.  VYE, ---.  Secretary. 


\ 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  object  of  this  bulletin  is  to  furnish  reliable  informa- 
tion to  the  planters  of  ornamental  and  timber  trees,  shrubs, 
herbaceous  plants,  etc.,  in  Minnesota;  to  encourage  the 
growing  by  nurserymen  of  a number  of  desirable  plants  adap- 
ted to  our  conditions  that  are  not  generally  known, and  as  an 
answer  to  the  many  requests  received  for  information  in  regard 
to  the  proper  plants  to  use  for  park,  street  and  lawn  planting 
in  this  state.  The  work  is  of  a practical  nature  and  is  in- 
tended chiefly  as  a criticism  of  those  trees  and  plants  met 
with  in  the  catalogue^  of  our  most  progressive  nurserymen. 
Nearly  one  hundred  species  and  varieties  now  growing  on  the 
experiment  station  grounds  are  not  mentioned  as  they  either 
have  not  been  grown  here  long  enough  to  warrant  us  in 
drawing  conclusions  as  to  their  value  or  are  chiefly  of  interest 
to  botanists. 

In  connection  with  the  notes  on  hardiness, it  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  there  is  a great  variation  in  the  types  of  different 
plants,  and  that  the  hardiest  form  is  always  referred  to,  where 
two  types  are  known.  For  instance,  the  northern  or  native  red 
cedar  is  perfectly  hardy  any  where  in  this  state,  while  the  form 
grown  in  the  southern,  central  and  eastern  states  is  not  near- 
ly so  hardy  and  is  not  a safe  tree  to  plant.  Nearly  the  same 
may  be  said  of  black  walnut,  butternut,  sugar  maple,  box 
elder  and  to  a great  degree  of  many  other  plants.  It  is  well, 
then,  for  planters  to  select, as  far  aspracticable,plants  grown 
in  this  state  or  those  grown  in  northern  nurseries  from  north- 
ern stock.  In  the  table  on  hardiness  the  native  plants  are 
starred  and  they  will  generally  be  found  most  satisfactory. 
Where  the  Rocky  Mountain  conifers  are  referred  to,  the  form 
meant  is  that  from  seed  grown  on  the  eastern  slopes  and  foot 
hills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Plants  from  the  western 
slopes  and  ranges  have  been  conclusively  shown  to  be  more 


*A  table  of  contents  and  an  index  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  this  bulletin. 


174 


easily  injured  by  dry  winds  and  cold  weather  than  those  of 
the  same  species  from  the  eastern  slopes,  and  they  are  not, 
therefore  so  well  fitted  to  this  state. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  bulletin,  I have  had 
the  kind  assistance  and  advice  of  many  planters 
and  nurserymen  in  various  parts  of  the  state  and 
their  services  are  hereby  gratefully  acknowledged.  I 
am  under  especial  obligations  to  Hon.  Wyman  Elliott 
and  R.  J.  Mendenhall  of  Minneapolis,  Hon.  S.  M.  Emery  and 
J.  M.  Underwood  of  Lake  City,  Hon.  L.  R.  Moyer  of  Monte- 
video, Prof.  C.  B.  Waldron  of  Fargo,  N.  D.,  G.  W.  Fuller  of 
Litchfield,  J.  S.  Harris  of  La  Crescent  and  E.  H.  S.  Dartt  of 
Owatonna  for  much  assistance  in  preparing  the  table  of  har-  • 
diness,  and  by  their  suggestions  and  help  in  many  ways. 

In  making  up  the  table  of  hardiness  I have  endeavored 
to  take  notes  from  as  many  characteristic  and  widely  separ- 
ated parts  of  the  state  as  practicable,  and  from  well  known, 
representative  men.  The  notes  by  Hon.  Wyman  Elliott 
are  selected  because  he  is  widely  and  favorably  known  among 
horticulturists  as  one  who  has  had  much  experience  in  plant- 
ing trees  himself  and  in  observing  the  plantings  made  by  oth- 
ers in  Hennepin  and  Ramsey  counties  and  vicinity. 

Hon.  L.  R.  Mo3^er’s  notes  are  made  from  his  experience 
at  Montevideo,  Chippewa  county,  which  is  thoroughly  re- 
presentative of  the  severe  conditions  of  our  western  prairies 
of  the  central  portion  of  the  state. 

The  notes  by  J.  S.  Harris  are  given  with  reference  to  the 
hardiness  of  plants  in  south  eastern  Minnesota,  where  he  has 
made  his  home  for  many  years  and  where  he  has  earnestly 
watched  and  worked  for  the  development  of  horticulture  in 
all  its  branches. 

Prof.  C.  B.  Waldron  is  professor  of  arboriculture  in  the 
North  Dakota  Agricultural  College,  and  his  notes  are  given 
from  the  standpoint  of  his  experience  at  Fargo  and  at  Du- 
luth. / 

E.  H.  S.  Dartt  is  superintendent  of  the  state  tree  station 
at  Owatonna.  His  notes  are  given  with  reference  to  his  ex- 
perience in  that  section. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN, 
Professor  of  Horticulture, 

Oct.  3d,  1892.  University  of  Minnesota. 


Deciduous  Trees, 


ACER.  Maple. 


*White,  Silver  Leafed  or  Soft  Maple.  ( A . dasycar- 
pum.) — Very  hardy,  easily  transplanted  and  of  rapid  growth, 
butsuffers  much  from  a deficiency  ofmoisturein thesoil.  Itis 
especially  desirable  for  somewhat  protected  locations.  If  ex- 
posed to  severe  winds  the  limbs  are  often  broken  in  the  crotch- 
es, but  this  difficulty  may  be  largely  overcome  by  occasion- 
ally shortening  in  the  branches  and  retaining  as  much  as 
possible  a central  leading  shoot.  In  many  parts  of  the  state 
it  is  a good  street  tree, and  valued  for  wind  breaks  on  account 
of  its  quick,  upright  growth . Easily  grown  from  its  seed  which 
ripens  in  June. 

Cut  Leafed  or  Wier’s  Cut  Leafed  Maple.  (A  da- 
sycarpum , var.  Wierii.) — This  is  a sport  from  the  white 
maple  and  is  propagated  by  budding  or  grafting  on  the 
same.  I think  it  generally  not  nearly  as  hardy  as  the  white  ma- 
ple. A pretty, small,  lawn  or  park  tree  of  irregular  pendulous 
habit  and  finely.cut  foliage.  Desirable  for  sheltered  locations. 

*Sugar,  Hard  or  Rock  Maple.  * ( A.saccharinum . ) — Very 
hardy  over  most  of  the  state, in  heavy, rich  lands,  when  grown 
in  forests,  and  forming  one  of  our  most  valuable  timber  and 
fuel  woods.  It  does  well  in  the  southern  and  south-eastern 
parts  of  the  state  when  grown  as  a street  or  lawn  tree  if  the 
trunk  is  shaded  with  straw  or  other  material.  When  not 
thus  protected  the  trunk  is  liable  to  sun  scald.  In  the  north- 
ern and  western  half  of  the  state  it  winter  kills  badly  in  ex- 
posed locations,  especially  when  young  and  before  becoming 
well  established.  Grown  from  seed  which  ripens  in  autumn. 


176 


Norway  Maple.  ( A . platanoides.) — A large  tree  from 
Europe,  with  large,  dark  green  leaves,  which  are  smooth  and 
green  on  both  sides.  In  milder  sections  this  is  a desirable 
street  tree,  rivaling  the  hard  maple  in  value,  but  we  have 
found  it  too  uncertain  here  to  be  recommended  for  general 
planting,  though  it  has  stood  fairly  well  for  seven  years  at 
the  experiment  station. 

Schwedler  Maple.  (A,  platanoides,  var.  Schwedlerii.) 
— A variety  of  the  Norway  maple,  with  a most  beautiful 
crimson  color  to  its  young  growth,  which  changes  to  a rich 
trown  when  mature.  Very  handsome  and  showy  in  the 
spring,  and  worth  growing  in  a small  way.  Propagated  by 
budding  or  grafting  on  the  Norway  maple,  or  by  layering. 

Rxttenbach  Maple.  {A. platanoides,  var . Rittenhachii.) 
— A variety  with  bronze  purple  color  to  the  foliage  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  season.  A beautiful  variety,  worth  growing 
in  a small  way.  Propagated  by  the  same  means  as  the 
Schwedler  maple. 

*Red,  Swamp  or  Soft  Maple.  (A.  rubrum.)—  A native 
tree  of  medium  size  and  rather  slow  growth,  with  deep  red 
blossoms  early  in  the  spring,  and  brilliant  scarlet  foliage 
early  in  autumn.  Grown  from  seed  which  ripens  in  June.  It 
is  not  often  successfully  cultivated  here  as  a street  or  or- 
namental tree. 

Tartarian  Maple.  (A.  Tartaricum.) — A small,  pretty 
tree  of  very  promising  hardiness,  not  long  tried  here.  Grown 
from  seed  which  ripens  in  autumn. 

AESCULUS.  Horse  Chestnut. 

Horse  Chestnut.  (AS.  Hippocastanum.) — This  is  un- 
reliable, but  in  sheltered  locations  on  heavy  soil  will  often  last 
several  years.  Not  hardy  at  the  experiment  station. 

ALNUS.  Alder. 

European  Alder.  ( Alnus  incana.) — A small,  pretty 
tree  that  can  often  be  used  to  advantage  in  ornamental 
planting.  Grown  from  seed  which  ripens  in  early  autumn. 

BETULA.  Birch. 

*Canoe,  Silver  or  White  Birch.  (B.papyracea.)- This 
makes  a beautiful  lawn  and  park  tree  and  is  not  nearly  as 


177 


much  planted  as  it  should  be.  It  is  conspicuous  and  pretty 
in  both  summer  and  winter,  affording  a very  pleasing  con- 
trast with  thedark  foliage  of  other  trees,  and  especially  so 
when  contrasted  with  evergreens  in  winter.  Best 
adapted  to  moist  soil,  but  will  hold  on  well  even  in  dry  situ- 
ations. Grown  from  seed  which  ripens  in  autumn. 

White  or  Poplar  Leafed  Birch.  ( B . alba , var.  popu - 
lifolia.) — Indigenous  to  the  eastern  states  and  generally  found 
on  poor  soil.  It  differs  from  the  above  in  having  many  black 
twigs,  pendulous  shiny  leaves,  and  in  not  attaining  to  large 
size.  Not  nearly  as  desirable  as  the  next,  which  it  some- 
what resembles.  Propagated  by  seed  which  ripens  in  au- 
tumn. 

European  White  Birch.  (B.  alba.) — A pretty,  sym- 
metrical tree  of  medium  size,  with  white  bark  and  of  rapid 
growth  while  young.  Very  desirable  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses. Easily  propagated  by  seed  which  ripens  in  autumn. 
The  variations  are  grown  by  budding,  grafting,  and  inarch- 
ing on  the  species. 

- Cut  Leafed  Weeping  Birch.  (B.  alba , var.  laciniata 
pendula.) — A variety  of  European,  white  birch.  Probably  the 
most  popular  lawn  and  park  tree.  Hardy  in  good  soil 
anywhere.  In  very  dry  situations  short  lived.  Very  desir- 
able wherever  it  can  be  grown. 

Purple  Leafed  Birch.  ( B . alba , var.  purpurea.) — A 
variety  of  the  European  white  birch  with  foliage  and  young 
bark  purplish  in  color  and  in  pleasant  contrast  with  the  white 
bark  of  the  older  growth;  conspicuous  and  pretty. 

*Yellow  or  Gray  Birch.  ( B.lutea .)  A pretty,  desirable 
native  tree  of  rather  slow  growth.  Propagated  by  seed 
which  ripens  in  autumn. 

CARY  A.  Hickory. 

* Bitternut  Hickory.  (C.  amara.)—  Valuable  for  hoop- 
poles  and  it  can  often  be  profitably  planted  on  rich  land. 
It  grows  very  fast  until  it  commences  to  fruit,  and  makes 
a pretty  lawn  or  park  tree.  Readily  distinguished  by  its  or- 
ange yellow  winter  buds  and  very  bitter  nut.  This 
species  is  indigeneous  to  the  central  and  southern 


178 


portions  of  the  state.  Probably  the  hardiest  and 
best  form  of  hickory  for  general  planting  here.  It  does  not 
make  as  large  a tree  as  the  pig  nut  or  the  shell  bark  hickory, 
but  grows  faster  when  young.  Easily  grown  from  seed 
which  ripens  in  autumn. 

CELTIS.  Hackberry. 

*Hackberry.  (C.  occidentalis.)  One  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful street  or  lawn  trees  that  we  have.  Found  frequently  in 
the  forests  in  the  south  half  of  the  state  and  occasionally  else- 
where. In  dry  situations  it  is  not  so  hardy  as  the  white 
elm  which  it  rivals  for  ornamental  planting.  Very  desirable. 
Propagated  by  seed  which  ripens  in  autumn. 

CATAEPA. 

Hardy  Cataepa.  ( C.speciosa .)  Very  unreliable  at  the  ex- 
periment station,  and  I think  not  valuable  for  timber  in  any 
part  of  the  state.  In  some  sheltered  locations  the  trees  may  last 
a few  years  and  produce  their  beautiful  flowers,  but  are  often 
killed  back  and  sprout  from  the  root.  A few  are  worth  try- 
ing in  such  places  for  ornamental  purposes.  Flowers  in  large 
panicles  in  July.  Grown  from  seed  which  ripens  in  autumn 
Plants  from  northern  grown  seeds  are  hardiest. 

CRATAEGUS.  Thorn. 

* White  Thorn.  (C.  coccinea.)  A pretty  and  desirable 
small  native  tree  or  shrub  with  an  abundance  of  white  flow- 
ers in  spring,  followed  by  bright  red  fruit.  Especially  desir- 
able for  moist,  rich  soil.  Grown  from  seed  which  ripens  in  au- 
tumn. 

*Cock-Spur  Thorn  or  Thorn  Apple.  (C.  Crus-galli.)— 
A native  species  with  very  long  thorns  and  straggling  habit. 
White  flowers  in  spring,  followed  by  dull  red  fruit.  A hand- 
some, desirable  tree. 

ELiEAGNUS.  Oil  Berry. 

(E.  augustifolia .)  A very  pretty  round  topped  tree  of  me- 
dium size^  light  green,  downy  foliage  and  dark  colored  bark. 
Introduced  into  this  state  by  the  Mennonites  and  by  them 
esteemed. very  valuable  for  screens,  etc.  It  is  hardy  in  the 


179 


southern  half  of  this  state  and  generally  desirable,  though 
further  north  it  occasionally  slightly  winterkills  when  young 
and  in  exposed  situations.  Pretty  and  desirable.  Easily 
grown  from  seed. 

GLEDXTSCHIA. 

Honey  or  Three-Thorned  Locust.  ( G . tricanthos.) 

— Not  hardy  at  the  experiment  station. 

FRAXlNUS.  Ash. 

*White  Ash.  (F.  Americana.)  A well  known  native 
timber  tree  of  much  value,  attaining  a large  size.  It  makes 
a good  street  tree  in  some  locations,  but  is  rather  stiff  in  out* 
line.  Valuable  for  forest  planting,  except  on  our  western 
prairies,  where  it  is  not  very  hardy.  A much  more  rapid 
grower  than  the  next.  Propagated  by  seed,  which  ripens  in 
autumn. 

*Green  Ash  . ( F.  viridis. ) — Somewhat  resembling  the  above 
but  smaller, and  far  less  valuable  for  timber,  though  much  more 
hardy.  It  grows  very  fast  when  young,  and  before  it  pro- 
duces seed,  after  which  its  growth  is  rather  slow,  and  it  never 
attains  a large  size.  The  seed  of  this  species  being  readily 
obtained, it  is  frequently  substituted  for  that  of  the  white  ash 
which  is  not  so  abundant,  and  is  quite  different  in  form.  Pro- 
pagated by  seeds  which  ripen  in  autumn.  Probably  all  the 
ash  in  the  western  part  of  the  state  is  of  this  kind. 

*Black  or  Swamp  Ash.  (F.  sambucifolia.) — Found  in 
wet  places.  A small  tree  used  for  coarse  baskets,  hoop  poles* 
etc.  The  bruised  foliage  exhales  the  odor  of  elder.  Not  val- 
uable for  tree  planting. 

GYMNOCLADUS. 

*Kentuky  Coffee  Tree.  (G.  Canadensis.)—  A pretty 
and  conspicuous  tree  with  very  large, compound  leaves.  (They 
are  often  2 feet  long.)  Found  sparingly  in  the  southern  part 
of  this  state.  It  can  be  occasionally  planted  in  sheltered  loca- 
tions to  advantage.  Grown  from  seed  which  ripens  in  early 
autumn. 

JUGEANS.  Walnut. 

*Black  Walnut.  (J.  nigra.) — Unreliable  except  in  south- 


180 


ern  Minnesota,  where  in  places  large  trees  were  abundant 
when  the  country  was  first  settled.  It  can  now  be  planted 
to  advantage  for  timber  in  sheltered  locations,  especially 
upon  rich  heavy  soil  in  southern  Minnesota.  Not  reliable  as 
an  ornamental  tree.  It  succeeds  best  when  grown  from  seed 
raised  in  this  state  or  northern  Iowa.  Seed  ripens  in 
autumn. 

^Butternut.  (J.  cinerea.) — A pretty,  large  native  tree 
. that  resembles  the  black  walnut  in  foliage  and  habit  but  is 
much  hardier,  and  the  nut  is  more  valuable  for  eating.  It 
succeeds  best  in  rich,  heavy  soils.  In  some  parts  of  the  state 
a satisfactory  ornamental  tree.  Propagated  by  seed  which 
ripens  in  autumn. 

LARIX.  Tamarack. 

* American  Larch  or  Tamarack.  ( L . Americana.) — A 
pretty , native  tree,  found  throughout  the  eastern  and  northern 
parts  of  the  state  in  swamps.  Not  as  desirable  as  the  next. 
Grown  from  seed  which  ripens  in  autumn. 

European  Larch.  ( L . Europea.) — This  tree  has  rather 
disappointed  tlie  expectations  of  tree  planters  in  not  being  as 
long  lived  or  as  desirable  for  timber  as  was  expected.  It  is, 
however,  of  a ignore  regular  and  close  habit  than  our  native 
species,  and  is  far  more  desirable  for  ornamental  purposes.  It 
is  a rapid  grower  when  young  and  is  very  valuable  for 
occasional  use  in  ornamental  planting  to  give  variety  to  the 
landscape.  Propagated  by  seed  which  ripens  in  autumn. 

MORUS.  Mulberry. 

Russian  Mueberry.  (M.  Tartarica.)— The  most  con- 
tradictory evidence  is  plentiful  regarding  this  tree,  and  too 
much  has  often  been  claimed  for  it,  but  the  following  is  what 
I have  gathered  from  rrtany  observations:  In  the  southwest- 

ern part  of  the  state  it  is  regarded  with  high  favor  as  a low 
wind-break.  The  trees  are  hardy  and  form  a close  growth; 
they  fruit  abundantly  but  the  berries  are  insipid  though  of- 
ten of  good  size.  At  the  experiment  station  the  new  wood 
has  frequently  been  entirely  winter  killed,  but  it  quickly  out- 
grows any  damages  of  this  sort  and  makes  a vigorous,  pret- 
ty wind-break.  For  a low  wind-break  to  protect  small  fruit, 


18 


or  trees  on  tree  claims  it  is  very  valuable  in  the  southern 
one-third  of  the  state.  As  a timber  tree  I think  it  almost 

worthless.  For  fruit  it  should  be  grown  from  cuttings  of  the 
the  best  plants . It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  plants  gen- 
erally sold  are  from  feeed  and  that  scarcely  two  seedling  plants 
will  bear  fruit  exactly  alike  and  they  vary  very  much  in  both 
foliage  and  fruit.  It  is  bi-sexual  and  consequently  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  both  kinds  of  plants,  in  order  to  obtain  fruit. 
Of  very  rapid  growth.  Grown  from  seed,  cuttings  or  layers. 

NEGUNDO,  Box  Elder. 

*Box  Elder  or  Ash  Leafed  Maple.  (N.  aceroid- 
es.) — Too  well  known  to  need  much  notice  here.  In  good  soil 
in  protected  locations  in  the  southern  half  of  the  state  it 
makes  a good  sized  tree,  but  at  the  extreme  north  and  in 
very  exposed  or  barren  situations  any  where, it  becomes  much 
dwarfed.  At  Fargo,  N.  D.,  it  is  popular  as  a street  tree.  A 
fairly  good  street  tree  in  favorable  locations,  but  rather 
small  for  best  results.  Of  clean  habit,  long  lived  and  of  won- 
derful hardiness  where  the  soil  is  not  very  dry.  A valuable 
pioneer  tree.  Of  very  rapid  growth  when  young.  Grown 
from  seed  which  ripens  in  autumn. 

OSTKYA. 

*Ironwood,  Hop-Hornbeam,  American  Hop-Horn- 
beam orLever-Wood.  (0.  V irginica.) — A pretty,  native  tree  of' 
medium  size  that  does  well  under  cultivation.  Generally  hardy 
but  it  prefers  some  protection  and  does  best  in  moist,  rick 
land.  Grown  froirqseed  which  ripens  in  autumn. 

POPULUS.  Poplar. 

Silver,  White  or  Abele  Poplar  or  Abel-Tree.  (P. 
alba.) — Of  rapid  growth  and  rather  irregular  habit,  perfectly 
hardy  a^^where.  The  downy  whiteness  of  the  under  side  of 
the  leaves  and  the  white  bark  make  it  a tree  that  can  often 
be  used  to  enliven  groups  of  trees  of  more  somber  aspect. 
The  wood  is  fine  grained  and  valuable  for  fine  finishing  work. 
The  great  objection  to  it  as  a street  or  lawn  tree  is  thkt  it 
sprouts  a good  deal  from  the  roots,  especially  if  they  are 
broken.  This  is,  however,  no  objection  to  it  as  a forest  tree; 


182 


for  which  it  is  very  desirable,  as  it  makes  valuable  timber. 
Propagated  by  sprouts  and  cuttings.  Desirable.  There  are 
several  varieties  of  this,  and  among  the  best  are  the  follow- 
ing: 

Boeeeana  Poplar.  (P.  alba,  var.  Bolleana.)— The  foli- 
age of  this  variety  is  much  prettier  than  that  of  its  pa- 
rent. In  habit  it  is  upright  and  close  like  the 
Lombardy  poplar,  though  unlike  this  latter  tree  it 
promises  to  be  long  lived  and  very  useful  and  beautiful  for  or- 
namental planting.  It  is  not  so  easily  propagated  as  the 
Abele,as  it  does  not  sprout  or  root  easily  from  spring  made 
cuttings.  However,  cuttings  of  it  made  in  the  autumn  and 
well  calloused  before  planting  out,  I think  as  sure  as  Con- 
cord grapes  so  treated.  Hardy. 

(P.  alba,  var.  nivea  argentea.) — A form  of  the  Abele  with 
a much  more  silvery  aspect  on  account  of  the  greater  amount 
of  down  on  the  leaves  and  young  growth.  Very  pretty  for 
contrasting  with  other  trees.  Propagated  by  cutting  and 
sprouts. 

Lombardy  Poplar.  (P.  fastigiata.) — Conspicuous  for 
its  erect, close, columnar  form.  It  can  often  be  used  in  a small 
way  to  advantage  in  ornamental  planting,  to  secure  va- 
riety. A verv  rapid  grower.  Hardy  when  young.  In  shel- 
tered positions  it  stands  fairly  well  but  generally  as  soon  as 
it  gets  to  be  of  much  size,  it  begins  to  die  in  the  top  and  be- 
comes unsightly.  Not  desirable  for  extensive  planting.  We 
have  a form  of  this, from  Russia,  which  Prof.  Budd  reports  as  far 
more  desirable,  but  as  we  have  had  it  only  eight  years  and  dur- 
ing  that  time  neither  it  nor  the  common  form  have  been  in- 
jured, we  are  not  warranted  in  drawing  conclusions.  Ea- 
sily grown  from  cuttings. 

Cottonwood.  (P.  monilifera.)  This  is  well  known  and 
very  popular  as  a rapid  growing,  pioneer  tree.  It  succeeds 
admirably  on  the  prairies  of  western  Minnesota,  but  is  of 
little  value  except  as  a wind-break,  being  quite  worthless  as 
lumber  and  for  farm  purposes.  With  it  should  be  planted 
some  more  durable  and  better  kind  to  take  its  place,  as  it 
generally  reaches  maturity  in  about  twenty  years  or  less 


183 


and  then  commences  to  fail  rapidly.  A not  clearly  defined 
form  of  this  with  yellow  heart  wood  and  perhaps  larger  leaved, 
called  yellow  cottonwood, found  in  the  Missouri  valley,  is  far 
better  for  general  planting,  since  it  affords  timber  that  for 
many  purposes  will  compare  favorably  with  white  pine.  This 
form  should  supercede  the  common  or  native  cottonwood  for 
general  planting.  Grown  from  cuttings  or  from  seed  which 
ripens  in  early  autumn. 

Many  complain  of  the  cottonwood  being  a nuisance 
on  account  of  the  cottony  float  which  it  sheds  with  its  seed. 
This  tree  is  dioecious,  that  is,  there  are  male  and  female  trees 
of  it.  If  only  male  trees  were  set,  or  cuttings  of  male  trees — 
those  with  reddish  tassles — no  cotton  would  be  produced. 

Van  Gert’s  Golden  Poplar.  (P.  monilifera , var.  Van 
Gertii.)  A form  of  the  cottonwood  that  has  conspicuous 
golden  green  leaves  all  summer.  Desirable  for  occasional  use 
in  ornamental  planting  to  secure  pleasing  contrasts.  Very 
useful  for  parks.  Of  much  the  same  habit  as  the  cottonwood; 
healthy  and  a strong  grower.  Easily  increased  by  cuttings. 

Russian  or  Asiatic  Poplars. — We  have  in  our  collection 
at  the  experiment  station,  ten  kinds  of  these  poplars  which 
we  have  grown  seven  years.  (For  a detailed  report  on  them 
see  Bulletin  No.  9.)  Several  of  them  give  promise  of  being 
desirable  trees  for  general  use,  while  others  have  their  foliage 
too  much  injured  by  fungi,  are  too  susceptible  to  the  attacks 
of  the  poplar  borer,  ( Saperba  concola)  or  are  of  too  slow 
growth  to  ever  become  valuable.  Those  most  desirable 
are  the  following: 

Populus  certinensis.  A fast  growing  poplar  with  oval- 
pointed  leaves.  It  makes  a large  tree.  Of  rather  closer  and 
better  habit  than  the  cottonwood.  I think  far  more  desir- 
able than  the  common  cottonwood  for  ornamental  and  tim- 
ber  planting,  but  it  has  not  been  tried  sufficiently  in  Minne- 
sota to  warrant  very  pronounced  opinions  regarding  it. 
Easily  grown  from  cuttings. 

Populus  Petrouski.  As  we  have  it,  apparently  inden- 
tical  with  the  certinensis. 


184 


Laurel  Leaved  Poplar.  ( Populus  balsamifera , var . 
lauri folia.)  This  is  a little  slower  grower  than  the  P.  certi- 
nensis.  The  foliage  is  very  thick  and  healthy  and  white  on 
the  under  side.  Distinct  and  desirable  and  well  worthy  of 
trial.  Of  rapid  growth.  Itroots  easily  from  cuttings. 

Populus  balsamifera , var.  Siberica  pyramidalis. — A pretty, 
ornamental  and  timber  poplar  with  stiff,  leathery  foliage 
somewhat  resembling  that  of  the  laurifolia.  Hardy  and  de- 
sirable. Grown  from  cuttings. 

Populus  Wobskv.  A poplar  of  peculiar  aspect  and  re- 
sembling a cherry  tree  in  foliage.  At  the  experiment 
station  rather  more  liable  to  attacks  of  the  poplar  bo- 
rer and  to  leaf  fungi  than  most  of  the  other  kinds,  but  re- 
ports from  Chippewa  county  show  that  it  is  doing  well  there. 
A rapid  grower.  It  roots  easily  from  cuttings. 

Birch  Leaved  Poplar.  ( Populus  betulifolia.) — Not  esr 
pecially  valuable,  but  a fast  growing  poplar,  with  leaves 
shaped  much  like  those  of  the  cottonwood  but  broader.  It 
might  be  used  to  give  variety  to  timber  borders.  Easily 
grown  from  cuttings. 

PRUNES.  Cherry. 

* Wild  Black  Cherry.  (P.  serotina.) — A native  tree  T 
very  pretty  at  all  times  and  especially  so  when  in  blossom  or 
when  loaded  with  ripe  fruit.  Very  hardy  when  grouped, 
among  other  trees,  but  it  occasionally  sun  scalds  when  stand- 
ing alone.  Valuable  as  an  ornamental  tree  and  for  timber 
planting.  It  yields,  next  to  black  walnut,  the  most  valuable 
wood  grown  in'  this  state.  Flowers  in  June.  Grown  from 
seed  which  ripens  in  autumn. 

*Wild  Red  Cherry.  (P.  Pennsylvania.) — A small  na- 
tive tree  of  good  form  and  habit,  that  does  well  under  culti- 
vation. White  flowers  in  May.  Grown  from  sprouts  and 
root  cuttings  or  from  seed  which  ripens  in  autumn. 

*Choke  Cherry.  (P.  Virginica.) — A small  native  tree 
that  does  well  under  cultivation.  White  flowers  in  May. 
Grown  from  sprouts  or  from  seed  which  ripens  in  autumn. 


185 


PYRUS. 

*Wild  Crab.  (P.  coronaria.) — This  may  sometime  be 
used  to  advantage  as  a lawn  tree,  but  it  is  generally  unsatis- 
factory, and  is  very  liable  to  blight.  Flowers  in  May.  In- 
creased by  root  grafting. 

^American  Mountain  Ash.  (P.  Americana.)  This  is 
a pretty,  hardy  native  tree  of  coarse  growth  and  larger, 
lighter  colored  berries  than  the  European  species.  I think 
it  somewhat  hardier.  Propagated  by  seed  which  ripens  in 
autumn. 

European  Mountain  Ash.  (P.  aucuparia.) — A valuable 
and  popular  tree;  very  ornamental  in  flower  and 
fruit.  Propagated  by  seed.  Rather  hardier  than  the 
Duchess  apple.  It  is  holding  on  exceedingly  well  in  the  vici- 
nity of  St.  Paul  and  at  Fargo,  N.  D.,  but  is  somewhat  liable 
to  sun  scald  and  blights  occasionally.  Very  hardy  when  es- 
tablished. Grown  from  seed  which  ripens  in  autumn. 

Weeping  Mountain  Ash.  (P.  aucuparia , var.) — This  is  a 
very  hardy  pendulous  form  of  the  European  mountain  ash,  and 
makes  a conspicuous  tree  on  the  lawn.  It  generally  requires 
some  pruning  when  young  to  make  it  fall  evenly  around  its 
stem.  Propagated  by  budding  and  grafting  on  the  species. 

QUERCUS.  Oak. 

The  oaks  are  slow  growers,  but  long  lived.  Our  best 
growing  species  is  the  burr  oak,  and  more  of  them  should 
be  planted  The  impression  prevails  that  oak  can- 
not be  transplanted,  but  nursery  grown  trees  properly  hand- 
led can  be  moved  without  serious  loss,  and  in  rich  soil  their 
growth  is  quite  rapid. 

*Burr,  Mossy  Cup  or  Over-Cup  Oak.  ( Q . macrocarpa.) 
—Our  finest  ornamental  oak  and  a magnificent  tree  even  in  the 
most  severe  locations.  In  habit  of  growth,  size,  form  of 
acorns  and  cupules  it  is  very  variable.  This  tree  and  the 
white  oak  class,  to  which  it  belongs,  have  very  long  tap 
roots.  On  this  account  they  withstand  the  treading  of  cat- 
tle or  the  working  of  the  soil  around  them  far  better  than 
the  red  oak  class,  which  have  mostly  surface  roots,  when 
they  grow  in  forests,  but  if  the  red  oaks  are  planted  in  the 


186 


open  ground  they  develop  tap  roots  and  stand  well.  Easily 
grown  from  its  acorns. 

* White  Oak.  ( Q . alba.) — A valuable  timber  tree  of  slow 
growth;  not  particularly  useful  for  ornamental  purposes,  but 
its  persistent  leaves  give  variety  to  winter  scenery.  Grown 
from  its  acorns,  which  should  be  sown  as  soon  as  possible  after 
they  fall  from  the  tree. 

*Red  Oak.  ( Q . rubra.) — A good  ornamental  anditimber 
tree,  with  foliage  of  a deep  red  color  in  autumn.  Grown 
from  its  acorns. 

^Scarlet  Oak.  ( Q . coccinea.)  Has  brilliant  scarlet  fo- 
liage after  the  first  frosts  of  autumn.  A beautiful  ornamen- 
tal tree.  In  growing  this  care  should  be  taken  to  select  acorns 
from  the  trees  having  the  best  foliage  and  habit. 

ROBINIA.  Locust  Tree. 

Yellow  or  Black  Locust.  ( R . pseud-acacia.)— Too 
tender  and  uncertain  over  most  of  this  state,  and  too  liable 
to  attacks  of  borers  to  warrant  its  general  planting  any- 
where. But  in  sheltered  positions  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  state  and  north  to  Minneapolis  there  are  occasional 
groups  of  trees  of  good  size.  It  is  admired  for  its  racemes  of 
pretty  white  flowers  and  graceful  foliage.  Grown  from  seed 
which  ripens  in  autumn,  and  from  sprouts.  Flowers  in  June. 

SALISBURIA. 

Maiden-Hair  Tree  or  Gingko.  (S.  adianti folia.) — A 
very  pretty  slow  growing  tree  with  peculiar  fan  shaped  foli- 
age. A few  specimens  have  grown  well  near  Minneapolis  for 
six  years  without  protection.  I have  found  the  young  seed- 
lings quite  tender.  Grown  from  seed. 

SALIX.  Willow. 

White,  Gray  or  Huntington  Willow.  ( S.alba .) — This 
most  valuable  willow  is  too  well  known  as  a very  desirable 
tree  for  shelter  belts,  or  as  a street  tree,  to  need  much  space 
here,  but  its  great  value  forbids  passing  it  by  without  some 
notice.  It  is  the  best  pioneer  tree  for  exposed  places,  and 
succeeds  well  everywhere  if  it  has  a fair  chance.  In  some 


18  7 


places,  notably  in  Cottonwood  county,  the  larva  of  the  saw- 
flies  severely  injures  it,  and  it  has  seldom  been  planted  there 
of  late  years.  By  a little  attention  at  the  proper  time  these 
insects  may  easily  be  destroyed.  It  can  often  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage in  ornamental  planting,  for  street  trees, along  water 
courses  and  for  a quick  growing  screen  to  protect  more  ten- 
der trees.  Grown  from  cuttings. 

Wisconsin  Weeping  Willow.  (S.  var.) — A fine,  quick 
growing,  large  tree  with  pendulous  branches . I think  it  valu- 
able over  most  of  the  state.  The  small  twigs  are  sometimes 
injured  at  the  experiment  station,  but  it  quickly  outgrows 
any  winter  injury  it  may  receive.  One  of  the  most  desirable 
weeping  trees.  Easily  grown  from  cuttings. 

Kilmarnock  Willow  (S.  caprea , var.  pendula.) 
Too  tender  for  this  state,  but  often  sold  here  by  un- 
scrupulous or  ignorant  agents.  It  seldom  survives  one  win- 
ter. 


RUSSIAN  WILLOWS — Frequent  inquiries  are  made  for 
the  “Russian  Willow, ” with  the  impression  evidently  that 
there  is  but  one  tree  under  this  name,  when  the  fact  is  that 
at  the  experiment  station  we  have  seven  kinds  received  from 
Russia,  and  one  is  as  justly  entitled  to  the  term  “Russian ” as 
the  other.  These  kinds  differ  widely  in  value.  The  most 
valuable  are  the  following: 

Laurel  Leaved  Willow.  (S.  laurifolia.) — One  of  the 
finest  and  most  satisfactory  medium  sized  trees  we  have,  with 
large  dark  green  leaves  that  shine  as  if  varnished.  Of  close, 
pretty  habit  it  scarce  resembles  any  of  the  common  willows 
in  appearance.  A rapid  grower.  Very  desirable  for  screens 
and  for  street  and  park  planting.  Easily  grown  from  cut- 
tings. 

Russian  Golden  Willow.  (S.  vitellina,  var.  aurea.) — 
Perfectly  hardy  and  a very  rapid  grower,  making  a large  tree. 
At  all  times  a good  tree,  but  especially  handsome  and  con- 
spicuous in  the  latter  part  of  winter  and  towards  spring, 
when  the  bark  turns  a light  golden  yellow,  A far  better  and 
prettier  tree  than  the  common  golden  willow;  very  desirable 


188 


for  screens  and  wind-brakes.  Easily  grown  from  cuttings. 

S.  acutifolia. — One  of  the  best  of  the  Russian  willows. 
Quite  distinct  in  foliage  and  habit  from  other  willows;  very 
pretty  and  graceful.  Its  leaves  are  glossy,  branches  slender 
and  covered  with  a blue  bloom  when  more  than  one  year  old. 
Not  so  rapid  a grower  as  the  white  or  golden  willow,  but  it 
makes  a good  sized  open  tree.  The  foliage  resists  the  work  of 
the  saw-fly  larva  better  than  that  of  any  willow  I know.  Per- 
fectly hardy.  Easily  grown  from  cuttings. 

Napoleon's  Willow.  (S.  Napoleonis.) — This  is  a pretty 
little  spreading  dwarf  willow  from  Russia,  with  fine  twigs 
and  narrow  bluish  leaves.  It  is  desirable  for  covering  un- 
sightly banks  and  for  edging  water  courses.  We  have  graft- 
ed this  on  to  the  S.  acutifolio,  and  in  this  form  it  makes  a 
pretty  weeping  tree.  Very  hardy,  but  the  young  growth  is 
sometimes  a little  injured  in  severe  winters  at  the  experiment 
station.  Grown  from  cuttings. 

Royal  Willow.  (S.  regalis.) — A quick  growing  tree  of 
medium  size;  close,  pretty  habit  and  light,  downy,  gray  col- 
ored foliage;  very  valuable  for  enlivening  plantings  and  se- 
curing contrasts.  Much  used  in  fine  park  planting.  We  have 
grown  it  at  the  experiment  station  three  years  and  it  seems 
perfectly  hardy.  Easily  grown  from  cuttings. 

TIBIA.  Basswood. 

x Basswood  or  American  Linden.  (T.  Americana.) — A 
native  tree  well  known  as  one  of  the  most  beautiful  native 
and  large  ornamental  trees  we  have.  It  thrives  best  in  the 
moist,  rich  land  of  river  bottoms,  but  does  well  in  any  good 
soil.  It  is  a good  street  tree  in  suitable  locations,  and  is  not 
used  nearly  as  much  for  this  purpose  as  it  should  be.  Ifyoung 
trees  are  taken  from  the  woods  and  at  once  planted 
out  so  that  the  trunk  is  exposed  they  are  very  liable  to  sun 
scald.  On  this  account  trees  planted  alone  should  have  their 
trunks  protected  with  straw  or  other  material  until  the  trees 
are  large  enough  to  shade  themselves . Grown  from  seed  which 
ripens  in  autumn  and  from  cuttings. 

European  Linden.  (T.  Europea.)—  We  have  tried 
several  of  the  varieties  of  this  species  and  found  them  all  too 
tender  to  be  valuable  here. 


ULMUS.  Elm. 


*American  or  White  Elm.  ( U . Americana.)— This  is  by 
far  the  finest  tree  we  have  for  street  planting.  While  it  is 
found  at  its  best  in  river  bottoms  or  other  moist  locations, 
it  also  endures  remarkably  well  the  intense  heat  and  cold  of 
the  prairies  of  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas,  and  should  more 
often  be  used  in  timber  plantings.  Clean  in  habit,  a rapid 
grower,  long  lived  and  beautiful  in  every  way.  It  varies 
much  in  habit.  Grown  from  seed  which  ripens  in  June. 

English  Elm.  ( U . campestris.) — This  grand  tree  has 
been  grown  to  only  a limited  extent  in  this  state,  but  at  the 
central  and  the  Owatonna  experiment  stations  and  in  Lake- 
wood  cemetery,  Minneapolis,  it  is  very  promising.  In  habit 
it  differs  much  from  our  American  elms,  the  limbs  projecting 
from  the  trunk  at  nearly  right  angles.  Grown  from  layers 
or  suckers. 

*Red,  Slippery  or  Moose  Elm.  (U.  fulva.) — This  is  a 
good  small  or  medium  sized  tree;  desirable  for  forest  plant- 
ing. The  redwood  is  straight  grained  and  a valuable  tim- 
ber for  many  purposes.  Not  so  desirable  for  street  planting 
as  the  white  elm.  Grown  from  seed  which  ripens  in  June. 

Weeping  Slippery  Elm.  ( XJ . fulva  var.)— This  is 

of  very  strong  growth,  and  pendulous  habit.  When 
growing  rapidly,  some  branches  are  apt  to  run  up  too  erect 
for  symmetrv;  these  will  assume  their  proper  positions  if 
some  small  weight  is  tied  to  their  ends.  A useful  variety 
for  occasional  use  in  ornamental  planting.  Grown  by  graft- 
ing it  on  white  or  slippery  elm. 

*Cork  or  Rock  Elm.  ( U . racemosa.) — A valuable  na- 
tive tree  of  large  size  that  varies  very  much.  One  form  of 
this  has  leaves  that  remain  on  it  all  winter.  This  has  much 
harder  and  stronger  wood  than  the  red  elm.  A valuable  tree 
for  ornamental  or  timber  planting.  Grown  from  seed  which 
ripens  in  early  autumn. 

Camperdown  Weeping  Elm.  ( U . var.  montana,  Cam - 

perdown.) — A very  beautiful  weeping  tree,  not  generally  re- 
garded as  hardy  here,  but,  at  the  experiment  station,  it  has 
come  through  the  past  three  winters  in  vigorous  condition. 
In  Lakewood  cemetery,  Minneapolis,  it  is  holding  on  well. 


Evergreen  Trees ,* 


ABIES.  Balsam. 


*Balsam  Fir,  Balsam  Spruce  or  Balm-of-Gilead  Fir. 
(A.  balsamea.) — This  well  known  evergreen  is  very  abun- 
dant in  eastern  Minnesota.  It  makes  a slender  tree  of 
much  beauty  in  moist  locations  and  rich  soil,  but  it  is  not 
nearly  so  valuable  for  screens  or  ornamental  planting  gener- 
ally as  the  white  or  Norway  spruce,  and  should  be  used  very 
sparingly  in  dry  locations.  It  often  loses  much  of  its  beauty 
when  old,  especially  if  at  all  affected  by  lack  of  water  in  the 
soil.  Grown  from  seed. 

A.  concolor. — This  is  a Rocky  Mountain  fir  with  long, 
light  colored,  beautiful  foliage.  It  varies  much  in  color,  some 
specimens  being  a soft  light  pea-green  color.  Well  grown 
specimens  are  very  beautiful.  When  young  it  rather  inclines 
to  spread  out  and  to  be  sprawling  in  habit,  but  in  a few  years 
it  takes  a start  upwards  and  makes  a good  tree.  We  have 
grown  it  at  the  experiment  station  seven  years  and  it  has 
shown  itself  to  be  very  hardy,  but  its  slow  growth  will  pre- 
vent its  becoming  very  popular.  Grown  from  seed. 

Nordmann’s  Silver  Fir.  (A.  Nordmanniam.) — Not  sa- 
tisfactory at  the  experiment  station  as  the  foliage  sun  burns 
badly. 

PINUS.  Pines. 

*White  or  Weymouth  Pine.  (P.  strobus.) — One  ofthe 
most  valuable  and  beautiful  native  evergreen  trees  we  have. 
Long  lived,  hardy  and  of  rapid  growth  in  almost  any  soil  or 
situation  when  once  established,  in  eastern,  north-eastern  and 

*A11  the  evergreen  trees  referred  to  in  this  bulletin  are  generally  grown  from  seed 
sown  early  in  the  spring.  Occasionally,  to  perpetuate  some  peculiarity,  some  vari- 
eties are  grown  from  cuttings  by  grafting,  but  those  so  propagated  are  not  as  long 
lived  or  hardy  as  plants  from  seed. 


191 


southern  Minnesota^  but  reports  from  extreme  western  Min- 
esota  would  indicate  that  it  is  somewhat  unreliable  there,  and 
that  the  Scotch  pine  is  a better  tree  to  plant  there.  Grown 
from  seed  that  ripens  in  autumn. 

*Red  or  Norway  Pine.  (P.  resinosa.) — For  ornamen- 
talplanting this  native  tree  rivals  the  white  pine.  It  is  of 
goodform,  rapid  growth, long  lived  and  perfectly  hardy  when 
once  established.  Young  trees  of  this  pine  have  for  several 
years  been  difficult  to  obtain,  and  but  few  nurserymen  offer 
them,  and  when  they  do  it  is  at  about  twice  the  price  of 
white  pine.  The  seed,  too,  we  have  found  almost  impossible 
to  obtain  for  the  last  two  years.  Grown  from  seed. 

Scotch  Pine.  (P.  sylvestris.) — Introduced  from  Eu- 
rope; a quick  growing  tree  and  a favorite  with  the 
planters;  very  hardy  and  easily  grown,  but  in  this  climate  it 
seems  to  mature  in  about  twenty  years  and  then  begins  to 
look  scrawny  and  bare;  a valuable  tree  to  plant  as  a pioneer 
evergreen.  A form  of  this,  called  Riga  pine  has 
been  introduced  into  this  country  from  Russia  and 
is  represented  as  a much  larger  tree  and  much 
longer  lived  than  the  ordinary  Scotch  pine  in  this  climate.  We 
have  several  specimens  no  w ten  years  old  on  the  grounds  of  the 
experiment  station;  they  grow  well  and  may  be  somewhat 
closer  in  habit  than  the  Scotch  pine;  they  are  holding  their 
own,  but  we  think  not  more  so  than  the  common  Scotch 
pine,  though  we  have  not  had  them  long  enough  to  draw 
definite  conclusions  as  to  their  value.  Grown  from  seed. 

Austrian  or  European  Pine.  (P.  Austriaca.)— Intro- 
duced from  Europe;  somewhat  resembling  the  Scotch  pine, 
but  with  longer  needles  and  a more  symmetrical,  candelabra 
like  habit  ; it  is  open  to  the  same  objection  as  the  Scotch  pine 
and  is  not  nearly  so  hardy  or  as  rapid  a grower;  very  hand- 
some and  useful  forgiving  variety  to  plantings.  Grown  from 
seed. 

Heavy  Wooded  or  Bull  Pine.  (P.ponderosa.)— This  is 
a Rocky  Mountain  species  that  seems  to  promise  much  use- 
fulness in  this  state;  it  is  the  only  pine  found  growing  in  the 
extremely  dry  climate  of  northwestern  Nebraska  and  among 


192 


the  foot  hills,  where  it  is  often  found  growing  alone  in  ex- 
posed places  It  does  not  thrive  in  the  humid  air  of  the  east- 
ern states.  From  what  we  know  of  this  tree  it  would  seem 
to  be  well  adapted  to  the  western  prairies  of  this  state;  well 
worth  trying  and  one  of  the  easiest  to  grow  from  seeds. 

Dwarf  Mugho  Pine.  (P.  Mughus.) — Introduced  from 
Europe.  A very  hardy  and  long  lived  dwarf  pine,  seldom 
growing  over  six  feet  high;  shrub  like  in  habit;  very  thick 
and  bushy.  It  is  very  desirable  for  ornamental  planting  and 
single  specimens  are  often  very  handsome;  it  also  makes  a 
good  wind  break;  of  rather  slow  growth;  the  plants  vary 
much  in  aspect  but  all  have  the  same  dwarf  habit.  Hon.  L 
R.  Moyer,  of  Montevideo,  Chippewa  County,  Minn.,  thinks 
this  the  hardiest  and  longest  lived  of  cultivated  pines.  Grown 
from  seed. 

PICEA.  Spruce. 

*White  or  Blue  Spruce.  (P.  alba.) — This  is  perhaps  the 
most  valuable  spruce  we  have.  When  once  established  it  is 
very  hardy  and  beautiful;  much  hardier  than  the  Norway 
spruce,  but  in  habit  not  so  graceful  and  more  resembling  the 
balsam  fir.  The  seed  of  this  tree  is  difficult  to  obtain,  and 
the  young  trees  generally  cost  considerably  more  than  the 
Norway  spruce.  The  black  spruce  is  frequently  substituted 
for  the  white  spruce,  which  it  somewhat  resembles,  when 
young.  A native  timber  tree  with  cones  about  two  inches 
long  that  fall  off  when  ripe.  Grown  from*  seed. 

Norway  Spruce.  (P.  excelsa. — ) A fine  tree  that  is  gen- 
erally doing  well  in  the  state.  A strong,  very  fine  grower, 
and  it  assumes  a beautiful  pyramidal  form,  and  drooping 
habit  when  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  high.  Its  foliage  is  occa- 
sionally browned  a little  but  it  holds  on  well.  Very  desir- 
able for  wind  breaks.  On  account  ofthe  scarcity  of  the  white 
spruce  this  tree  has  been  and  is  destined  to  be  largely  plant- 
ed. Its  cones  generally  form  near  the  tops  of  large  trees  and 
are  often  eight,  and  seldom  less  than  six  inches  long.  Easi- 
ly grown  from  seed. 

Black  or  Double  Spruce  (P.  nigra.)  is  far  more 
abundant  in  our  native  woods  than  the  white  spruce,  which 


193 


is  quite  rare.  It  is  comparatively  worthless  for  planting  in 
this  state,  seldom  giving  satisfaction.  A slow  grower,  with 
a decidedly  dirty  aspect  when  it  commences  to  bear  seed,  as 
the  cones  do  not  drop  oft,  like  those  of  the  Norway  and 
white  spruces,  but  remain  on  the  trees  decaying  for  years; 
this,  with  its  enfeebled  growth ‘which  shows  when  the  trees 
first  bear  seed,  make  it  quite  unsightly.  The  planting  of 
this  spruce  has  led  to  much  disappointment.  Unscrupulous 
persons  often  sell  this  for  the  white  spruce,  which  it  some- 
what resembles  when  young.  Cones  small,  one  to  one-and- 
a-half  inches  long.  Trees  often  bear  cones  when  not 
over  five  feet  high,  but  I have  never  seen  the  white  spruce 
have  cones  until  much  larger  and  older. 

v.  1 \ 

Colorado  Blue  Spruce.  (P.  pungens.)— This  is  a tree 
of  exceeding  great  beauty  from  the  Rocky  mountains,  where 
it  is  found  growing  in  very  severe  exposures.  It  seems  to  be 
of  wide  adaptablilitv,  succeeding  equally  well  in  North 
Carolina  and  in  Nebraska.  Its  chief  beauty  lies  in  the 
beautiful  light  blue  color  of  some  specimens.  In  growing  it 
from  seed,  it  is  found  that  only  about  one-third  of  the  seed- 
lings have  the  desired  blue  color,  while  the  remaining  two- 
thirds  are  of  a rich  green  color.  As  yet  there  are  no  large 
specimens  in  this  state.  It  has  been  grown  for  seven  years  in 
the  nursery  at  the  experiment  station  and  it  appears  as  har- 
dy as  the  white  spruce,  while  it  is  of  a far  prettier  habit.  Judg- 
ing of  it  from  observations  made  here  and  in  eastern  states, 
where  there  are  quite  large  trees,  I am  led  to  believe  that 
it  will  become  very  popular  and  prove  a decided  acquisition 
to  our  list  of  ornamental  evergreen  trees.  Not  so  rapid  a 
grower  as  the  white  spruce.  Grown  from  seed, 

Engleman's  Spruce.  (P.  Englemanii.) — Introduced 
from  the  Rocky  mountains.  This  somewhat  resembles  the 
Colorado  blue  spruce,  but  with  blunt  pointed  needles.  Very 
pretty  and  desirable.  Not  thoroughly  tested.  Grown  from 
seed. 

PSEUDOTSUGA. 

Douglas  Spruce.  (P.  taxi  folia.) — Another  Rocky  moun- 
tain conifer  which  is  quite  unique  in  its  botanical  relation  to 


194 


other  conifers.  In  foliage  it  somewhat  resembles  the  hem- 
lock, as  its  name  implies.  Good  authority  reports  this  tree 
as  tender  here  when  raised  from  seed  grown  on  the  west- 
ern slopes  of  the  Rockies,  while  seed  from  the  eastern  slopes 
produces  plants  that  are  very  hardy,  but  not  so  hardy  as  the 
white  spruce.  In  its  native  habitat  it  produces  a great 
amount  of  large  timber  resembling  and  valued  for 
the  same  purposes  as  hemlock.  We  have  grown 
it  seven  years  at  the  experiment  station  and  find  it  of  rapid 
growth,  and  somewhat  irregular  but  erect  habit.  Easily 
transplanted  and  very  hardy.  It  varies  much  in  color,  some 
specimens  rivaling  the  Colorado  blue  spruce  in  color  and 
beauty  of  foliage.  Grown  from  seed.  The  young  seedlings* 
however,  are  extremely  tender  and  liable  to  sun  scald  and  to 
“damp  off.” 

RETINISPORA.  Japan  Cedar. 

Japan  Cedar.  ( R . plumosa.) — This  beautiful  ever- 

green is  too  tender  to  be  grown  successfully  in  Minne- 
sota. The  rest  of  the  species  and  varieties  are  probably  as 
tender  and  not  even  of  promising  hardiness.  As  specimen 
plants  to  be  grown  in  tubs  and  wintered  in  the  cellar  they 
are  very  desirable.  Grown  from  cuttings  or  layers. 

TSUGA  CANADENSIS.  Hemlock. 
^Hemlock  or  Hemlock  Spruce.  (T.  Canadensis.) — This 
native  tree  is  found  abundantly  in  parts  of  Wisconsin,  but 
only  sparingly  in  Minnesota.  It  is  a valuable  timber  tree  of 
magnificent  habit  and  proportions.  There  is  a very  general 
feeling  among  the  planters  that  it  is  not  hardy  here,  but  at 
the  experiment  station  we  find  that  when  planted  among 
other  trees  it  is  very  hardy,  only  occasionally  having  its  foli- 
age browned.  Well  worthy  of  more  ex  tended  use  in  somewhat 
sheltered  locations.  Grown  from  seed. 

JUNIPERTJS.  Juniper. 

Red  Cedar  or  Juniper.  (/.  Virginiana.) — Well  known* 
and  found  growing  in  many  parts  of  Minnesota.  It 
does  well  in  the  driest  and  most  exposed,  as  well  as  in  the 
most  sheltered  locations, and  forms  an  admirable  wind  break. 
When  grown  in  alternate  rows  with  white  or  Scotch  pine  a 


195 


ft 


screen  is  formed  as  impenetrable  as  a stone  wall.  Grown 
from  seed  that  should  have  the  outer  coat  taken  off  with  pot- 
ash lye,  and  which  often  then  will  remain  dormant  for  a 
year  in  the  soil  before  growing.  The  native  form  of  this  is 
much  hardier  than  that  found  further  south. 

Trailing  or  Savin  Juniper.  (/.  Sabina  var.  tamarisifo - 
lia.) — A pretty,  dwarf,  trailing  native  juniper  which  is  readily 
pruned  to  a variety  of  forms.  It  makes  a fine  plant  and  is 
very  desirable  for  occasional  use.  Grown  from  cuttings  and 
layers. 

THUJA.  Arbor  Vitae. 

*Arbor  Vlle  or  White  Cedar.  (T.  Occident alis.) — Very 
common  in  swamps  in  eastern  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin. 
Valuable  for  screens  and  hedges.  It  will  not  stand  well  in 
very  dry  locations,  but  makes  a good  growth  in  any  reten- 
tive soil  when  once  established.  Grown  from  seed.  It  varies 
much  under  cultivation  and  most  of  its  varieties  are  desirable. 
Among  the  best  of  these  are  the  following: 

Siberian  Arbor  Vit^e.  ( T.  occidentalism  var.  Siberica.) — 
One  of  the  best  varieties  for  favorable  locations,  but  is  not 
as  hardy  as  the  following  species  or  the  next.  Of  a dark 
rich  green  color  and  compact  habit.  Grown  from  cuttings  or 
layers. 

Pyramidal  Arbor  Vlle.  ( T.  occidentalism  var.  pyramid - 
alis) . Of  upright  pyramidal  form, and  very  distinct, fine, hand- 
some foliage.  It  gives  variety  when  planted  among  other 
evergreens.  Grown  from  cuttings  or  layers.  Hardy. 

Golden  Arbor  Vlle.  (T.  occidentalism  var.  Douglasii.) 
— A strong  growing  kind.  In  habit  like  the  common  arbor 
vitas  but  with  bright  golden  color;  conspicuous  and  pretty, 
but  occasionally  it  severely  sun  scalds.  Grown  from  cut_ 
tings  and  layers. 


Shrubs. 


ARALIA. 


Aralia  or  Angelica  Tree.  (A.  Maadshurica.)—  A 
very  odd  looking  bush  with  large  compound  leaves  that  give 
it  a semi-tropical  aspect.  With  ns  it  kills  to  the  ground  each 
season,  but  starts  quickly  from  the  roots  in  the  spring,  and 
makes  a growth  of  from  three  to  five  feet.  It  prefers  a moist 
situation. 

BERBERIS.  Barberry. 

Common  Barberry.  ( B . vulgaris.) — A strong  growing 
shrub  with  handsome  foliage,  many  sharp  prickles,  yellow 
flowers  in  June,  and  red  fruit.  Found  occasionally  sponta- 
neous in  this  state.  It  makes  a small  loose  hedge  and  is  de- 
sirable for  grouping.  Very  hardy  here,  but  it  fruits  only 
sparingly.  Its  foliage  is  often  disfigured  by  the  cluster  cup 
fungus.  Grown  from  seed  that  ripens  in  autumn. 

Purple  Leaved  Barberry.  ( B . vulgaris,  var.  purpu- 
rea.)— A fine  ornamental  shrub  with  purple  foliage  and  small 
yellow  flowers  in  May.  Valuable  for  contrasting 

with  plants  of  lighter  foliage.  When  grown  from  seed  a large 
proportion  of  the  plants  will  often  be  green  in  color,  but 
most  of  them  will  be  purple.  It  may  also  be  grown  from 
cuttings  of  the  half  ripened  wood. 

Thunberg’s  Barberry.  ( B . Thunbergii.) — A very 

pretty  spreading  bush  of  small  size.  The  foliage  is  small  and 
bright  green  in  summer,  changing  to  a bright  red  in  autumn. 
It  is  not  much  effected  by  the  cluster  cup  fungus.  Desirable, 
GrownYrom  cuttings  of  the  green  wood,  or  from  seed  which 
ripens  in  autumn. 


197 


CARAUANA.  Pea  Tree. 

Caragana  or  Siberian  Pea  Tree.  (C.  arborescens.) — A 
Siberian  shrub  of  close, neat  habit,  locust  like  leaves  and  leaf- 
lets and  bright  yellow,  pea-shaped  flowers  early  in  spring, 
followed  by  long,  slender  pods.  Very  pretty  for  a division 
line  between  city  lots  and  for  grouping.  It  bears  pruning 
well  and  is  probably  one  of  the  hardiest  of  cultivated  plants. 
Grown  from  seed  that  ripens  in  autumn. 

C.  frutecsens. — A smaller  Siberian  shrub  than  the  above, 
with  yellow  flowers.  Valuable. 

COKNUS.  Dogwood. 

Red  Osier  Dogwood  or  Red  Twigged  Dogwood. 
(C.  stolonifera.) — A native  shrub  from  three  to  six 
feet  high,  with  bright  red  bark  in  winter,  and  small  white 
flowers  in  June.  It  sends  up  many  sprouts  from  the 
roots.  Very  pretty  either  singly  or  grouped  with  other 
shrubs.  Propagated  by  cuttings,  layers  and  suckers. 

C.  sanguinea. — A European  species,  similar  to  the  above 
in  foliage  and  flowers,  but  the  bark  is  of  a dark  red  color, 
and  it  does  not  sprout  from  the  roots.  Valuable  for  orna- 
mental planting.  Propagated  by  cuttings  and  layers. 

DIEKVILLA  Weigela. 

D.  rosea. — There  are  many  species  and  varieties  of  weige- 
la that  are  very  beautiful,  but  most  of  them  are  quite  tender 
in  this  state,  unless  heavily  protected  in  winter.  This  spe- 
cies, however,  is  quite  satisfactory  here,  and  is  well  worth 
growing  by  those  having  a somewhat  protected  location.  It 
produces  large  rose  colored,  trumpet  shaped  flowers  in  June. 
Pretty  and  desirable.  Very  hardy,  but  is  occasionally  in- 
jured by  severe  winters  and  is  improved  by  slight  protection . 
Grown  from  green  wood  huttings  and  from  layers. 

EUONYMUS.  Burning1  Bush. 

Euonymus,  Burning  Bush  or  Spindee  Tree.  (E.  atro- 
purpureus.) — This  is  our  native  species.  It  forms  a shrub  or 
small  tree  six  to  fourteen  feet  high.  Cultivated  for  its 
pretty  and  striking  appearance  in  autumn  when  covered  with 


198 


its  abundant  crimson  fruit.  Hardy.  Propagated  by  seed 
that  ripens  in  autumn. 

FORSYTHIA.  Golden  Bell. 

F.  Fortuneii. — This  shrub  generally  comes  through  our 
winters  without  much  injury,  but,  while  it  grows  rapidly  it 
seldom,  if  ever,  flowers  at  the  experiment  station.  Grown 
from  green  wood  cuttings  and  from  layers. 

F.  viridissima . — This  behaves  much  like  the  above. 
HYDRANGEA.  Hardy  Hydrangea. 

H.  paniculata. — This  is  the  original  type  of  the  popular 
large  flowering  hydrangea.  It  has  an  open  panicle  and  only 
a few  flowers  sterile.  A very  pretty  shrub,  but  not  gener- 
ally so  much  admired  as  the  next  and  not  much  grown. 

Large  Flowered  Hydrangea.  (H .Panic ulat a ,var.t gran- 
diflora.) — This  is  probably  the  most  popular  hardy  shrub  in 
cultivation.  It  is  admired  for  its  handsome  large  clusters  of 
white  flowers  in  August,  when  but  few  shrubs  are  in  blossom, 
and  none  so  conspicuous.  It  is  easily  grown,  and  is  general- 
ly hardy  without  protection.  Of  clean,  robust  habit,  it  should 
be  in  every  collection.  Easily  propagated  from  hard  or  soft 
wood  cuttings  and  from  layers.  Very  hardy  at  the  experi- 
ment station,  but  it  winter  kills  completely  in  very  trying 
situations  on  the  prairies,  unless  heavily  protected. 

HYPERICUM.  St.  John’s  Wort. 

H.  aureum. — We  have  had  this  shrub  two  winters  in  a 
somewhat  protected  place,  and  it  has  proven  very  hardy 
and  satisfactory  so  far.  It  has  large,  bright  yellow  flowers 
in  August  and  September.  Propagated  by  green  wood  cut- 
tings and  seeds. 

H.  kalmianum. — With  smaller  flowers  than  the  above 
and  of  a more  spreading  habit.  Flowers  in  August.  Very 
hardy.  Propagated  by  seed. 

H.  saliciiolia. — This  we  received  from  Prof.  Budd,  but 
have  never  been  able  to  winter  it.  Too  tender. 

LIGUSTRUM.  Privet. 

P.  vulgaris. — As  ordinarily  grown  this  is  very  tender, 


199 


but  we  have  a form  from  Poland  that  has  stood  the  last 
three  winters  without  serious  injury.  Increased  from  cut- 
tings. 

California  Privet.  (L.  ovalifolium.) — Not  hardy. 

LONICEEA.  Bush  Honeysuckle. 

L.  Tartarica. — There  are  several  varieties  of  this  and  all 
are  hardy,  desirable,  and  as  satisfactory  as  any  ornamental 
plant  grown.  They  make  large  bushes  and  are  never  injured 
by  severe  weather.  The  flowers  are  pink  and  white.  We  al- 
so have  a variety  with  larger  pink  flowers  than  the  species 
called  the  grandidora  that  is  very  desirable.  Flowers  in 
June,  followed  by  yellow  or  red  berries.  Grown  from  soft 
wood  cuttings,  layers  and  seed. 

PHILADELPHTJS.  Syringa,  or  Mock  Orange. 

Garland  Syringa.  (P.  coronarius.) — A well  known  and 
popular  favorite,  much  prized  for  its  high^  scented  white 
flowers,  which  are  produced  in  June  and  in  great  abundance. 
It  is  only  occasionally  injured  in  our  severe  winters  and  it 
quickly  outgrows  any  set  back  it  may  receive. 

P.  Columbianium. — A late  flowering  species  with  large 
white  flowers  that  we  received  from  Arnold  Arboretum.  Very 
beautiful  and  of  promising  hardiness. 

P.  grandidorus. — Has  slightly  fragrant  flowers  that  are 
very  large  and  showy.  Valuable. 

Philadelplms , var.  144. — We  received  this  from  Russsia 
through  Prof.  Budd.  It  has  very  large  white,  slightly  fra- 
grant, handsome,  flowers,  and  is  of  straggling  habit.  Probably 
form  of  P.  grandidorus.  Hardy  and  valuable.  Grown  by 
cuttings. 

Gordon’s  Syringa.  (P.  Gordonianuw.) — A fine  late  flow- 
ering variety  with  large  flowers.  Very  hardy. 

PHYSOCAEPUS.  Spiraea. 

*Spir.e  or  Nine-Bark.  (P.opulifolius.)— A strong- 
growing  shrub  from  six  to  ten  feet  high,  with  clusters  of 
white  flowers  late  in  June.  Desirable  for  screens  and  groups. 
Grown  from  seed  or  cuttings. 

Golden  Spiraea  or  Nine-Bark.  (P.  opulifolius , var. 


200 


aurea.) — A most  graceful  shrub  that  pleases  everyone  by  the 
contrast  of  its  graceful  form  and  golden  green  leaves  with 
the  foliage  of  other  plants.  It  is  especially  desirable  as  a 
single  specimen  for  the  lawn  where  something  nice  is  wanted. 
White  flowers  in  clusters  in  June.  Very  satisfactory.  Grown 
from  cuttings  and  layers. 

POTENTILLA.  Cinquefoil. 

*Potentilla  or  Shrubby  Cinquefoil.  (P.  fruticosa.) — 
A hardy  uative  shrub  about  three  feet  high,  with  pret- 
ty golden  yellow  flowers  all  summer.  Very  desirable  and  sat- 
isfactory even  in  the  most  exposed,  or  in  very  dry  situations. 
Grown  from  seed  and  layers. 

RHAMNUS.  Buckthorn. 

English  Buckthorn.  ( R.catharticus .) — Thewellknown 
and  popular  hedge  plant  of  the  eastern  states  and  Europe. 
Of  robust  growth  and  pretty  habit,  with  white  flowers  in 
June,  followed  by  black  berries.  It  bears  close  pruning  with- 
out injury.  It  may  be  grown  as  a small  tree  or  shrub. 
Perfectly  hardy  in  this  state  even  in  very  severe  locations. 
“ Exceedingly  desirable.  Plant  without  fear.”  Propagated 
by  seed  that  ripens  in  autumn. 

RHUS.  Sumach. 

Smoke  Bush  or  Purple  Fringe.  (P.  cotinus.) — Ad- 
mired for  its  airy  clusters  of  curious,  fringe-like  flowers  that 
to  the  popular  mind  resemble  brown  smoke.  It  can  only  be 
grown  successfully  in  this  state  in  favorable  locations,  and  is 
liable  to  serious  winter  injury  elsewhere.  Grown  by  seed  and 
layers. 

^Smooth  Leaved  Sumach.  ( R . glabra.) — A native  kind 
that  may  often  be  used  to  advantage  for  groups  in  orna- 
mental planting.  Attractive  in  summer  with  its  long, 
graceful  compound  leaves  and  clusters  of  dark  colored  fruit, 
but  in  autumn  the  plant  is  gorgeous  in  its  crimson  coloring. 
Propagated  by  seed  and  root  cuttings. 

Cut  Leaved  Sumach.  ( R . glabra , var.  laciniata.) — This 
is  a form  of  the  last,  but  with  finely  divided  foliage  that  gives 
it  something  of  the  aspect  of  a large  fern.  Very  pretty. 
Hardy  when  well  established.  Propagated  by  root  cuttings. 


201 


RIBES.  Flowering  Currant. 

R.  alpinum. — A dwarf  kind  with  spreading  habit  and 
small,  yellow  flowers. 

Yellow  Flowering  or  Missouri  Currant.  (2?.  aure- 
um.) — A well  known, popular  shrub  having  a great  profusion 
of  long  yellow  flowers  early  in  the  spring,  followed  by  a few 
purple,  black  shining  berries.  Of  the  easiest  culture,  hardy 
and  desirable.  Propagated  by  cuttings,  divisions  and  layers. 

Gordon’s  Currant.  ( R.  Gordonianum .) — Has  not  win- 
tered well  at  the  experiment  station,  and  we  think  it  too  ten- 
der without  protection. 

ROSA  RUGOSA.  Japanese  Rose. 

We  reserve  a report  on  hardy  and  desirable  roses  for  a 
subsequent  bulletin,  but  at  this  time  think  it  best  to  call  at- 
tention to  this  very  desirable  species,  which  has  seemingly 
been  overlooked  by  planters.  It  has  been  said  that  we  have 
never  received  a native  plant  from  Japan  that  was  hardy  in 
this  state,  and  at  first  thought  this  plant  might  seem  an  ex- 
ception to  the  rule,  yet  the  truth  probably  is  that  it  is  a 
native  of  Siberia,  from  whence  it  was  introduced  into  Japan. 

R.  rugosa. — We  have  this  in  two  colors,  pink  and  clear, 
pure  white.  The  plants  grow  about  three  feet  high  and  are 
exceedingly  vigorous  and  thrifty.  The  bark  is  covered  with 
slender  prickles.  The  leaves  are  large,  thick  and  of  a dark, 
glossy  green  color,  which  they  maintain  early  and  late,  in 
dry  or  in  wet  weather.  When  other  roses  have  lost  their  fo- 
liage or  look  brown  from  the  attacks  of  the  rose  slug  or 
thrip,  the  leaves  of  the  rugosa  are  as  bright  as  ever.  I have 
seldom  seen  a leaf  of  it  injured  by  insect  or  fungi.  The  flowers 
are  single,  of  good  form  and  from  three  to  four  inches  across; 
buds  long,  pointed  and  very  beautiful.  They  flower  all  sum- 
mer and  often  into  September,  and  have  very  large,  bright 
colored  fruit.  We  have  grown  it  unprotected  in  a very  ex- 
posed place  for  three  years,  yet  it  has  never  been  injured.  I 
think  it  hardy  in  any  good  soil,  if  slightly  protected, 
and  perhaps  without  any  protection.  Grown  from  cuttings 


202 


of  the  underground  stems,  by  budding  and  from  layers. 
Plants  grow  readily  from  seed  and  seedlings,  and  are  of 
various  shades  of  red  and  white. 

Semi-Double  Rosa  Rugosa.  ( rosa  rugosa , var.  flora 
plena.) — A semi-double  form  of  the  above  is  offered  by  nur- 
serymen which  is  quite  pretty,  but  it  lacks  the  character  and 
elegance  of  the  species. 

SAMBUCUS.  Elder. 

^Common  Elder.  (S.  Canadensis.) — A native  shrub  of 
robust  habit  with  white  flowers  in  large  flat  clusters  in  July, 
followed  by  black  berries  that  are  often  used  for  a medicinal 
wine.  Hardy  and  desirable;  grown  by  divisions,  seed  and 
cuttings. 

*Red  Berried  Elder.  (S.  racemosa.)—A  native  shrub 
of  robust  habit  with  white  flowers  in  pointed  clusters  in  May, 
followed  by  bright  red  berries.  Very  pretty  and  conspicuous 
in  both  flower  and  fruit;  propagated  by  cuttings,  divisions 
and  seed. 

Cut  Leafed  Elder.  (S.  racemosavar.  laciniata.)-A  strong 
growing  variety  from  Europe  with  dark  green,  deeply  cut 
foliage ; a good  ornamental  shrub  ; propagated  by  cuttings 
and  divisions. 

Golden  Elder.  (S.  nigra , var.  aurea.) — An  elegant 
form  of  the  European  elder  with  bright,  golden-yellow  foli- 
age and  white  flowers  in  flat  clusters.  It  is  very  valuable  for 
enlivening  shrubberies  and  forms  a most  beautiful  contrast 
with  plants  of  more  somber  hue.  It  is  sometimes  killed  back 
a little  but  has  never  been  seriously  injured.  To  get  the  best 
effect  from  it  the  young  shoots  should  be  occasionally  pinched 
back  in  early  summer.  Very  hardy  and  desirable.  Easily 
grown  from  cuttings. 

SPIRE  A.  Meadow-Sweet. 

S.  Van  Houttii. — A strong-growing,  hardy  shrub  of 
handsome  habit  that  is  covered  in  June  with  masses  of  large 
white  flower  clusters.  This  is  by  far  the  best  of  the  species 
for  this  state.  Hardy ; propagated  by  cuttings  and  di_ 
visions. 


203 


S.obovata. — A strong  growing,  perfectly  hardy  shrub,  cov- 
ered with  clusters  of  white  flowers  in  May.  Grown  from 
cuttings  and  divisions.  Pretty  and  desirable. 

Douglas'  Spirea.  (S.  Douglasi.) — A low  shrub  of  which 
there  are  several  varieties  with  pink  or  white  flowers  in  July 
and  August.  Very  hardy.  Propagated  by  divisions  and  cut- 
tings. 

S.  lanceolata  or  S.  Reevesii. — A handsome  shrubby  spirea 
with  showy  white  flowers  in  May.  Of  good  habit  and  de- 
sirable. Propagated  by  divisions  and  cuttings. 

Hypericum  Leafed.  (S.  hypericifolia) — A dwarf  species 
with  white  flowers  early  in  the  season. 

Fortune's  Spirea.  (S.  Fortuneii.) — A low  growing  spi- 
rea of  which  there  are  varieties  with  red  and  white  flowers. 
Very  pretty  and  useful. 

Bridal  Wreath  or  Plum-leafed  Spirea.  (S.pruni folia, 
var.  flore  pleno.) — A very  beautiful  shrub  with  closely  set 
double  white  flowers.  It  is  sometimes  injured  in  win- 
ter in  very  severe  locations.  Desirable. 

Thunberg's  Spirea.  (S.  Thunbergii.) — This  is  a pretty, 
graceful  spirea  with  narrow,  pointed  leaves  and  white  flow- 
ers, which  are  produced  early  in  the  spring,  before  the  leaves. 

. At  the  experiment  station  we  have  found  it  too  tender 
to  be  desirable  unless  covered  in  winter. 

*Nine  bark  Spirea.  (S.  opulifolia.) — For  this  see  Physo- 
carpus. 

Golden  Spirea.  (S.  opulifolia , var.  aurea.)—  For  this 
see  Physocarpus. 

Ash  Leafed  Spirea.  (S.  sorbifolia.) — A vigorous  species 
with  compound  leaves  resembling  those  of  the  mountain  ash, 
and  long,  elegant  panicles  of  white  flowers  in  July.  It  suckers 
some  from  the  root  and  is  easily  increased  from  root  cuttings. 

SHEPHERDIA.  Buffalo  Berry. 

*Buffalo  Berry.  (S.  argentea.) — A very  excellent  shrub 
or  small  tree  (4-10  feet  high)  found  abundantly  along  water 
courses  in  the  Dakotas  and  Montana.  Its  imperfect  flowers 
are  produced  early  in  the  spring,  before  the  leaves,  and  are 


20i 


inconspicuous.  Its  leaves  and  new  growth  are  silvery  white 
and  give  the  plant  a very  conspicuous,  soft-silvery  aspect. 
In  growing  it  from  suckers  pulled  from  wild  plants,  I have 
found  it  difficult  to  secure  pistillate  plants,  and  consequently 
the  fruit.  The  fruit  is  red,  with  one  quite  large  seed,  and  is 
very  pretty.  It  is  quite  acid  and  makes  a good  jelly  or  sauce, 
but  I doubt  much  if  it  ever  becomes  popular  for  its  fruit  where 
currants  can  be  easily  grown,  on  account  of  its  large  seeds. 
The  foliage  of  the  plants  vary  in  color.  The  prettiest  we 
have  came  from  Wyoming.  Perfectly  hardy,  and  a most  de- 
sirable ornamental  shrub. 

SYMPHORXCARPUS.  Snow  or  Wolf  Berry. 

Snowberry.  (S.  racemosus.) — A hardy  native  shrub 
that  has  inconspicuous  flowers,  followed  by  white  berries 
that  remain  on  the'  branches  the  greater  part  of  the  winter. 
It  has  long  been  cultivated;  grows  about  four  feet  high,  and 
is  very  desirable  for  ornamental  planting. 

SYRINGA.  Lilac. 

Common  Lilac.  (S.  vulgaris.) — Few  shrubs  are  so  well 
known  and  popular  as  this.  It  is  perfectly  hardy,  grows 
freely,  and  flowers  abundantly  in  any  soil  or  situation,  but 
it  will  repay  any  extra  care  taken  in  manuring  it  and  keeping 
the  suckers  pulled  off.  There  are  a great  many  very  beautiful 
varieties  which  have  red,  blue  or  white  flowers  in  May  or 
June.  Leaves  heart  shaped.  The  species  and  some  of  its  va- 
rieties are  grown  from  seed,  cuttings  or  suckers,  while  other 
varieties  are  only  grown  by  grafting. 

Persian  Lilac.  (S.  Persica.) — Not  so  strong  a grower 
as  the  common  lilac,  but  hardy  and  desirable.  Flowers  re- 
sembling those  of  the  common  lilac,  but  in  more  open  clus- 
ters and  bluish  purple  or  white  in  color.  Leaves  narrower 
than  in  the  common  lilac  and  more  pointed.  Hardy.  Grown 
from  cuttings. 

Josika’s  or  Chionanthus-Leaved  Lilac.  ( S.Josikeea .) — 
We  have  grown  this  species  at  the  experiment  station 
four  years,  and  it  appears  as  hardy  as  the  common  lilac. 
Its  foliage  is  very  large  and  of  a dark,  glossy  green  color. 
Its  flowers  are  produced  just  after  the  common  lilac&  are 


205 


done  flowering.  A robust  grower.  Grown  from  cuttings 
and  layers.  Very  desirable. 

TAMARIX.  Tamarisk. 

T.  amurensis. — A pretty,  graceful  shrub  with  fine, 
light,  cedar-like  foliage.  We  have  grown  it  for  six  years  in 
our  nursery.  It  kills  nearly  to  the  ground  each  winter,  but 
is  well  worth  growing  in  a small  way. 

VIBURNUM.  Arrow  Root. 

*High  Bush  Cranberry.  ( V.  opulus.) — A well  known  na- 
tive shrub,  found  in  moist  land.  From  four  to 
to  ten  feet  high.  Flowers  in  white  flat  clusters  in  June,  fol- 
lowed by  clusters  of  red  or  yellow  fruit,  which  hang  on  into 
the  winter.  Hardy,  vigorous  and  desirable.  The  red,  acid 
fruit  is  valued  as  a substitute  for  cranberries,  and  can  often 
be  profitably  cultivated.  Increased  by  seed,  layers  or  cut- 
tings. 

Snow  Ball  or  Guelder  Rose.  ( V.  opulus , var.  sterilis.) — 
A well  known  form  of  the  high  bush  cranberry  with  sterile 
white  flowers  in  rounded  clusters  in  June.  A very  popular 
shrub.  Grown  from  layers  and  cuttings. 

*Arrow  Wood.(F.  dentatum.) — A large  native  shrub  of 
clean  habit,  with  white  flowers  in  June.  Desirable  for  large 
groups. 

*Sheep  Berry.  ( V.  lentago. ) — A native  shrub  of  robust, 
pretty  habit  and  handsome  flowers  in  the  spring.  Perfectly 
hardy  and  very  desirable. 

ZANTHOXYLUM.  Toothache  Tree  or  Prickly  Ash. 

*Z.  Americana. — A native  shrub  or  small  tree.  Perfectly 
hardy.  Valuable  for  variety  in  lawn  planting.  It  also  makes 
a very  excellent,  impenetrable  hedge.  Grown  from  seed 
which  ripens  in  autumn. 


VIJXIES  AjMD  ©LIMBING  SHRUBS, 


ACTINIDIA. 

A.  argnta , wrongly  called  A.  polygama . — A rampant 
growing  ornamental  vine  from  Japan.  This  has  been  grown 
in  a small  way  by  R.  J.  Mendenhall,  of  Minneapolis,  and  has 
been  found  to  be  unreliable.  At  the  experiment  station  we 
lost  ours  the  first  winter  it  was  planted . 

AKEBIA. 

A.  quinata. — A Japanese  vine  of  pretty  habit,  but  too 
tender  at  the  experiment  station. 

AMPEEOPSIS. 

^Virginia  Creeper  or  American Iyy.  (A.  quinque folia.) 
— Our  best  climber  and  a native  of  our  woods;  of  strong 
growth,  with  beautiful,  bright  crimson  colored  foliage  in  au- 
tumn. Unsurpassed  for  covering  porches  and  unsightly 
fences,  etc.  One  of  the  most  beautiful  division  lines  between 
property  that  I have  ever  seen  was  a fence  covered  with  this 
climber.  It  needs  liberal  manuring  to  enable  it  to  do  its 
best.  A variety  of  the  above,  known  as  Englemann’s,  has 
shorter  joints  and  clings  rather  better  to  walls.  Perfectly 
hardy  and  well  known.  Grown  from  layers,  cuttings  and 
seeds. 

Japan  or  BostonTvy.  ( A . Veitchii.) — Where  hardy  this 
is  the  best  of  creepers  for  stone  walls,  and  is  the  vine  used  so 
much  on  public  buildings,  etc.,  in  the^J  eastern  and  central 
states.  Unfortunately  we  have  found  it  to  be  too  tender  for 
use  in  Minnesota.  In  very  favorable  locations  it  can  be 
grownjf  well  protected  in  winter.  It  is  very  much  more 
tender  the  first  two  years  after  setting  out  than  it  is  after 
having  become  well  established.  Grown  from  layers,  cut- 
tings and  seeds. 


207 


ARISTOLOCHIA.  Dutchman’s  Pipe  or  Birthwort. 

*A.  Sipho. — A native  vine  with  large  leaves  and  curious 
flowers.  It  can  be  grown  in  protected  locations,  but  is  not 
generally  desirable.  Grown  from  seed. 

CELASTRUS. 

*Bitter-Sweet  or  Climbing  Celastrus.  (C.  scandens.)— 
A strong  growing,  native  twining  vine  of  clean  habit.  It  is 
very  conspicuous  and  pretty  when  covered  with  its  orange 
colored  seed  pods.  Hardy.  Very  desirable.  Grown  from 
seed  and  layers. 

CLEMATIS. 

European  Sweet  Clematis.  (C.  flammula.) — With 
small,  fragrant  white  flowers.  Not  hardy  at  the  experiment 
station. 

C.  Jackmanni. — A most  beautiful  clematis,  with 
large,  purple  flowers.  Desirable  in  very  favorable  locations, 
but  not  generally  satisfactory  here  unless  carefully  protec- 
ted. Grown  from  cuttings,  layers  or  by  root  grafting. 

C.coccinea. — A slender  growing  vine  with  red  flowers, 
A native  ofTexas.  Quite  hardy,  but  not  generally  satisfac- 
tory. Should  be  protected  in  winter.  Grown  from  seed  or 
layers. 

^Virgin’s  Bower.  (C.  Virginiana.) — This  is  our  beauti- 
ful native  clematis.  It  is  covered  with  a profusion  of  small, 
white,  fragrant  flowers  in  August.  A strong,  healthy  grow- 
er and  a most  desirable  vine  for  covering  porches,  etc.  Very 
nice  for  contrasting  with  the  Virginia  Creeper.  Grown  from 
seed  or  layers. 

C.  Viticella. — A very  pretty  climber  with  large  blue  or 
purple  flowers,  which  are  produced  all  summer.  A very  sat- 
isfactory vine.  Grown  from  seed,  layers  or  cuttings. 

LONICERA.  Honeysuckle. 

*L.  Sullivantii. — A native  honeysuckle  which  does  well 
under  cultivation.  Hardy. 

L.  Sempervirens. — Hardy  if  protected. 

Japan  Golden-Leafed  Honeysuckle.  (L.  brachypoda.) 
— Too  tender. 


208 


Hall’s  Japan  Honeysuckle.  (L.  Halleana.) — A beauti- 
ful vine,  producing  an  abundance  of  flowers  all  summer. 
The  flowers  are  at  first  white  and  then  change  to  yellow. 
Hardy  only  when  carefully  protected  in  winter.  Grown  from 
layers  and  cuttings. 

MENISPERMUM.  Moonseed. 

M.  Canadense. — A pretty,  slender  native  vine  that  can 
sometimse  be  used  for  variety.  It  succeeds  well  in  partial 
shade.  Grown  from  seed. 

WISTARIA. 

This  may  be  grown  in  sheltered  locations  if  protected, 
but  is  not  generally  satisfactory  here,  as  it  kills  nearly  to 
the  ground  every  winter. 

VITIS. 

Wild  Grape.  (V.  riparia.) — The  unfruitful  or  staminate 
form  of  this  is  a very  desirable  vine  for  exposed  places.  It  is 
somewhat  coarse  in  habit,  but  for  coarse  work  is  just  the 
thing  and  is  very  beautiful  when  covering  a dead  tree  or  any 
unsightly  object.  The  fruitful  form  is  of  slow  growth,  but 
this  kind  make  a very  robust  vine  and  is  very  fragrant  when 
inflower.  Hardy  anywhere.  Grown  from  cuttings  or  layers. 


HE^B/\6E0US  PL/\j\jTS, 


ACHILLEA.  Yarrow  or  Milfoil. 

Rose  Flowered  Yarrow.  (A.  millefolium , var.  rosea,.) 
Like  the  common  white  yarrow  in  form  of  growth  and  flow- 
er cluster,  but  different  in  the  color  of  its  flowers.  Desirable. 

Double-Flowering  Yarrow.  (A.  Ptarmica,  var.  Bore 
plena.) — This  has  pretty,  white  flowers  that  are  much  longer 
than  those  of  the  common  yarrow.  Very  desirable. 

AQUILEGTA.  Columbine. 

A.  vulgaris. — A well  known  pretty  plant  with  flowers  of 
many  colors,  varying  from  white  to  dark  blue.  Desirable. 

ALTHEA.  Hollyhocks. 

A.  rosea,  var. — Well  known  and  valuable.  They 
should  be  protected  by  a heavy  mulching  each  winter. 

ARUNDO.  The  Reed. 

A.  Donax. — A handsome  reed  growing  from  8 to 
10  feet  high.  It  requires  very  heavy  protection  to  carry  it 
through  the  winter  here, and  we  have  found  it  safest  to  winter 
the  roots  in  a cold  cellar.  Desirable. 

A . Donax , versicolor. — This  is  a beautiful  form  of  the  above 
with  yellow  leaves  striped  with  green.  Very  desirable. 
More  tender  than  the  above,  and  should  be  wintered  in  a 
cold  cellar. 

ASCLEPIAS.  Milkweed. 

*A.  incarnata. — A native  milkweed  with  fine, flesh  colored 
flowers.  Well  worthy  of  cultivation. 

*A.  tuberosa. — A beautiful  native  milkweed  with  gorge- 
ous, bright  orange  flowers.  Very  desirable. 

ASTER. 

There  are  several  species  of  our  native  aster  that  are 


210 


very  showy,  pretty  and  useful  for  ornamental  planting,  and 
as  they  are  all  hardy  and  do  not  need  special  care,  they 
should  be  more  generally  cultivated. 

BOCCONIA. 

B.  cordata. — A strong  growing  plant  of  striking  and  very 
beautiful  habit.  For  best  results  it  should  be  protected  in 
winter . Desirable . 

CONY  ALLARIA  Lily  of  the  Valley. 

C.  majalis. — The  well  known  little  favorite.  Flowers  in 
early  spring.  Increased  by  divisions. 

COREOPSIS.  Tickseed. 

*C.  lanceolata. — A beautiful  and  satisfactory  perennial 
with  showy, golden  yellow  flowers.  Flowers  nearly  all  sum- 
mer. Desirable.  Grown  from  seed . 

DELPHINIUM.  Larkspur. 

The  perennial  larkspurs  are  very  hardy  and  few  plants 
produce  as  beautiful  and  striking  an  appearance  when  in 
blossom.  Very  desirable.  In  flower  nearly  all  summer.  Grown 
from  seed  or  cuttings  or  divisions. 

DICENTRA  or  DIELYTRA.  Bleeding  Heart. 

D.  spectabilis. — A handsome  and  valuable  herbaceous 
plant.  Very  common  in  gardens.  Flowers  in  May.  In- 
creased by  division  of  the  root. 

DICTAMNUS.  Gas  Plant. 

D.  Fraxinella. — Not  hardy  at  the  experiment  station  un- 
less heavily  protected.  Very  pretty  and  desirable.  White  or 
pink  flowers  in  June. 

ERIANTHUS.  Pampas  Grass. 

E. Ravennse  — Not  hardy  at  the  experiment  station  unless 
heavily  protected. 

EULALIA.  Pampas  Grass. 

E.  Japonica,  var.  zebrina;  E.  Japonica,  var.  variegata , 
and  E.  Japonica,  var . gracilima. — These  are  very  beautiful 
when  well  grown,  but  at  the  experiment  station  we  have 
lost  them  when  not  heavily  protected  in  winter. 


211 


F UN  KI A.  Plaint ain  Lily. 

F.  caerulea. — Hardy  when  protected. 

GYPSOPHILA.  Chalk  Plant. 

Baby’s  Breath.  G.  paniculata. — An  herbaceous  plant 
with  beautiful,  fine,  small  white  flowers  in  large  loose  pani- 
cles. Valuable  for  bouquets.  Increased  easily  from  seed  or 
by  divisions.  Flowers  in  July  and  August. 

HELIANTHUS.  Sunflower. 

Double  Perennial  Sunflower.  (77.  multiflorus , fl.  pL) 
— A very  beautiful  plant  when  well  grown.  It  requires  much 
protection  and  I think  it  best  to  bring  the  roots  into  the  cel- 
lar in  autumn.  Flowers  about  the  size  of  a large  dahlia,, 
which  they  resemble.  Grown  from  divisions. 

Our  native  species  of  Helianthus  are  very  excellent  and 
satisfactory  in  every  wav  as  border  plants  and  are  not  as- 
much  appreciated  as  they  should  be. 

77  Maxmillianus. — Is  perhaps  the  finest  native  species  we 
have. 

*77.  tuberosa. — A good  native  species. 


IRIS.  Fleur  de  Lis. 

German  or  Common  Iris.  (7.  Germanica.)—  A very  beau- 
tiful perennial  with  peculiar,  large  bright  colored  flowers  in 
May.  There  are  several  varieties. 


7.  Kaempferi. — We  have  not  yet  grown  this  Japanese  spe- 
cies at  the  experiment  station  but  judging  from  the  behavior 
of  a few  specimens  elsewhere  I think  it  at  least  of  very  prom- 
ising hardiness  in  moist  land. 


KNIPHOFIA.  Tritoma  or  Red  Hot  Poker  Plant. 

Torch  Lily  or  Flame  Plant. — Not  hardy  at  the  expe- 
riment station,  but  a very  satisfactory  plant  if  the  roots  are 
wintered  in  a cold  cellar.  Flowers  in  latter  part  of  summer 
or  in  autumn.  Grown  from  divisions. 

P7EONIA.  Pseoiiy. 

Tree  P^eony.  (P.  Moutan.) — These  are  rather  tender 
but  may  be  successfully  grown  in  favorable  locations  if  pro- 
tected b}^  a heavy  mulch  in  winter. 


212 


Herbaceous  Peonies. — These  very  valuable  plants  are 
much  neglected  and  yet  they  are  among  our  best  hardy  plants. 
Once  planted  they  need  no  further  care,  and  each  succeeding 
year  only  adds  to  their  beauty.  The  varieties  commonly 
known  are  desirable,  but  the  newer  varieties  produce  very 
large,  handsome,  regularly  formed  blooms,  resembling  large 
roses.  For  several  years  these  blooms  have  been  much 
sought  after  for  elegant  fashionable  boquets.  There  are 
many  varieties  distinguished  by  the  form,  size  and  color  of 
their  flowers,  and  the  time  of  flowering.  Flowers  in  June  and 

PHLOX. 

P.  decussata , var. — A most  valuable  class  of  herbaceous 
plants.  Those  who  know  only  the  old  kinds  will  be  surpris 
ed  at  the  beauty  of  many  of  the  newly  introduced  varieties. 
For  the  best  results  these  should  be  protected  in  winter  and 
transplanted  every  two  years.  Flowers  in  August. 

POLYGONUM. 

Mountain  Fleece.  (P.  cuspidatum.) — A strong  grow- 
ing, erect  plant  of  pretty  habit,  producing  a profusion  of 
small  white  flowers  the  last  of  August.  Perfectly  hardy.  In- 
creased by  cuttings  and  divisions. 

PYKETHKUM. 

P.  roseum. — A hardy  perennial  of  easy  culture,  producing 
a great  abundance  of  large,  daisy  like  flowers  in  many  colors 
in  June.  The  flowers  of  this  and  one  or  two  other  species 
are  grown  to  make  the  famous  insect  powder.  Very  desirable. 

SPIKE  A.  Meadow  Sweet. 

S.  Japonica,  ( Astilbe  Japonica.) — A very  beautiful 
herbaceous  species  with  delicate  white  flowers  in  June.  Very 
hardy  and  desirable.  Does  well  in  partial  shade,  and  when 
somewhat  protected  in  winter. 

S.  Ulmaria. — Very  beautiful  when  well  grown,  but  the 
foliage  burns  badly  in  the  full  sunshine,  and  it  should  only  be 
planted  in  partial  shade. 

TANACETUM.  Common  Tansy. 

T.  balsamita. — A well  known,  strong  growing  perennial 


213 


with  small  yellow  flowers,  and  pleasantly  scented  foliage.  Of 
reputed  medicinal  value. 

TRADESCANTIA.  Spider-wort. 

T.  Virginica. — A pretty,  showy  native  plant  about 
eighteen  inches  high,  with  blue  or  white  flowers.  Desirable. 

VIOLA.  Pansy  or  Heart’s-Ease. 

V.  tricolor. — These  should  be  grown  from  seed  each  year. 
For  early  spring  flowering  the  seed  should  be  sown 
in  early  August,  and  the  plants  will  winter  in  good  condition 
if  slightly  protected.  For  summer  flowers  sow  the  seed  early 
in  spring. 

YUCCA  Adam’s  Needle. 

F.  Alamentosa. — An  herbaceous  plant  with  green,  thread 
like,  pointed  leaves  having  a very  tough  fibre.  Its  beautylies 
in  its  conspicuous,  creamy- white  flower  cluster,  which  is 
about  four  feet  from  the  ground.  It  requires  winter  protec- 
tion and  even  then  is  not  satisfactory  in  flowering. 


214 


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SELECT  SHORT  LIST  OF  TREES,  SHRUBS  AND  HERB- 
ACEOUS PLANTS. 


The  shrubs  and  plants  in  this  list  are  selected  as  being 
those  most  desirable  for  general  street,  lawn  and  park  pur- 
poses in  Ramsey  and  Hennepin  counties  and  vicinity,  and  by 
the  use  of  the  table  of  hardiness  the  list  can  be  easily  adapt- 
ed to  any  part  of  the  state. 

LARGE  DECIDUOUS  TREES. 

Common  Name.  Botanical  Name. 


* American  Elm 

*Hackberry 

UBasswood 

*Soft  Maple 

*Box  Elder 

* White  Ash 

White  Willow... 


Ulmus  Americana. 

. . Celtis  Occidentalis. 

Tilia  Americana. 

Acer  dasycarpum. 

..Negundo,  aceroides. 
Fraxinus  Americana. 
Salix  alba. 


SMALL  DECIDUOUS  TREES. 


*Paper  Birch 

Cut-leafed  Weeping  Birch 

Upright  White  Poplar 

European  Mountain  Ash. 

Laurel-leafed  Willow 

Oil  berry 


Betula  papyracea 

Betula  alba  var. 

Po p ulus  Bolleana . 

Pyrus  aucuparia. 

Salix  lauri flora. 

Elseagnus  angustifolius. 


* White  pine 

*Red  pine 

Scotch  pine 

Dwarf  pine 

* White  Spruce.. 

Norway  spruce 
*Red  cedar 


EVERGREENS. 

Pinus  strobus. 

Pinus  resinosa. 

Pinus  sylvestris. 

Pin  us  m ugh  us. 

Pice  a alba . 

Pice  a excels  a. 

Juniperus  Virgimana. 


226 


ORNAMENTAL  SHRUBS. 

*Red  twigged  dogwood Cornus  stolonifera „ 

Hardy  hydrangea Hydrangea  paniculata  grandidora . 

Tartarian  honeysuckle Lonicera  Tartaric  a 

Syringa Philadelphus , in  variety. 

Golden  spirea Physocarpus  opufolia , var.  aurea.. 

Buckthom Rhamnus  catharticus . 

Japanese  rose Rosa  rugosa . 

Missouri  currant Ribes  aurea ... 

Spirea,  L.  Van  Houtte Spirea  Van  Houttei. 

Ash  leafed  spirea Spirea  sorbifolia. 

Spirea Spirea  obovata. 

^Buffalo  berry Shepherdia  argentea . 

Lilac Syringa  vulgaris , in  variety. 

*High  bush  cranberry Viburnum  opulus . 

^Snowball.... Viburnum  opulus , var.sterilis.- 


HERBACEOUS  PLANTS. 


Columbine Aquilegia  vulgaris .. 

Lily  of  the  valley Convallaria  majalis .- 

Larkspur Delphinium  hybridium. 

Bleeding  heart Dicentra  spectabilis. 

Baby’s  breath Gypsophila  paniculata . 

German  iris Iris  Germanica . 

Colored  daisies Pyrethrum  roseum. 

Herbaceous  peonies Pseonia  sp . 

Double  yarrow.... Achillea  ptarmica , iiora  plena . 


^Virginia  creeper 

^Bitter  sweet 

*Virgin’s  bower.. 
*Wild  grape 


VINES. 

Ampleopsis  Virginica .- 

Celastrus  scandens . 

Clematis  Virginiana . 

(staminate  form  ) Litis  rip  aria. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Introduction, 174 

Deciduous  Trees, 175 

Evergreen  Trees, 190 

Shrubs, 196 

Vines  and  Climbing  Shrubs, 206 

Herbaceous  Plants, 209 

Table  of  Hardiness, 214 

Planting  List  Recommended, 224 

Index, 226 

Explanation  of  Signs  and  Abbreviations 228 

Table  of  Contents, 227 


EXLANATION  OF  SIGNS  AND  ABREVIATIONS. 


Trees  native  to  the  state  are  starred  thus  *. 

The  question  mark  (?)  following  a note  on  a variety  in- 
dicates that  the  kind  has  not  been  long  enough  tried  to  war- 
rant ultimate  conclusions  ortthat  the  observation  may  need 
to  be  modified. 


GENERAL  INDEX, 


PAGE. 

Abies 218,  196 

Acer 175,  214 

Achillea 209 

Actinidia 206 

ASsculus 176,  214 

Ailanthus 214 

Akebia 206 

Alder 214, 176 

Almond 219 

Alnus 214, 176 

Althea  Rosea  219 

American  Ivy 206,  207 

Ampelopsis 206,  207 

Angelica  Tree 196,  219 

Aquielegia 209,  222 

Aralia 192,  219 

Arbor  Vitae 195, 218 

Aristolochia 207,  221 

Arundo 209,  222 

Asclepias 199,  222 

Ash 179  ,215 

“ Mountain 185,216 

Ash  Leaved  Maple 181,  215 

Aster 209,  222 

Astilbe 212,  223 

Azalea 219 

Barberry 195,  219 

Beech 215 

Berberis 192, 219 

Betula 176,  214 

Birch 176,  214 

Bird  Cherry 216 

Bleeding  Heart 210,  222 

Bocconia 210,  222 

Boston  Ivy 206,  221 

Box . 219 


Buckeye 

PAGE. 

Buckthorn  

Buxus 

Calycanthus 

Carpinus 

Cary  a 

Castanea 

215 

Catalpa 

..178,  215 

Celastrus 

. .207,  221 

Celtis 

..178,  215 

Chalk  Plant 

. .211,223 

Chestnut 

Cinquefoil 

. .200,  220 

Clematis 

..207,  222 

Clethra 

Columbine 

. .209,  222 

Conifera 

. .190,  218 

Convallaria 

..210.  222 

Coreopsis 

Cornus  

..197,219 

Cranberry,  High  Bush. 

..205,  221 

Crataegus 

..175,  215 

Currant,  Flower 

..201,  221 

Cytisus 

..214,  219 

Delphinum 

. .220,  222 

Deutzia 

Dicentra 210,  222 

Dictamnus 210,  223 

Dielytra 210,  222 

Deirvilla 197,  219 

Dogwood 197,  219 

Dutchman’s  Pipe 207,  221 

Elder 202,  221 

Elaeagnus 178 


230 


Elm  

PAGE. 

..189,  217 

Erianthus 

.210,  223 

Eulalia . . 

. .210,  223 

Euonymus 

. .197,  215 

Evergreens 

. .190,  218 

Eagus 

215 

Fir 

. . 190,  218 

Fleur  de  Lis 

. .211,  223 

Forsythia 

. 198,  219 

Fraxinus 

. . 199,  215 

Funkia 

.211,223 

Gas  Plant 

. .210,  223 

Gingko 

..186,  217 

Gleditschia 

..179,  215 

Golden  Bell 

. . 198,  219 

Grape.  Native 

. .208,  222 

Guelder  Rose 

. .205,  221 

Gymnocladus 

. . 179,  215 

Gypsophila 

..211,  223 

Heartsease. 

..213,  223 

Uelianthus 

. .211,  223 

Hemlock 

. .194,  218 

Herbaceous  Plants 

. .209,  222 

Hickory 

215 

Hollyhock 

...209,  222 

Honey  Locust 

...179,  215 

Honeysuckle  (climbing). .207,  222 

“ (upright).. 

. .199,  220 

Hornbeam 

. .1  1,214 

Horse  Chestnut 

. 176,214 

Hydrangea 

..198,  219 

Hypericum 

. .199,  219 

Iris 

...211,  223 

Japan  Quince 

220 

Juglans 

. .179,  215 

Juniper 

. .194,  218 

Juniperus 

..194,  218 

Kalmia 

220 

Kentucky  Coffee  Tree. 

...179,  215 

Kniphofia 

. .211,  223 

Laburnum 

214 

PAGE. 

Larch. 182,  215 

Larkspur 210,  222 

Larix 180,  215 

Ligustrum 199,  220 

Lilac .204,  221 

Linden 188,  215 

Liriodendron 215 

Locust 186,  21T 

Lonicera 199,  220s 

Magnolia 215 

Maiden  Hair  Tree 186,  217 

Maple 175,  244 

Meadow  Sweet 202,  223 

Menispermum 208,  222 

Milkweed 208,  222 

Mock  Orange 204,  221 

Moonseed 208,  222 

Morus 180,215 

Mountain  Ash 185,  216 

Laurel 220 

Mulberry 180,  215 

Negundo 181,  215 

Nettle  Tree 178,  215 

Norway  Spruce 192,  219 

Oak 185,216 

Osage  Orange 215,  225 

Pseonia 211,  223 

Pansy 213,  223 

Philadelphus 199,  220 

Phlox 212,  233 

Picea 194,  218 

Pine 190,  218 

Pinus...; 180,  218 

Plantain  Lily 211 

Poplar  181,216 

Populus 181,  216 

Potentilla 200,  220 

Prickly  Ash 205,221 

Privet 198,  220 

Ptelea 220 

Purple  Pringe 220 

Pyrethrum 223 

Pyrus 216 

Quercus 185,  216 


231 


Reed 

PAGE. 

. 209,222 

Red  Cedar 

..194,  218 

Retinospora 

.194,  218 

Rhamnus 

.200,  220 

Rhododendron 

221 

Rhus  

.200.  220 

Ribbon  Grass 

223 

Ribes  

,201,  221 

Robinia 

.186,  217 

Rosa  Rugosa 

201 

Rose  of  Sharon 

220 

Saint  John’s  Wort 

.198,  220 

Salisburia 

..186,  217 

Salix 

.186,  217 

Sambucus 

.202,  220 

Smoke  bush 

..200,  220 

Snowberry 

.204,  221 

Snowball 

.205,  221 

Spiderwort 

213,  223 

Spindle  Tree 

197 

Spiraea " 202 

, 221,  223 

Spruce 

..192,  218 

Sumach 

..200,  220 

Sunflower 

,.211,  223 

Sweet  Pepper  Bush 

219 

Sweet  Scented  Shrub . . . 

219 

Symphoricarpus 

Syringa 

..204,  221 

PAGE 

Tamarisk 205 

Tamarix 205 

Tanacetum 212,  223 

Tansy 212,  223 

Thorn 178,  215 

Thuja 195,  218 

Tilia 188,  217 

Torch  Lily 211,  223 

Tradescantia 213,  223 

Tree  of  Heaven 214 

Trees,  Deciduous 175,  214 

Trees,  Evergreen 190,  218 

Trefoil,  Shrubby 220 

Tritoma 211,  223 

Tsuga 194,  218 

Tulip  Tree 215 

Ulmus 189,  217 

Viburnum 205,  221 

Virginian  Creeper 206,221 

Virgin’s  Bower 207,222 

Walnut 179,  215 

Weigela 197,  219 

Willow 185,  218 

Wistaria 208,  222 

Yarrow 209,  222 

Yucca  213,  223 

Zanthoxylum 205J  221 


\ 


University  of  Minnesota. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  No.  25. 

HORTICULTURAL  DIVISION. 


DECEMBER,  1892. 


REPORT  ON  SMALL  FRUIT.  NOTES  FROM  TRIAL  STATIONS. 

NOTES  ON  RENEWING  OLD  STRAWBERRY  BEDS. 
SHADING  STRAWBERRY  BEDS.  SEEDLING  FRUITS. 

ANALYSES  OF  GRAPES.  SPRAYING  GRAPE  VINES. 


I®”  The  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the 
State  who  make  application  for  them. 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK,  RAMSEY  CO. 

MINNESOTA. 


TJniversity  of  Minnesota 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis, 1896 . 

The  HON.  GREENEEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - - 1894 . 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - 1894 . 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  Alexandria,  -----  1896 . 

The  HON.  JOEL  P.  HEATWOLE,  Northfield,  - 1896 . 

The  HON.  O.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth,  -------  1896. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson,  -----  1896 . 

The  HON.  S.  M.  EMERY,  Lake  City,  ------  1895 . 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  Minneapolis,  - - - - 1895 . 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  R.  MERRIAM,  St.  Paul,  - - - Ex-Officio . 

The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  DAVID  L.  KIEHLE,  M.  A..  St.  Paul,  - - - Ex-Officio . 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHROP,  LL.  D.,  Minneapolis,  - Ex-Officio . 

The  President  of  the  University. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  EMERY. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION  : 

CLINTON  D.  SMITH,  M.  S., Director. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S.,  - ....  Horticulturist. 

OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  - - - - Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S.,  - - Chemist. 

T.  L.  H^ECKER, ^ - Dairying. 

CHRISTOPHER  GRAHAM,  - lemRjfMRU 

J.  A.  YYE, ....  Seoretary. 


The  season  of  1892  like  that  of  1891  has  been  an  excellent 
one  for  small  fruit  crops.  It  is  the  object  of  this  bulletin  to 
discuss  the  merits  of  new  and  old  varieties  of  interest  that 
have  fruited  in  this  state  the  past  season. 

STRAWBERRIES. 

Strawberries  were  a fair  crop;  prices  were  higher  than 
for  several  years,  and  the  abundant  rains  have  put  the  young 
plantations  in  the  best  of  condition  for  a good  crop  next 
year.  The  leaf  blight  was  very  destructive  to  some  varieties, 
notably  the  well  known  Captain  Jaek,  which  has  been  very 
generally  a failure  from  this  disease.  Our  experience  at  the  ex- 
periment station  goes  to  show  that  while  it  is  possible  to  keep 
most  varieties  healthy  by  the  use  of  Bordeaux  mixture  and 
other  fungicides,  yet  it  is  much  better  to  plant  varieties  that 
resist  this  disease.  It  is  very  certain  that  only  healthy  vari- 
eties can  produce  paying  crops  of  fruit,  and  while  the  health 
and  productiveness  of  varieties  o the  strawberries  vary  much 
on  different  locations,' yet  some  varieties  do  remarkably  well 
over  a large  area  and  in  almost  any  location  or  soil. 

The  strawberries  at  the  experiment  station  are  on  open 
clay  land  having  a gentle  slope  to  the  south,  and  are  grown 
in  the  matted  row  system.  The  runners  are  allowed  to  root 
until  the  row  is  well  filled,  and  any  that  start  afterwards  are 
cut  off.  It  is  our  practice  to  fruit  strawberry  beds  a second 
time  if  they  are  in  good  condition  when  the  first  crop  is  gath- 
ered, and  this  year  most  varieties  have  proved  more  prolific 
on  old  beds  than  on  the  new.  In  renewing  old  strawberry 
beds  the  following  plan  is  pursued: — 

RENEWING  OLD  STRAWBERRY  BEDS. 

As  soon  as  may  be  after  the  crop  is  gathered  the  bed  is 
closely  mowed  and  all  the  weeds  and  strawberry  leaves  are 


238 


burned.  A plow  is  then  run  on  eaeh  side  of  a matted  row 
and  all  but  about  one  foot  in  width  of  it  is  turned  under. 
The  furrows  thus  made  are  filled  with  fine  rotted  manure  and 
the  cultivator  set  going*.  The  plants  remaining  are  then 
thinned  out  with  a hoe  and  special  pain  is  taken  to  cut  out 
all  weeds  and  old  or  weak  plants.  This  leaves  the  old  bed 
clean,  with  plenty  of  manure  close  by,  in  which  the  old  plants 
can  make  new  roots.  The  plants  soon  send  up  new  leaves  which 
are  much  healthier  than  they  wrould  be  were  the  old  foliage 
allowed  to  remain,  and  if  we  have  an  ordinary  season  an 
abundance  of  runners  will  be  sent  out  and  by  winter  the  old 
bed  will  look  nearlv  as  vigorous  as  a new  one.  At  the  time 
of  this  writing  we  have  an  old  bed  of  various  kinds  that  has 
borne  two  crops,  which,  we  cleaned  up  in  July  for  a third, and 
it  is  very  difficult  to  find  on  it  a single  diseased  leaf  among 
the  several  varieties  with  which  it  is  planted,  and  the  rows 
are  full  of  green,  vigorous  plants  and  runners. 


SHADING'STRAWBERRY  BEDS. 


Showing  brush  screen  tised  for  shading  strawberry  bed;  placed  six  feet  ;rom  ground* 

Many  complaints  have  reached  us  of  the  difficulty  of  se- 
curing a good  crop  of  strawberries  in  exposed  places  on  the 
prairies,  even  when  the  plants  had  grown  well  and  both  sta- 
minate  and  pistillate  kinds  Avere  planted.  This  trouble  is 

*We  sometimes  find  it  necessary  to  take  out  all  but  the  two  outside  cuultivator 
teeth  if  the  mulch  is  very  thick. 


239 


probably  due  to  the  pollen  being  too  much  dissipated  by  the 
wind,  and  further  to  the  drying  up  of  the  fruit  after  it  is  set 
by  the  hot  sun  and  winds.  With  the  object  of  finding  a 
remedy  for  this  trouble  some  preliminary  experiments  have 
been  undertaken,  in  one  of  which  a part  of  the  strawberry 
bed,  including  mostly  plants  of  a late  variety,  named  Parker 
Earle,  was  shaded  with  a brush  screen,  such  as 
we  use  for  protecting  evergreen  seedlings,  and  as 
shown  in  the  cut  herewith.  The  result  was  that  the 
plants  under  the  screen  matured  all  the  fruit,  while  on  those 
not  thus  shaded  many  berries  were  sun  scalded  and  many 
others  failed  to  ripen.  In  the  first  case  we  had  a full  crop: 
in  the  second  perhaps  one-half.  This  is  confirm atory  though 
not  by  any  means  conclusive  data  on  which  to  recommend 
this  practice  to  those  wishing  to  grow  strawberries  in  very 
exposed  places.  But  it  would  seem,  however,  a very'  ration- 
al suggestion  when  we  remember  that  generally  the  best 
fruit,  and  certainly  the  best  late  fruit  of  strawberries  is  found 
in  the  wild  ssate  in  locations  somewhat  protected  and  shaded 
and  that  in  such  places  the  foliage  is  seldom  affected  with 
fungous  diseases.  The  past  season  was  in  point  of  moisture 
an  exceptional  one  and  not  the  best  in  which  to  make  this 
trial. 

A good  screen  for  this  purpose  is  made  by  setting  posts 
with  natural  crotches  in  one  end  connected  together  bv  poles 
and  covered  with  willow  or  other  brush  sufficient  to  give  a 
play  of  light  and  shadow  on  the  bed,  but  not  enough  to  keep 
out  more  than  half  the  sunlight.  I think  it  would  be  well  to 
have  such  a bed  in  a somewhat  protected  location.  Such 
treatment  might  not  be  practicable  on  a large  scale,  but  it  is 
so  very  inexpensive  and  simple  that  it  is  well  worth  trying 
in  a small  way  in  the  home  garden.  We  shall  report  further 
on  the  matter  when  we  have  more  fully  inves- 
tigated it,  and  make  this  simply  as  a report  of  progress  and 
as  a suggestion  to  fuit  growers. 


SEEDLING  STRAWBERRIES. 

For  fruiting  next  year  we  have  a fine  lot  of  about  seven 


240 


(700)hundred  seedling  plants  that  we  have  kept  the  runners 
off,  and  they  are  very  promising  indeed;  They  are  seedlings 
of  Warfield  and  Haverland,  fertilized  with  Michels’  Early. 

Prom  seed  sown  this  year  we  have  over  two  thousand 
plants  pricked  out  in  frames,  which  we  expect  will  be  in  ex- 
cellent condition  to  plant  out  next  spring.  These  are  the  re- 
sult of  carefully  made  crosses  between  our  most  prolific  kinds. 

*In  the  table  herewith,  varieties  marked  (p)  have  pistil- 
late flowers.  Those  marked  (b)  have  bi-sexual  or  perfect 
flowers.  Varieties  mentioned  but  with  columns  not  filled  out 
are  not  considered  worthy  of  more  than  passing  notice. 

* Especially  desirable  kinds  are  starred. 


REMARKS. 

[ 

Not  worthy  of  notice. 

A promising  variety.  to 

Very  large  but  not  very  productive.  ^ 

[Worthy  of  further  trial.  ^ 

(Well  known  and  valuable. 

A handsome  fruit  but  not  prolific. 

Worthless  here. 

Ruined  by  rust. 

Not  promising  but  shall  try  it  another  year. 

Shall  discard  it. 

From  August  set  plants;  worthy  of  further  trial. 

Not  promising. 

Berries  very  small  after  first  picking. 

Not  productive  enough, 
j Valued  for  its  lateness. 

A valuable  variety  for  home  or  market. 

Too  uncertain;  a failure  this  year. 

1 Worth  less  from  rust. 

Worthy  of  trial. 

Not  promising. 

A weak  grower,  not  very  productive. 

Valuable  as  a pollenizer. 

Not  valuable  here. 

Produces  a few  large  berries. 

Woithy  of  a name. 

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tVarieties  especially  desirable  are  marked  by  *,  **  or  ***,  according  to  their  value  for  general  planting. 


NOTES  ON  VARIETIES. 


Especially  desirable  kinds  are  starred 

Beder  Wood,  (b)**  A very  promising  new  berry  that; 
has  done  remarkably  well  with  us  this  season.  It  is  bi-sexu- 
al,  has  lots  of  pollen  and  I think  it  Well  worth  trying  as  a 
pollenizer  and  for  market.  Its  foliage  is  only  slightly  affected 
with  rust. 

Bubacli.  (p)  Gave  us  a few  magnificent  berries  but  not 
enough  to  make  a profitable  crop. 

Boynton,  (p)  Is  a red  berry  of  about  the  size  and  with 
much  the  appearance  of  the  Crescent,  but  apparently  no  bet- 
ter. 

Crescent.(p)**  This  old  standard  variety  has  done  very 
well  this  season.  In  our  old  bed  it  produced  a far  larger 
crop  than  in  the  new  bed,  but  it  did  not  do  nearly  as  well  as 
the  Warfield,  which  I think  is  generally  superseding  it. 

Captain  Jack,  (b)*  Was  nearly  ruined  by  rust. 

(treat  Pacific,  (b)  I am  somewhat  disappointed  in 
this  variety.  Some  of  the  fruit  is  large,  but  much  of  it  is 
small  and  irregular  in  shape  and  rather  inclined  to  rust. 

Haverland.(p)***  Has  done  much  better  than  last  year,, 
and  was  in  many  ways  our  best  berry.  The  foliage  is  healthy 
and  the  berries  are  elegant.  It  produced  rather  more  fruit 
this  year  than  the  Warfield. 

Jessie,  (b)  Was  nearly  a failure  with  us  this  year,  as 
well  as  at  some  of  our  trial  stations.  I regard  it  as  a very 
uncertain  kind  and  think  there  is  a weakness  in  the  blossoms 
that  makes  it  peculiarly  susceptible  to  injury  from  winds, 
frosts  and  heavy  rains. 

Michel’s  Early,  (b)*  I think  well  of  this  variety  as  a 
pollen  producer,  but  it  does  not  produce  much  fruit  and  has- 
not  been  as  productive  this  year  as  last.  Yet  the  fruit  this* 


244 


year  was  rather  larger  and  better  in  quality  than  last.  I 
mean  to  continue  using  it  as  a pollen  producer.  It  is  a vi- 
gorous grower  and  free  from  rust. 

Little’s  No.  7.  (b)  From  John  Little,  Granton,  Ont. 
Is  one  of  the  most  striking  in  foliage  and  fruit  of  any  that  has 
come  to  my  notice  for  several  years.  The  foliage  is  tall,  dark 
green  and  very  healthy.  The  fruit  is  long,  large  and  firm,  on 
long  peduncles.  Very  productive  and  a promising  late  fruit- 

Little’s  No,  9.  (p)  Also  from  John  Little.  Is  a very 
productive  and  promising  variety  of  large  size. 

Little’s  Seedling* No.  37.  (p)  Resembles  the  Warfield 
very  much  but  it  is  not  quite  as  early  and  is  somewhat 
sweeter.  Very  productive  and  promising. 

Lovett’s  Early,  (b)  Isa  berry  of  good  color, form  and 
substance,  but  not  sufficiently  productive  to  be  profitable. 

Enhance,  (b)  Has  produced  some  very  good  fruit  on 
August  set  plants  but  needs  another  season’s  trial  to  thor- 
oughly test  it.  Promising. 

Oregon  Everbearing*.  Whatever  everbearing  quali- 
ties it  may  once  nave  had  it  does  not  show  them  here  and  I 
rather  doubt  that  it  ever  bore  over  any  number  of  consecu- 
tive seasons  more  than  one  crop  a }^ear.  Not  desirable. 

Parker  Earle,  (b)  Is  about  ten  days  behind  the  War- 
field.  It  has  a great  lot  of  green  fruit  but  during  the  hot 
weather  much  ofit  fails  to  ripen  satisfactorily.  This  year  a 
part  of  the  space  devoted  to  it  was  shaded,  with  the  result 
that  the  portion  so  treated  produced  a fine  crop  of  fruit,  while 
the  rest  gave  a Yery  light  crop  after  the  first  picking.  Plant 
very  healthy  and  vigorous,  but  it  does  not  make  many  run- 
ners. 

Princess,  (p)  Seems  to  be  doing  better  in  the  hands  of 
its  originators  and  elsewhere  than  with  us.  I regard  it  as 
generally  a profitable  berry  for  the  near  market.  It  is  of 
large  size  and  fine  color,  but  rather  soft. 

The  Pearl,  (b)  A beautiful  bright  red  berrjr  that  did 
poorly  with  us  last  year  but  this  year  is  very  productive. 


245 


Schuster’s  Gem.  (p)  Did  remarkably  well  with  us 
last  year  but  not  so  well  this.  It  is  of  good  size  and  worthy 
of  further  trial. 

Saunders,  (b)  Did  very  well  with  us  last  year  but  this 
season  seems  much  inclined  to  rust. 

Warfield,  (p)***  Is  the  most  popular  berry  grown  and  is 
fast  supplanting  the  Crescent  in  this  state.  It  is  a better 
shipping  and  selling  berry  than  the  Haverland.  Our  cus- 
tomers especially  like  it  for  canning  purposes. 


List  of  new  varieties  planted  the  spring  of  1892: 


Accomack 

Beverly 

Swindle 

Edgar  Queen 

Waldron 

Southard 

Standard 

Putnam 

Stevens 

Gillespie 

Westlawn 

Williams. 

Muskingum 

Auburn 

Dayton 

Noble 

E.  P.  Roe 

Mark 

Leader 

Gem 

Waupom 

Ona 

Oscar 

Sandova 

RASPBERRIES. 

The  raspberry  crop  has  been  a very  profitable  one  this  eas- 
son.  Almost  every  variety  has  given  good  returns.  Many 
plantations  of  red  raspberries  are  affected  with  the  disease 
commonly  called  ‘‘leaf  curl,”  and  it  is  becoming  a very  seri- 
ous matter  in  many  places  where  it  is  spreading  slowly  buL 
surely.  No  remedy  is  known  for  the  disease,  but  the  best 
treatment  for  it  seems  to  be  the  digging  out  and  burning  of 
all  affected  plants.  In  starting  a new  bed  it  should  be  only 
on  new  land  and  great  care  should  be  taken  to  use  only 
healthy  plants. 


SEEDLING  RASPBERRIES. 

About  five  hundred  seedlings  of  Schaffer’s  Collossal  fruit- 
ed this  year  for  the  first  time.  The  fruit  resembles  very  close- 
ly that  of  the  parent  plant,  and  a number  of  seedlings  ap- 


246 


peared  folly  as  valuable  as  that  of  the  Schaffer.  Fifty  of 
these  were  selected  as  being  worthy  of  further  trial  It  is 
a point  of  special  interest  that  the  seedlings  of  this 
variety,  which  is  generally  termed  a hybrid  should  be  so  uni- 
form and  show  so  much  of  a fixed  type. 

NOTES  ON  SOME  OF  THE  NEW  RASPBERRIES. 

Native  Red  Raspberries. — ( Rubus  Strig'osus.) 

Especially  desirable  kinds  are  starred. 

Brandywine.**  Is  very  popular  in  very  many  trying  lo- 
cations. A valuable  shipping  sort. 

Cutlibert.***  The  most  popular  of  the  red  raspberries. 
Large,  firm,  productive  and  very  hardy. 

Gladstone.  Grows  vigorously  and  produces  a little 
fruit  until  frost,  but  what  little  fruit  it  does  produce  is  so 
small  and  soft  as  to  make  it  almost  worthless  either  for 
home  use  or  for  rnrrket. 

Golden  Queen.**  Continues  to  be  the  favorite  yellow 
kind.  Its  iruit  is  large  and  firm.  With  the  exception  of  col- 
or, practicaliy  identical  with  Cuthbert. 

Hansell.*  A very  early  kind  that  is  becoming  quite  a 
favorite.  It  is  a rather  weak  grower,  except  on  rich  soils, 
and  until  well  established  it  needs  high  cultivation. 

Marlboro.**  Where  this  variety  gets  high  cultivation  on 
clay  soils  it  is  generally  successful . Its  large  fruit  is  handsome 
and  though  of  rather  poor  quality,  brings  the  highest  price 
in  the  market. 

Turner.*  A well  known,  very  popular  old  variety. 
Early  but  very  soft;  generally  prolific  and  hardy.  Not  much 
plan  Led  for  several  years. 

RUBUS  NEGLECT US 

Caroline.  Quite  soft  but  very  prolific  and  very  hardy. 
It  succeeds  well  when  most  kinds  fail.  Yellow. 

Schaffer.**  Where  its  color  is  not  objectionable  it  is  a 
very  profitable  kind  to  grow  for  the  near  market.  Purple 
in  color. 


247 


European  Red  Raspberries. — ( Rubus  Ideas . ) 

Superlative.  A new  variety  sent  out  by  Ellwanger  & 
Barry  of  Rochester,  New  York,  at  six  dollars  ($6)  per  dozen 
in  1892.  Fruit  on  spring  set  plants  very  large  but  crumbly 
and  of  poor  quality.  Foliage  and  cane  of  the  Antwerp  type. 

Champlain.  Similar  to  the  above  in  foliage  and  cane, 
but  has  not  fruited  here. 

Black  Cap  Raspberries.— (Rubus  Occidentalis.) 

Kansas.  A very  vigorous  and  productive  variety  from 
Kansas.  Fruit  large,  of  fine  appearance  and  very  promising. 

Lovett,  or  ($1000).  Will  probably  prove  to  be  a de- 
sirable addition  to  our  list  of  second  early  kinds.  The  fruit 
is  as  large  as  the  Gregg  and  it  is  several  da  vs  earlier  Foli- 
age and  cane  quite  distinct 

Mystery.  Sent  out  from  Kentucky  as  an  everbearing 
kind.  It  bears  but  one  crop  here. 

Nemaha.***  Is  without  doubt  somewhat  hardier  than 
the  Gregg  and  so  much  alike  it  in  fruit  as  to  be  practically  the 
same  thing  for  marketing  purposes. 

Older.  We  have  not  fruited  this  variety,  but  reports  on 
its  behavior  elsewhere  convince  me  that  it  is  well  worthy  of 
trial  by  berry  growers.  Season  about  with  the  Ohio. 

Japan  Raspberries. — (Rubus  Japonica.) 

Japan  Wineberry.  This  berry  has  been  greatly  mis- 
represented and  is  giving  very  general  disappointment  where 
tried.  It  is  interesting  to  botanists  and  may  be  useful  in 
hybridization,  but  for  fruit  production  it  Is  practically 
worthless.  The  berry  is  small,  of  poor  color  and  enclosed  in 
a husk  like  a ground  tomato. 

Varieties  of  raspberries  planted  at  experiment  station  in 
1892: 

Thompson’s  Early  Prolific  Superlative 

Brackett’s  Seedling.  101 

Champlain  Older  Ada 


NATIVE  AMERICAN  VARIETIES.  (Rubus  Strigosus.) 


248 


REMARKS. 

! Is  doing  finely  in  many  places. 

The  most  popular  of  the  reds. 

The  best  yellow  berry. 

Almost  worthless. 

A fine  bright  red  early  kind. 

In  favorable  locations  very  profitable. 
A robust  early  kind. 

£ 

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NATIVE  AMERICAN  TIP  ROOTING  VARIETIES. 


249 


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RASPBERRIES. 

Cromwell 

Conrath’s  Early 

Gregg*** 

Hopkins 

Kansas 

Lovett’s 

Mystery 

Nemaha  *** 

Ohio*** 

Progress 

Palmer 

Souhegan  ** 

Tyler 

Older 

JAPAN  RASPBERRY.  (Japonica  Rubus.) 


BLACKBERRIES  AND  DEWBERRIES. 


The  Ancient  Briton  blackberry  has  done  the  best  of 
any  tried  at  the  Experiment  Station,  and  is  generally  more 
satisfactory  in  this  state  than  any  other  variety,  but  some 
growers  are  more  successful  with  the  Snyder  which  ripens 
earlier  but  is  rather  more  difficult  to  protect  on  account  of 
its  stiff  canes 

The  Stones  hardy  is  not  generally  as  prolific  or  as  desir- 
able as  either  of  the  above. 

The  Agawam  has  been  very  productive  at  the  Experi- 
ment Station  and  we  regard  it  as  a good  berry. 

Early  Harvest  has  proven  a total  failure  at  the  Exper- 
ment  Station,  as  we  have  never  been  able  to  winter  the 
canes  even  when  laid  down  and  covered  with  soil. 

Jewett  is  a new  blackberry  received  from  the  J.  C.  Lov- 
ett & Co.,  Little  Silver,.  N.  J.,  in  1890.  It  killed  with  us  the 
first  year  although  well  protected  with  soil. 

El  Dorado  is  a new  blackberry  that  we  received  from 
Greenville,  Ohio,  in  1891.  It  was  quite  prolific  this  season^ 
of  good,  large  fruit.  A promising  kind. 

DEWBERRIES. 

We  have  grown  the  Lucretia  and  the  Windom  dewberries 
several  years  and  are  certain  we  have  them  true  to  name, 
but  they  have  proven  nearly  a total  failure.  They  bloom 
profusely,  have  sometimes  given  us  a few  good  berries,  but 
the  fruit  almost  without  exception  is  imperfect.  There  may 
be  isolated  locations  where  they  can  be  grown  to  advan- 
tage. They  generally  do  best  on  sandy  soil. 


REPORT  ON  GRAPES. 

We  have  two  vineyards  at  the  Experiment  Station — one 
with  an  easterly  and  the  other  with  a southerly  aspect.  The 
fruit  on  the  south  slope  is  generally  ripe  about  six  days  earl- 
iyr  than  that  on  the  eastern  slope.  In  the  table  herewith  the 
periods  of  ripening  given  are  from  observations  made  in  the 
vineyard  on  the  south  slope.  The  ten  (10)  varieties  that 
have  given  us  the  most  grapes  of  good  table  quality  in  the 
past  five  years,  arranged  nearly  in  the  order  of  their  value,  are: 
Concord,  Worden,  Aminia,  Hartford,  Brighton,  Herbert 
Barry,  Bindley,  Moor’s  Earty,  and  Lady.  For  severe  loca- 
tions the  Janesville  is  very  satisfactory  on  account  of  its 
hardiness  and  reliability,  but  its  quality  is  very  poor. 

MULCHING  GRAPE  VINES. 

When  1 took  charge  of  the  horticultural  work  at  the  Ex- 
periment Station  in  1888,  I found  there  a young  vineyard  of 
about  four  hundred  (400)  vines  growing  thriftlv  on  the  south 
side  of  a rather  gravelly  knoll.  The  very  drv  spring  of  1889 
vseriously  crippled  it  and  occasionally  heavy  rains  washed  it 
badly.  To  overcome  this  difficulty  I mulched  it  the  following 
winter  with  bedding  litter  to  the  depth  of  about  four  inches, 
covering  all  the  land.  The  result  of  this  was  very  marked 
the  following  year  when  the  vines  ripened  up  their  fruit  in 
excellent  condition  and  also  made  a fine  well  ripened  growth 
of  wood.  Last  spring  the  land  was  well  cultivated  and 
again  mulched  with  equally  good  results  which  appear  at 
this  writing.  On  the  whole  I am  much  pleased  with  the  out- 
come of  this  simple  experiment.  But  it  should 
be  born  in  mind  that  in  this  trial  the  soil  was  light, 
loose  and  warm  and  probably  equally  good  results  would 
not  be  obtained  on  cold  soils.  One  effect  of  the  mulch  on  the 
soil  was  to  change  it  in  one  season  from  a mineral  soil  that 
would  easily  wash  away  in  heavy  rains,  to  one  resembling 
new  timber  land. 


252 


SPRAYING  OF  GRAPE  VINES. 

This  season  mildew  of  grapes  ( Poronospora  viticola)has 
been  very  abundant  so  that  Delaware  and  other  varieties 
with  weak  foliage  have  in  many  cases  been  severely  injured 
and  the  crops  a total  loss.  When  vines  drop  their  vines  pre- 
maturely not  only  is  the  crop  of  fruit  for  that  season  ruined 
but  the  wood  often  does  not  ripen  and  in  consequence  the 
crop  of  the  following  year  may  be  a poor  one.  But  this  di- 
sease may  be  surely  prevented  by  the  use  of  proper  fungi- 
cides. However  it  will  not  do  to  wait  until  the  disease 
shows  itself  for  then  it  is  too  late  for  any  application  to  do 
much  good. 

The  following  letter  from  a graduate  of  the  Farm  School 
of  the  University  of  Minnesota,  giving  his  experience  this 
year  in  spraying  the  vineyard  of  Mrs.  Erwin  of  Excelsior, will 
probably  be  read  with  much  interest  by  grape  growers.  It 
should  be  said  in  explanation  that  his  neighbors  who  did 
not  spray  their  Delaware  vines  either  lost  their  entire  crop 
of  fruit  or  had  it  seriously  injured  by  the  mildew,  while  the 
sprayed  vineyard  matured  a very  heavy  crop  of  Delawares, 
Concords  and  other  kinds. 

Excelsior,  Minn.,  October  21st,  1892. 

Prof.  Samuel  B.  Green,  St.  Anthony  Park,  Minn. 

Dear  Sir : — At  your  request  I give  the  following  account  of  my  exper- 
ience in  spraying  grape  vines  for  mildew  the  past  season. 

A close  observer  by  the  aid  of  a microscope  might  easily  have  seen  mil- 
dew on  the  leaves  of  the  Delawares  when  they  were  not  larger  than  a silver 
dollar.  When  the  leaves  were  of  this  size  I commenced  spraying  them  and 
continued  doing  so  at  intervals  of  twelve  or  fifteen  days  until  the  latter  part  1 
of  July — spraying  five  times  in  all. 

The  Concords  were  sprayed  but  twice.  I used  the  Bordeaux  mixture  the 
first  three  times  on  the  Delawares  and  the  first  time  on  the  Concords.  For  -■ 
the  other  sprayings  I used  the  ammoniacal  solution  of  carbonate  ofcopper. 
Several  other  varieties  were  treated  the  same  as  the  Concords,  but  it  is  my  j # 
opinion  that  most  of  them  would  have  been  freer  from  the  brown  rot  if  they 
had  been  sprayed  oftener.  x 

To  prepare  the  Bordeaux  mixture  I dissolved  six  pounds  of  sulphate  of 
copper  in  five  gallons  of  water  and  slacked  four  or  five  pounds  of  lime  in 
enough  water  to  make  a thick  whitewash.  In  order  to  allow  the  copper  t 
sulphate  to  dissolve  and  the  lime  to  slack,  I did  this  a few  hours  before  mix- 
ing the  two.  I put  the  copper  solution  in  a fifty  gallon  kerosene  barrel  and 


253 


strained  the  whitewash  into  it,  through  a course  sack  and  added  enough 
water  to  fill  the  barrel. 

I made  the  ammoniacal  solution  by  dissolving  five  ounces  of  carbonate 
of  copper  in  three  pints  of  ammonia  and  stirring  it  into  fifty  gallons  of  water. 
The  Concords  and  Delawares  each  took  fifty  gallons  the  first  time  and 
one  hundred  gallons  each  time  thereafter. 

I used  an  Excelsior  knapsack  sprayer  which  worked  very  well.  It  cost 
$12.50.  The  cost  of  spraying  nine  hundred  Delaware  vines  five  times  and 
twelve  hundred  Concords  twice,  is  shown  below : 

On  the  Delawares  I used — 

1st  time,  6 lbs.  copper  sulphate  @ 7c $ .42 

2nd  and  3rd  times,  24  lbs.  copper  sulphate  @ 7c 1.68 

4th  and  5th  times!  20  oz‘  carbonate  of  coPPer  @ 4c 80 

J 12  pts.  ammonia  @ 25c 3.00 


Total  cost  of  material  for  Delawares $5.90 

These  vines  yielded  6,800  pounds  of  grapes  or  on  average  of  7 5-9 
pounds  per  vine. 

With  the  Concords  the  account  stood  as  follows : 

1st  time,  6 lbs.  sulphate  of  copper  @ 7c $ .42 

^ ..  . 1 10  oz.  carbonate  of  copper  @ 4c . .40 

2nd  time,  > „ J ^ 

) 6 pts.  ammonia  % 25c 1.50 


Total  cOvSt  of  material  for  Concords $2.32 

Total  cost  of  material  for  Delawares  and  Concords $8.22 

Total  cost  of  labor  4}/2  days  @ $1 4.50 

Total  cost  oflabor  and  material  for  spraying $12.72  * 

Yours  truly,  F.  F.  PRATT. 


In  addition  to  the  above  it  should  be  said  that  this  has 
beenanunusallv  bad  season  for  mildew  but  had  we  had  very 
bright,  dry  weather  after  the  first  spraying  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  the  second  spraying  with  it  might  have  been  dis- 
pensed with  without  loss,  however,  it  will  always  be  found 
safer  to  spray  once  too  often  than  to  lack  one  spraying  of 
destroying  the  mildew. 

ANALYSES  OF  GRAPES. 

Professor  H.  Snyder  has  made  the  following  analyses  of 
grapes  grown  at  the  Experiment  Station  which  will  be  of  in- 
terest to  many. 

The  total  sugar  includes  both  grape  and  fruit  sugar  as 
determined  by  Felbing’s  volumetric  method.  The  results  of 
sugar  are  calculated  in  terms  of  the  whole  grape  and  not  the 


254 


juice.  The  per  cent  of  acid  is  calculated  in  terms  of  the  juice 
as  tartaric  acid. 


Number. 

Name  of  Variety. 

Total  Sugar  as 
Grape  Sugar 

Acid. 

* 450 

Hartford 

1.20  per  cent. 

451  i 

Ives  Seedling  

12.5  “ 

1.24 

442  1 

Lad  v 

9.4 

1.22 

453 

Herbert 

11.5 

Lost. 

454 

Moor’s  Earlv  

12.6 

1.00 

455 

| Aminia 

9.7 

1.80 

456 

Delaware 

15. 

1.20 

457 

*Catawba  

1 8.8 

2.00 

458 

Concord  

14.4 

1.82 

459 

Niagara  

j 10.2 

1.16 

460 

Ladv  Washington 

| 14. 

1.74 

461 

i Martha 

14.2 

1.52 

462 

Eumelan  

13.8 

1.57 

463 

Centennial  

16. 

1.42 

464 

Brighton 

16.6 

Lost. 

465 

Northern  Muscadine.... 

11.4 

1.25 

466 

Israeli  a 

: 15.4 

1.60 

467 

i Challenge 

; 15.4 

1.60 

* Analyzed  October  17,  but  not  fully  ripe. 


NOTES  ON  VARIETIES  OF  GRAPES. 

Especially  desirable  kinds  are  starred. 

Agawam.  Of  strong  growth,  very  hardy  and  moder- 
ately productive..  Rather  too  late  to  warrant  its  planting 
for  market: 

Aminia,.**  An  early,  vigorous,  productive  black  grape 
of  excellent  quality  and  fine  appearance.  In  the  experiment 
station  vineyard  it  is  very  satisfactory. 

Barry.*  This  variety  has  been  very  satisfactory  with  us 
Vine  vigorous,  hardy  and  productive;  bunch  large;  berries 
very  large  and  of  good  quality;  skin  thick;  flesh  sweet  but 
somewhat  pulpy. 

Brighton.  Vigorous,  hardy,  healthy  andproductive. 
Bunch  very  large;  well  shouldered;  berry  red;  medium  size; 
flesh  very  sweet;  sprightly  melting,  superb;  generally  satis- 
factory. Not  reliable  enough  for  general  marketing,  but 
should  be  in  every  home  garden.  Its  quality  is  rather  im- 
proved,it  ripens  more  evenly  and  keeps  much  longer  if  bagged; 


255 


when  over  ripe  it  loses  much  of  its  fine,  sprightly  quality.  I 
know  of  no  grape  so  much  improved  by  bagging.  Its  blos- 
soms are  somewhat  deficent  in  pollen  and  it  should  be  plant- 
ed near  some  kinds  that  have  an  abundance. 

Catawba.  Hardy  and  healthy  enough  and  it  sets  a 
heavy  crop  of  fruit,  but  seldom  ripens.  This  season  it  was 
not  fully  ripe  Oct.  17,  although  it  was  well  colored  at  that 
date. 

Centennial.  A very  productive  white  variety  of  mod- 
erate or  poor  growth.  Bunches  are  of  fair  size  and  very 
compact.  The  berry  is  white,  small  and  with  very  large 
seeds,  of  good  quality.  There  are  several  more  satisfactory 
white  varieties.  Ripens  with  concord. 

***Concord.  A little  too  late  for  general  planting  but  in 
good  vineyard  locations  in  the  south  half  of  the  state  it  is 
the  most  productive  kind  grown.  Highly  esteemed  for  gen- 
eral planting. 

Cottage.  A vigorous,  healthy,  productive  black  grape. 
Bunch  large,  shouldered;  berry  large,  sweet  and  good;  liable 
to  drop  from  the  stem. 

**Delaware.  Geneallv  the  most  profitable  grape  to  raise 
for  market  in  this  state,  but  it  requires  the  best  of  care  and 
the  foliage  should  be  sprayed  with  some  fungicide  to  protect 
it  from  the  downy  mildew.  Unless  this  is  done  it  is  extreme 
ly  unreliable  in  wet  seasons. 

Duchess.  A white  grape  of  the  best  quality.  Vine 
rather  tender.  Bunch,  large,  compact  and  shouldered;  berry 
medium.  Season  later  than  Concord.  Valuable  in  extra 
good  locations. 

Early  Victor.  One  of  the  earliest  kinds  and  of  good 
quality.  Bunches  rather  small;  berry  medium  in  size.  Not 
sufficiently  productive  to  make  it  profitable. 

El  Dorado.  Of  fine  quality,  but  not  sufficiently  hardy 
nor  productive  enough  to  recommend  it  to  any  but  amateur 
planters. 

Elvira.  A very  vigorous  and  very  productive  white 


256 


grape  of  poor-quality.  It  sometimes  ripens  here  but  is  gen- 
erally too  late. 

Eumelan.  A good  variety  that,  where  healthy,  is  pro- 
ductive and  desirable  but  its  foliage  is  occasionally  severely 
injured  by  mildew. 

Green  Mountain.  A new  grape  that  we  fruited  this 
year  for  the  first  time.  The  vine  is  vigorous,  healthy,  appa- 
rently hardy  enough  for  our  conditions,  and  I think  very 
prolific.  The  bunches  are  of  good  size;  the  berry  is  pale 
green,  medium  in  size,  very  sweet  and  melting,  with  thin 
skin.  It  ripens  earlier  than  any  variety  of  as  good  quality 
that  we  have.  It  drops  from  the  bunch  as  soon  as  well 
ripened,  which,  with  its  green  color,  will  prevent  its  being 
largely  planted  as  a market  variety.  I think  highly  of  it  for 
the  home  garden  in  this  state  and  recommend  it  for  trial. 

**Hartford.  Drops  badly  from  bunch  when  over  ripe.  It 
It  has  been  long  and  favonably  known  as  a very  vigorous, 
very  hardy,  very  productive,  early  variety.  Bunch  large; 
berries  black,  large,  sweet  but  pulpy  and  rather  foxy.  One 
of  our  best  early  purple  kinds.  It  gives  quite  general  satis- 
faction as  an  early  grape  for  the  home  garden. 

Herbert.  Very  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy,  and  pro- 
ductive. Bunch  large;  berry  black,  very  large;  skin  thick; 
quality  good.  It  would  seem  as  if  this  variety  shonld  be 
more  generally  planted  for  market  puposes. 

Ives.  Vigorous,  healthy,  hardy  and  productive.  Bunch 
large;  berries  black  and  of  medium  size.  This  variety  colors 
up  very  early, but  like  the  Janesville  it  is  not  ripe  until  at  least 
two  weeks  later.  It  is  very  firm  and  stands  shipping  well. 
As  an  early  grape  it  is  of  such  poor  quality  that  it  spoils  the 
market  for  the  better  kinds,  although  it  is  often  very  profit- 
able. When  ripe  there  are  many  better  varieties  ripe.  Ex- 
cept as  a wine  grape  I consider  it  of  little  value. 

*Janesville.  Very  vigorous,  healthy,  hardy  and  pro- 
ductive. Bunch  of  medium  size,  very  compact;  berry  of  me- 
dium size,  black,  pulpy,  acid.  It  colors  up  very  early  but 


257 


like  the  Ives  it  is  not  ripe  until  several  weeks  later.  Pre-emi- 
nently the  grape  for  severe  locations  and  recommended  for 
general  planting  in  Minnesota. 

*Lady.  An  early,  greenish- white  grape.  Bunch  medium 
compact;  berry  large  and  of  excellent  quality,  but  it  some- 
times cracks  badly.  Vine  healthy  and  hardy  but  not  a vi- 
gorous grower  and  only  moderately  productive.  A valuable 
grape  for  amateurs. 

Lady  Washington.  Vine  healthy,  hardy  and  vigor- 
ous. Bunch  very  large  and  rather  loose:  berry  large,  white 
and  of  fine  quality.  We  ripened  this  variety  in  189 1 and  1892, 
but  these  were  two  exceptional  years,  Too  late  in  ripening 
except  in  best  locations. 

**Lindley.  Vine  healthy,  hardy  vigorous  and  productive. 
Bunches  medium  in  size  and  loose.  Berries  very  large,  red 
and  of  extra  quality.  This  is  an  extra  good  keeping  variety 
and  holds  its  flavor  well.  It  has  frequently  been  exhibited  in 
good  condition  at  the  winter  meetings  of  the  State  Horticul- 
tural Society  in  January.  Valuable  for  home  use  but  must 
have  pollen  from  other  kinds  to  get  good  bunches. 

Martha.  Vine  healthy,  hardy  and  productive.  Bunches 
of  medium  size;  berries  of  medium  size,  greenish- white  and  of 
a very  good  qualify.  I think,  however,  that  the  Moor’s 
Diamond  or  Pocklington  are  far  better  for  home  use  or  market . 

Merrimac . Has  done  fairly  well  with  us . The  bunches  are 
of  good  size;  berries  large  and  of  extra  quality.  A good 
long  keeping  variety. 

Moor’s  Diamond.  A very  distinct  new  white  grape 
that  is  very  promising.  The  vine  is  vigorous,  healthy  and  pro- 
ductive. Bunches  compact,  shouldered,  large;  berries  large: 
skin  thick;  flesh  tender,  juicy  and  melting.  We  have  fruited 
it  two  years  and  consider  it  especially  desirable  for  a stand- 
ard white  grape;  Its  season  is  from  four  to  eight  days  ear- 
lier than  the  Concord. 

*Moor’s  Early.  One  of  the  most  popular  early  grapes. 


258 


Not  generally  a heavy  cropper  and  some  seasons  the  berries 
drop  badly  from  the  bnnch  as  soon  as  ripe.  Generally  profit- 
able on  account  of  its  being  the  first  grape  of  good  quality 
to  come  into  the  market.  It  requires  rich  soil  and  high  cul- 
tivation for  best  results. 

Moyer.  Vine  resembles  the  Delaware  in  foliage,  growth 
and  hardiness,  but  its  bunch  and  berry  are  much  smaller; 
berry  sweet  and  melting.  We  fruited  it  this  season  for  the 
first  time.  It  ripens  about  a week  before  the  Delaware  and 
this  quality  will  make  it  desirable  if  it  proves  to  be  sufficient- 
ly vigorous  and  productive. 

Pocklington.**  A most  magnificent  fruit.  Vine  healthy  r 
hardy,  vigorous  and  productive;  berry  white,  very  large  and 
covered  with  beautiful  bloom;  quality  sweet,  juicy  and  extra 
good,  though  somewhat  foxy.  It  ripens  a little  later  than 
the  Concord  and  is  a worthy  companion  to  that  variety. 
Desirable  only  for  good  locations. 

Salem.  Quite  satisfactory  at  the  experiment  station. 
Vines  moderately  productive,  vigorous  and  hardy;  bunches- 
and  berries  large;  skin  thick  and  firm;  flesh  tender,  juicy  and 
sweet.  A good  shipping  variety  and  a good  keeper. 

Wilder.  This  variety  is  too  uncertain  here  and  it  is  ve- 
ry liable  to  lose  its  leaves  before  the  fruit  is  matured;  with 
us  much  Worse  in  this  respect  than  the  Delaware,  which  has 
never  been  seriously  injured  by  mildew  in  the  Station  vine- 
yard. This  year  it  did  not  mature  its  fruit. 

. 

W orden.***  It  is  difficult  to  say  too  much  in  favor  of  this 
fine  grape.  The  vine  is  vigorous  healthy  and  productive; 
bunch  large,  compact,  often  shouldered;  berries  very  large, 
black,  with  a heavy  bloom;  flesh  sweet,  melting  and  excel- 
lent. I think  it  is  destined  to  replace  the  Concord  for  gener- 
al planting  in  Minnesota  on  account  of  its  being  about  ten 
days  earlier,  much  superior  to  it  in  quality  and  nearly  if  not 
quite  as  prolific.  Wherever  known  it  commands  a higher 
price  than  the  Concord.  Some  seasons  it  seems  more  inclined 
to  drop  its  berries  than  the  Concord. 


Woodruff  Bed.  A new  red  grape.  Vine  vigorous, 
healthy  and  hardy;  bunches  small;  berries  large,  bright  red, 
with  a beautiful  bloom;  flesh  foxy,  pulpy  and  sweet.  We 
have  fruited  it  but  one  season.  I think  it  of  too  poor  quality 
to  pay  for  planting. 

Wyoming  Red.  Vine  vigorous,  hardy  and  healthy 
but  only  moderately  productive  with  us;  bunches  small  to 
medium  in  size,  compact;  berries  medium  size,  bright  red; 
flesh  sweet,  pulpy,  quite  foxy,  but  it  is  very  good  for  such  an 
early  variety.  It  is  said  to  be  growing  in  favor  in  the  east 
as  a very  early  red  grape  and  is  well  worthy  of  trial  by  vine- 
yardists  here. 


Varieties  planted  at  the  experiment  station  that  have 
not  yet  fruited: 


Eaton 

Herman  Jaeger 
G.  W.  Campbell 
Atavite 
Solin  Crup 
Illinois  City 
Emma 
Rockford 
Colerain 


Dracut  Amber 

Rommel 

Brilliant 

Red  Bird 

Theophile 

Bertha 

Witt 

Mills 

Early  Ohio 


Poughkeepsie  Red 
Peter  Wylie 
Ebony 
Monitor 
Marie  Louise 
Dr.  Warder 
Nectar 
Triumph 
Geneva 


260 


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SMALL-FRUIT  NOTES  FROM  OUR  TRIAL  STATIONS 

FOR  1892. 


These  stations  were  selected  by  the  executive  committee 
of  the  state  Horticultural  Society  as  proper  places  for  testing 
new  varieties  that  the  Horticultural  Division  of  the  experi- 
ment station  might  desire  to  have  widely  tried. 

FROM  WINDOM,  COTTONWOOD  COUNTY. 


DEWAIN  COOK,  SUPT. 

Strawberries.  A little  over  one-half  a crop,  but  the 
Warfield  was  an  exception.  They  gave  a full  crop  of  fine 
fruit.  'JThe  Enhance  is  especially  promising.  The  Sandoval  I 
consider  worthless  on  account  of  its  liability  to  leaf  fungus. 
The  finest  variety  in  this  section  was  the  Cumberland,  grown 
on  poor  sandy  soil. 

Raspberries.  Most  varieties  of  the  suckering  kinds 
were  much  troubled  with  some  disease.  The  cap  varieties 
were  quite  healthy.  The  Cuthbert  did  the  poorest  and  Bran- 
dywine the  best  of  all  the  reds,  and  all  things  considered  I re- 
gard the  last  as  the  most  reliable  variety  I grow.  The  black- 
caps Gregg  and  Souliegan  are  the  best  of  their  class. 

Blackberries  and  Dewberries.  Have  done  extra  well 
and  are  in  fine  condition  for  a good  crop  next  year.  They 
stood  the  cold  of  last  winter  without  protection.  I am  very 
much  pleased  with  Ancient  Briton,  but  do  not  consider  it  as 
hardy  as  Snyder,  Agawam,  Stone’s  Hardy  or  Wachusett. 

Drapes.  Have  done  finely  in  about  every  respect 

Moor’s  Early,  Delaware  and  Janesville  have  been  the  most 
satisfactory. 


263 


FROM  LA  CRESENT,  HOUSTON  COUNTY. 


T.  S.  HARRIS,  SUPT.  • 

Strawberries  were  half  to  two-thirds  a full  crop.  War- 
field  No.  2 when  fertilized  with  Michel’s  Early  did  best  of  all 
Kramer’s  Princess  came  next  to  Warfield  and  Crescent  came 
m for  third  place. 

Parker  Earle  promised  the  best  of  all  but  for  some 
reason  all  but  the  first  picking  was  small  and  poor. 

Michel’s  Early  did  not  prove  satisfactory  as  a fruiter. 


Captain  Jack  did  not  bring  half  a crop. 

Jessie  was  nearly  a total  failure. 

The  varieties  in  our  new  experiment  plantation  were  set 
late  m 1891  and  did  not  make  a very  satisfactory  growth. 
Of  the  new  varieties  the  most  promising  among  them  were 
the  Haverland,  Schuster’s  Gem,  Eureka,  Pearl,  Bubach  and 
Crawford.  The  Warfield  and  Crescent  hold  the  lead  for  com 
mercial  purposes,  but  a better  pollenizer  than  we  now  have 
is  needed  for  them. 


Raspberries  were  about  half  a crop.  The  Ohio  black 
cap  is  the  best  of  the  cap  varieties,  and  the  Cuthbert  and 
Marlboro  the  best  of  the  red.  Turner  continued  longest  in 
bearing  but  the  yield  was  light.  None  of  the  reds  were  en 
tirely  exempt  from  “curl  leaf.” 

Blackberries  have  done  the  best  of  all  the  small  fruits 
1 he  crop  was  immense  and  the  quality  good.  The  Ancient 
-Briton  is  taking  the  lead  as  a market  fruit. 

Griapes  weie  considerable  below  an  average  crop.  Mil- 
dew was  very  abundant  and  destructive. 

0ftheR!;::VfUT’  ^ia§rfra’  L,adv’  Pocklingtoii  and  some 
the  Roger  s hybrids  lost  much  of  their  foliage  from  mildew  • 
and  consequently  failed  to  ripen. 


Moor’s  Early  set  but  little  fruit. 

Concord,  Worden  and  Brighton  are  doing  the  best 
with  me. 

FROM  FERGUS  FALLS,  OTTER  TAIL  COUNTY. 

F.  H.  FIELDER,  SUPT. 

STRAWBERRIES. 

Bubach.  (p)  The  largest  berry  I grow;  very  vigorous 
and  one  of  the  best  for  this  section. 

Cloud,  (p)  Did  not  fruit  much. 

Daisy,  (p)  Not  as  good  as  Crescent,  nor  so  large. 

Jessie,  (b)  A fine  berry,  and  did  the  best  of  all  this  sea- 
son. 

Oliver,  (b)  Did  not  produce  fruit. 

Warfield,  (p)  More  productive  than  Crescent;  makes 
the  largest  amount  of  runners  I ever  saw. 

Wilson,  (b)  Too  .small. 

Crescent,  (p)  As  good  as  many  varieties,  but  I think 
the  Bubach  and  Warfield  are  better. 

RASPBERRIES. 

Turner.  Too  small  this  season. 

Caroline.  Berries  soft  and  of  poor  quality,  but  very 
productive. 

Cuthbert.  Best  of  the  Raspberries. 

Gladstone.  Of  no  value.  Berries  small,  dull  red. 

Gregg.  The  best  blackcap  I grow. 

Dewberry.  Quite  productive,  but  berries  are  small, 
imperfect  and  of  poor  quality, 


265 


FROM  ALBERT  LEA. 


CLARENCE  WEDGE,  SUPT. 

STRAWBERRIES. 

Michel’s  Early  ripened  a few  berries  the  first  of  any 
variety,  but  was  a light  crop  and  is  worthless  except  as  a 
pollenizer. 

Crescent  produced  at  least  three  times  as  many  berries 
per  row  as  any  other  variety  grown,  and  throughout  the 
wet  hot  weather  remained  in  choice  condition  for  home  mar- 
ket. 

Wilson  came  next  to  Crescent  in  yield  of  fruit,  but  its 
color  and  the  dead  condition  of  the  Calyx  gave  them  a poor 
appearance. 

Jessie  and  Bubacli  were  the  special  delight  of  a big 
flock  of  birds,  which  prevented  my  getting  any  perfect  fruit 
from  them.  Neither  of  these  varie ties  would  have  given  a 
profitable  crop,  however,  even  if  the  birds  had  let  them  alone. 
The  Bubach  rotted  before  it  was  ripe  enough  to  pick.  A 
few  plants  of  Haverland  fruited  and  gave  promise  of  some- 
thing fancy  for  the  home  market  and  I shall  plant  them 
largely  next  year. 

RASPERRIES  AND  BLACKBERRIES. 

The  Cuthbert  raspberry  is  the  most  satisfactory  variety 
I have.  I grow  Ancient  Briton,  Snyder,  and  Wilcox  black- 
berries and  the  Ancient  Briton  is  the  best  of  all. 

FROM  MINNSOTA  CITY. 


O.  M.  LORD,  SUPT. 

Strawberries.  A fair  crop.  Warfield  No.  2 exceeded 
all  others  in  yield.  Crescent  came  next;  then  Bubach,  Jessie, 
Princess  and  Downer’s  Prolific  in  the  order  named.  The  last 
rusted  so  much  as  to  materially  reduce  the  yield. 

Raspberries.  The  Gregg  did  very  well  and  the  Schaf- 
fer was  abundant. 

Blackberries.  Ancient  Briton,  Snyder  and  Stone’s 
Hardy  all  did  well. 


University  of  Minnesota. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  No.  26. 


CHEMICAL  DIVISION. 


T-s-itT-cr-s-iR'sr,  1393. 


DIGESTION  EXPERIMENTS. 

MILCH  COWS. 

I.  PEA  ENSILAGE  AND  WHEAT  BRAN. 


PIGS. 

II.  BARLEY  AND  SHORTS.  III.  BARLEY.  IV.  CORN  AND 
SHORTS.  V.  CORN.  YI.  SHORTS. 

VII.  CORN  AND  BRAN.  VIII.  PEAS  AND  BRAN.  IX.  PEAS. 

X.  BRAN. 


iSF1  The  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the 
State  who  make  application  for  them. 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK,  RAMSEY  CO., 

MINNESOTA. 


University  of  Minnesota 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis,  - - - - - 1896, 

The  HON.  GREENLEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - - 1894 . 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - 1894 . 

The  HON.  JOHN  LIND,  New  Ulm, - 1896. 

The  HON.  JOEL  P.  HEATWOLE,  Northfield,  - 1896. 

The  HON.  O.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth,  -------  1896. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson, 1896. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  EMERY,  Lake  City, 1895. 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  Minneapolis,  - 1895. 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  St.  Paul,  -----  Ex-Offio. 

The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  DAVID  L.  KIEHLE,  M.  A..  St.  Paul,  - - - Ex-Officio. 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHROP,  LL.  D.,  Minneapolis,  - - - - Ex-Officio. 

The  President  of  the  University. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  J.  S.  PILLSBURY. 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  EMERY. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION: 


CLINTON  D.  SMITH,  M.  S., Director. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S.,  - - Horticulturist. 

OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  - - - - Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S.,  - - - Chemist. 

T.  L.  H^ECKER, Dairying. 

CHRISTOPHER  GRAHAM,  B.S.,V.M.D.,  - - - -Veterinarian. 

J.  A.  VYE, Secretary. 


Digestion  Experiments. 


BY  HARRY  SNYDER. 

OBJECT  OF  THE  BULLETIN  AND  EXPLANATION  OF 

TERMS. 

This  bulletin  contains  the  results  of  experiments  upon 
the  digestibility  and  manurial  value  of  pea  ensilage  and 
wheat  bran  when  fed  to  milch  cows.  The  results  show  what 
becomes  of  each  ingredient  of  the  food,  the  amounts  of  each 
recovered  in  the  milk,  returned  in  the  dung  and  urine  and  the 
amount  required  as  fuel  to  carry  on  the  vital  functions. 
These  experiments  are  given  in  detail  so  as  to  serve  as  an 
outline  for  the  remainnig  experiments  upon  the  composition 
and  digestibility  of  barley  and  shorts,  barley, corn  and  shorts 
and  corn,  fed  to  grown  pigs;  and  corn  and  bran,  peas  and 
bran  and  peas,  when  fed  to  growing  pigs. 

The  determination  of  the  digestibility  of  a fodder  is 
simply  finding  the  amount  of  it  that  can  be  utilized  by  the 
animal.  A fodder,  as  clover,  is  said  to  be  sixty  per  cent  di- 
gestible; this  means  that  out  of  every  hundred  pounds  of  the 
dry  clover  hay,  sixty  pounds  are  broken  down  in  the  digest- 
ive tract,  and  forty  pounds  are  not  acted  upon,  but  leave  the 
body  undigested  in  the  dung.  Each  constituent  of  every  fod- 
der has  its  own  digestibility. 

A digestion  experiment  is  carried  on  in  the  following  way: 
An  animal,  as  a cow,  sheep  or  pig  is  fed  for  some  time  upon 
the  particular  food  in  question,  the  food  being  carefully 
weighed  and  analyzed.  This  is  carried  on  at  first  simply  for 
a preliminary  feeding  period,  the  object  of  which  is  to  get  the 
animal  in  the  same  condition  as  it  will  be  later  on  when  the 
experiment  is  in  progress.  After  this  preliminary  feeding  all 


4 


of  the  dung  is  collected  as  evacuated,  weighed  and  analyzed. 
This  is  done  for  a number  of  days.  The  dung  and  urine 
made  for  any  number  of  days  are  the  products  of  the  food 
for  an  equal  period.  In  the  dung  a certain  portion  of  each 
of  the  components  of  the  food  is  returned  undigested;  this  is 
determined,  and  this  amount  not  digested,  when  taken  from 
the  amount  of  that  ingredient  in  the  original  food  gives  the 
amount  digested.  The  results  are  usually  expressed  in  per- 
centages, and  the  per  cent  digested  is  called  the  digestion  co- 
efficient. 

The  names  of  the  different  fodder  constituents,  and  the 
terms  used  in  this  bulletin  may  not  be  familiar  to  some  read- 
ers, and  are  here  briefly  explained. 

All  food  stuffs  are  composed  of  water  and  dry  matter;the 
water  is  sensibly  present  in  the  juices,  and  even  in  field  cured 
hay  or  fodder  corn  there  is  always  more  or  less  water.  The 
larger  part  of  the  dry  matter  when  burned  is  converted  into 
smoke,  while  a small  portion  remains  as  ashes.  The  part 
that  is  burned  is  called  the  organic  part. 

The  first  general  division  of  the  constituents  of  fodders 
and  food  stuffs,  then,  is  into  water  and  dry  matter;  and  the 
second,  the  dry  matter  into  ash  and  organic  matter-  A far- 
ther division  of  the  organic  part  is  made  into  those  com- 
pounds that  contain  an  element  or  building  unit  known  as 
nitrogen,  and  those  that  do  not  contain  this  element.  The 
compounds  that  contain  nitrogen  are  called  nitrogenous 
compounds,  while  those  that  contain  no  nitrogen  are  called 
non-nitrogenous.  All  fodders  contain  from  four  to  ten  times 
more  of  the  non-nitrogenous  compounds  than  of  the  nitro- 
genous ones. 

The  most  important  among  the  nitrogenous  compounds 
is  crude  protein,  which  includes  a large  class  that  have  cer- 
tain characteristics  in  common,  one  of  them  being  that  they 
all  contain  about  the  same  per  cent — 16% — of  the  element 
nitrogen.  The  white  of  an  egg  is  a typical  example;  lean 
meat  is  composed  largely  of  these  kinds  of  substances. 
The  protein  compounds  of  food  stuffs  are  extremely  valuable 
as  animal  food  inasmuch  as  they  contain  the  building  ma- 
terials that  compose  the  muscles.  Crude  protein  is  usually 


spoken  of  as  muscle  or  flesh  forming  material.  The  protein 
compounds  are  more  familiarly  known  as  the  crude  albumi- 
noids; in  this  work,  however,  both  terms  are  used,  each  one 
having  a separate  meaning.  Some  authorities*  restrict  the 
term  albuminoids  to  such  bodies  as  gelatine,  while  others 
use  proteids  and  albuminoids  as  synonymous  terms.  All  al- 
buminoids are  proteids,  while  not  all  of  the  so  called  pro- 
teids, as  usually  determined,  are  albuminoids.  In  the  anal- 
ysis of  plants  and  food  stuffs  the  total  nitrogen  that  is  found 
is  taken  as  the  basis  for  determining  the  crude  protein.  All 
of  the  nitrogen  thus  determined  is  not  in  the  form  of  albumi- 
noids, and  can  not  be  taken  as  a basis  for  determining  the 
albuminoids.  These  are  determined  from  the  albuminoid  ni- 
trogen alone.  Hence  the  distinction  is  made  between  the  to- 
tal nitrogen  and  the  nitrogen  that  belongs  only  to  the  albu- 
minoids. In  the  columns  headed  '‘Crude  Protein’ ’ the  total 
nitrogen  is  taken  as  the  basis  for  its  determination,  while  in 
the  column  headed  “Albuminoids”  the  albuminoid  nitrogen 
is  taken  as  the  basis. 

Ether  Extract  is  the  material  which  is  extracted  from 
fodders  by  ether,  and  is  composed  largely  of  fat,  with  vari- 
able quantities  of  foreign  substances  such  as  wax  and  color- 
ing matter.  In  fodder  analyses  this  is  sometimes  called  fat 
or  oil,  but  it  is  not  pure  fat. 

Crude  Eiher  is  the  woody  part  of  plants;  it  belongs  to 
the  same  group  of  chemical  substances  as  starch  and  sugar. 
In  young  and  tender  plants  the  fiber  is  more  digestible  than 
when  the  plant  becomes  tough  and  woody. 

Nitrogen  Free  Extract  is  the  name  given  to  the  remain- 
ing compounds  that  contain  no  nitrogen — free  from  nitro- 
gen— and  are  soluble  in  weak  acid  and  alkaline  solutions. 
Such  are  the  jellies,  sugars  and  starches. 

The  ether  extract,  the  crude  fiber,  and  the  nitrogen  free 
extract,  when  digested  supply  the  body  with  heat  and  pro- 
duce fat,  while  the  main  functions  of  the  protein  compounds 
is  to  supply  the  materials  for  the  muscles  and  waste  matter. 
Hence  the  two  general  classes  of  compounds  in  food  are  the 


*Johnson. 


6 


nitrogenous  or  flesh  forming,  and  the  non-nitrogenous  or 
heat  and  fat  producing  bodies. 

These  different  classes  ofcompounds, found  in  food  stuffs, 
are  not  equally  digestible,  the  fibrous  or  woody  part  usually 
being  less  digestible  than  the  starches  or  sugars.  Each  sepa- 
rate compound  of  a fodder  has  its  own  digestibility  or  diges- 
tion coefficient,  which  it  is  the  object  of  a digestion  experi- 
ment to  determine. 

Many  digestion  experiments  have  been  made  with  nearly 
;all  the  different  animal  foods,  and  the  results  obtained  have 
been  of  material  value.  The  importance  of  this  work  was 
clearly  foreseen  by  the  framers  of  the  Hatch  bill,  establishing 
experimental  stations,  who  in  particular  mentioned  digest- 
ion experiments  as  one  of  the  important  lines  of  work  to  be 
conducted  by  them. 


I.  PEA  ENSILAGE. 


Digestibility  and  Value  as  a Cattle  Food. 

The  few  digestion  experiments  that  have  heretofore  been 
made  with  peas  and  pea  meal,  show  that  pea  meal  is  one  of 
the  most  digestible  and  valuable  of  animal  foods;  but  little, 
however,  seems  to  have  been  done  in  the  way  of  determining 
the  digestibility  and  value  of  the  whole  plant  either  field 
cured,  or  ensilaged,  as  cattle  food.  The  following  experiment 
was  carried  out  in  order  to  obtain  some  data  in  regard  to 
this  question,  particularly  when  the  ensilage  is  fed  to  milch 
cows.* 

The  peas  were  cut  while  green  and  put  into  a separate 
compartment  of  an  experimental  silo,  which  was  opened 
early  in  March,  1892.  When  opened,  theensilage  was  sweet 
and  in  good  condition,  and  an  analysis  of  it  showed  that  it 
had  the  following  composition: 


1 

Composition  in  Pounds  Per  Hundred  of  Dry  Matter. 

Water. 

Dry  Matter 

Ash. 

Ether  Ex- 
tract. 

1 

Crude  Pro- 
tein . 

1 

Crude  Fi-  | 
bre.  | 

| Nitro.  Free 
| Extract. 

50.08 

49.92 

6.95 

3.13 

11.90 

| 26.00 

| 52.02 

1 

The  points  to  be  observed  from  this  analysis  are:  That 

the  material  contains  a comparatively  large  percentage  of 
nitrogenous  compounds,  more  ash  and  less  water  than  ordi- 
nary ensilaged  cattle  foods;  these  are  points  that  are  all  in 
its  favor. 

At  the  time  this  silo  was  opened  the  cows  were  receiving 
acorn  ensilage  and  mixed  grain  ration;  and  some  of  the 
cows  when  gradually  changed  to  pea  ensilage  and  less  grain 
did  not  seem  to  relish  it  as  well  as  the  usual  corn  ensilage, 

*For  the  manner  of  growingpeas,  and  their  yield,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Bul- 
letin No.  20,  of  this  Station. 


8 


while  others  ate  it  equally  as  well.  With  different  cows  there 
was  a difference  as  to  the  apparent  palatability  of  the  pea 
ensilage.  Many  cows  that  refused  to  eat  the  pure  ensilage 
alone  were  induced  to  eat  liberal  quantities  of  it  by  mixing 
bran,  timothy,  or  corn  with  it.  The  feeding  was  not  carried 
on  with  a sufficient  number  of  milch  cows  or  for  a period  of 
sufficient  length  to  warrant  any  definite  conclusions  as 
to  the  effects  upon  the  yield  or  composition  of  the  milk;  how- 
ever, the  daily  dairy  record  of  the  herd  shows  no  appreciable 
variations  either  in  the  total  yield  of  milk  or  fat  while  the 
pea  ensilage  was  being  fed  . This  ration  of  pea  ensilage  and 
bran,  however,  took  the  place  of  one  of  corn  ensilage,  hay, 
and  a mixed  grain  ration  consisting  of  5 lbs.  barley,  3 lbs. 
bran  and  1 lb.  oil  meal  per  dav?  with  a saving  of  the  more 
expensive  barley  meal  and  oil  meal. 

The  two  cows  selected  for  this  experiment  were  Sully  and 
Bess.  Both  cows  were  of  about  the  same  age,  and  had  been 
in  milk  for  about  five  months.  The  daily  ration  consisted 
of  a mixture  of  thirty -four  pounds  of  pea  ensilage  and  twelve 
pounds  of  wheat  bran.  The  food  was  restricted  to  these  two 
articles  so  as  not  to  introduce  other  factors  in  the  experi- 
ment. The  preliminary  feeding  lasted  fourteen  days.  Dur- 
ing this  time  the  cows  were  gradually  accustomed  to 
the  confinement  and  the  constant  presence  of  an  attendant. 
Beginning  at  noon  on  March  25th  and  ending  at  noon  on 
March  30,  the  solid  and  liquid  excrements  were  caught  as 
evacuated,  by  an  attendant  constantly  in  charge  both  day 
and  night.  This  constant  attendance  prevented  losses  and 
removed  many  of  the  sources  of  error,  such  as  the  mixing  of 
the  dung  and  urine  and  the  use  of  absorbents  for  collecting 
them.  All  of  the  food  fed  to  each  cow  was  eaten,  leaving  no 
factor  for  food  rejected,  or  leavings.  A daily  record  was 
kept  of  the  weight  of  each  cow  and  also  the  water  consumed. 
The  manure  of  each  cow  was  mixed  and  sampled  in  dupli- 
cate at  three  different  times  during  the  experiment.  The 
^analyses  of  the  food  consumed,  the  manure  at  the  different 
•times  of  sampling,  the  milk  yielded,  and  the  urine  voided,  are 
given  in  tabular  form  on  the  following  pages. 

A sample  of  the  pea  ensilage  was  taken  at  every  removal 


9 


of  the  ensilage  from  the  silo,  and  the  average  of  the  results 
show  the  composition  of  the  pea  ensilage  fed: 


(Pounds  per  hundred  of  the  dry  matter.) 


True  Al- 

Water. 

Dry  M at- 

Crude 

Ash. 

Ether  Ex- 

Fiber. 

Nito.  Free 

bumin- 

ter. 

Protein. 

tract. 

Extract. 

oids. 

52.88 

47.12 

11.90 

6.50 

3.00 

25.00 

53.60 

10.50' 

Comparing  the  results  of  the  analysis  when  the  silo  was 
opened,  with  the  average  results  of  the  ensilage  fed,  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  ensilage  was  quite  uniform  in  composition* 
the  water  being  the  most  variable  constituent. 

The  wheat  bran  fed  with  the  pea  ensilage  had  the  follow- 
ing  composition,  the  results  being  expressed  in  pounds  per 
hundred  of  the  dry  matter: 


Dry  Mat- 

Ash. 

Crude 

Ether  Ex- 

Crude 

NitroFree 

True  Al- 
bumin- 

ter. 

Protein. 

tract. 

Fiber. 

Extract. 

oids. 

90.00 

4.20 

13.20 

3.1 

6.00 

73.50 

12.00 

During  the  five  days  that  the  dung  and  urine  were  collect- 
ed, 170  pounds  of  ensilage  and  60  pounds  of  wheat  bran 
were  fed  to  each  cow;  and  the  number  of  pounds  of  each  nu- 
trient fed  in  both  the  pea  ensilage  and  wheat  bran,  and  the 
totals,  are  given  in  the  following  table: 


POUNDS  OF  FOOD  COMPOUNDS  CONSUMED. 


Kind  of  Food. 

Water 

Pounds 

Dry  M atter 
Pounds 

Ash 

Pounds 

Crude 

Protein 

Pounds 

Ether  Ex- 
tract 
Pounds 

Crude  Fiber 
Pounds 

Nitrogen 

FreeExtract 

Pounds 

True  Albu- 
minoids 
Pounds 

In  170  lbs.  Pea  Ensilage 
In  60  lbs.  Wheat  Bran... 

89.9 

6.0 

80.1 

54.0 

5.206 

2.27 

9.53 

7.18 

2.40 

1.67 

20.04 

3.22 

42.94 

39.69 

8.41 

6.48 

In  230  lbs.  Totals 

95.9 

134.1 

7.47 

16.71 

4.07 

23.26 

82.63 

14.89 

The  total  nitrogen  present  in  the  dung  is  but  partly  in 
the  form  of  undigested  protein  compounds;  the  bile  contains 
compounds, such  as  glvcocholic  acid, which  contains  nitrogen 
and  are  digested  products.  In  the  crude  protein  column  a 
correction  is  made  for  these  small  amounts  of  digested  nitro- 
genous compounds.  In  the  tables,  the  samples  A and  B are 
duplicate  samples  of  the  manure  for  the  same  period, 
and  the  results  that  are  given  for  each  sample  are  the  aver- 
ages of  duplicate  analyses,  making  in  all  a total  of  twelve 
analyses  of  the  manure  of  each  cow. 


BESS.— SOLID  EXCREMENTS. 


10 


Totals 

100 

o 

o 

H 

100 

8.50 

9.12 

14.16 

31.78 

ri  CO 

CO 

True  ^ 
bu- 

minoic 

8.56 

9.00 

OX 

to  h 

00  00 

8.10 

8.12 

.753 

.762 

1.15 

2.666 

0 

b 

8 

Albumi- 
noid Ni- 
trogen 

1.37 

1.34 

1.36 

1.31 

1.31 

1.30 

.116 

.121 

.184 

.422 

a 

a 

W 

Ui 

<u 

a 

Total 

Ni- 

trogen 

1.82 

1.84 

i.67 

1.66 

1.61 

1.54 

w 

w 

p 

2 

.157 

01 

to 

H 

.224 

.534 

8 

a 

a 

a 

a 

Crude 

Fi- 

ber 

31.41 

31.22 

30.52 

30.76 

31.65 

31.56 

<! 

§ 

2.68 

0 
X 

01 

4.41 

9.95 

a -+-> 

a 

H 

p 

HH 

j-i 

Q 

Vh 

0 

a 

Nitroge 

Free 

Extrac 

46.10 

46.01 

47.00 

47.17 

46.64 

46.74 

3.951 

4.307 

6.61 

14.87 

0 

+j 

'55 

0 

a 

a 

q 

1 Ether 
Ex- 
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2.06 

2.04 

2.54 

2.70 

2.85 

3.00 

Z 

w 

p 

.175 

.239 

.413 

.829 

o 

Crude 

Pro- 

tein 

11.40 

11.52 

10.44 

10.37 

10.06 

9.62 

H 

h- 1 

H 

tn 

.893 

.952 

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05 

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H 

1 W* 

l 

^—4 

< 

9.03 

9.21 

8.90 

9.00 

8.90 

9.08 

O 

o 

W 

o 

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pH 

.785 

.818 

0 

01 

l> 

N 

X 

u 

aj 

15.50 

15.70 

15.12 

14.59 

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H H 

H 

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8.50 

9.15 

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31.81 

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84.50 

84.30 

84.85 

85.41 

84.23 

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Prom  these  tables  it  will  be  observed  that  the  manure 
'From  each  cow  was  quite  constant  in  composition  and  quan- 
tity, the  water  again  being  the  most  variable  constituent. 
The  average  number  of  pounds  of  manure  made  by  Sully  per 
day  being  40.5,  by  Bess  41.2.  Taking  the  yield  and  the 
composition  of  the  manure  as  an  index  to  the  condition  of 
the  digestive  tract,  it  appears  that  all  of  the  functions  were 
carried  on  with  uniformity,  since  both  the  yield  and  the  com- 
position of  the  manure  were  constant. 


SUMMARY  OF  RESULTS. 


Kind  of  Sample 

Dry 

Matter 

Ash 

Organic 

Matter 

Crude 

Protein 

Ether 

Extract 

Crude 

Fiber 

Nitrogen 

Free 

Extract  | 

BESS. 

Total  pounds  in  food 

134.1 

7.47 

126.6 

16.71 

4.07 

23.26 

82.63 

Total  pounds  in  manure 

31.81 

2.88 

28.93 

3.24 

.83 

9.95 

14.87 

Pounds  digested 

1 02.29 

4.59 

97.66 

13.47 

3.24 

13.31 

67.76 

Co-efficient  of  digestibility... 

75.5 

61.4 

77. 

80.6 

79.6 

56.9 

82. 

SULLY. 

Total  pounds  in  food 

134.1 

7.47 

126.6 

16.71 

4.07 

23.26 

82.63 

Total  pounds  in  manure 

30.79 

2.69 

28.1 

3.17 

.80 

9.54 

14.59 

Pounds  digested  

103.31 

4.78 

98.5 

13.54 

3.27 

13.72 

68.04 

Co-efficient  of  digestibility.. 

76.9 

63.9 

77.8 

81.3 

80.3 

58.9 

82.3 

Two  determinations  of  the  digestibility  of  wheat  b*  an 
will  be  found  in  another  article  in  this  bulletin;  in  one  case 
wheat  bran  is  found  to  be  more  digestible  and  in  another 
less  digestible  than  the  mixed  pea  ensilage  and  bran.  From 
these  facts  it  appears  that  the  pea  ensilage  alone  must 
be  at  least  as  digestible  as  the  bran.  The  effect  of  one  food 
upon  the  digestibility  of  another  is  not  well  known;  shorts 
and  bran  are  both  more  digestible  in  one  grain  ration  than 
in  another.  The  bran  fed  in  these  experiments  contained  less 
fiber  and  ash  than  ordinary  bran,  and  in  this  respect  resem- 
bled more  the  composition  of  shorts.  This  would  tend  to 
increase  the  digestibility  of  the  bran.  The  digestibility  of 
the  bran  can  not  be  assumed,  and  the  pea  ensilage  digestibi- 
lity determined  by  difference,  inasmuch  as  there  are  two  un- 


13 


known  factors  that  tend  to  increase  the  digestibility  of  the 
pea  ensilage,  viz:  A different  composition  from  ordinary 

bran,  and  combination  with  a more  digestible  food. 

Whatever  these  unknown  factors  may  be  the  results  show 
that  the  pea  ensilage  alone  can  not  be  less  digestible  than 
the  results  given  for  the  peas  and  bran,  and  making  due  al- 
lowance for  these  two  factors,  the  digestibility  of  the  pea 
ensilage  is,  no  doubt,  not  far  from  the  figures  assigned  to  the 
mixture. 

The  results  farther  show  that  when  pea  ensilage  is  intro- 
duced into  the  feed  of  milch  cows,  it  forms  the  basis  of  a very 
digestible  ration. 

Comparing  the  digestion  work  of  these  two  cows,  it  will 
be  observed  that  there  is  a marked  uniformity.  About  one 
per  cent  more  of  the  total  organic  matter  was  digested  by 
Sully  than  by  Bess.  With  Sully  there  was  a slightly  greater 
tendency  toward  the  more  complete  digestion  of  the  nitro- 
genous compounds. 

Milk  Yield. — Complete  analyses  were  made  of  the  milk 
from  each  milking.  In  the  five  days  Sully  gave  98.5  pounds 
of  milk,  and  Bess  gave  108.7.  The  total  number  of  pounds 
of  fat,  ash,  sugar,  casein,  and  solids,  in  the  milk  of  each  cow 
for  the  five  days  were: 


Total 

pounds  of 
milk 

| Watei 

Solids 

Ash 

Fat 

Casein 

Sugar 

Sully.. 

98.5 

85.3 

13.2 

7.51 

4.557 

3.83 

4.06 

Bess... 

108.7 

97.2 

11.5 

.62 

3.667 

3.30 

3.91 

From  the  same  number  of  pounds  of  food  Bess  gave  ten 
pounds  more  milk  than  Sully;  but  the  108  pounds  of  milk 
from  Bess  contained  less  fat  and  solids  than  the  98.5 pounds 
given  by  Sully.  Sully’s  milk,  although  ten  pounds  less,  pro- 
duced .89  pounds  more  of  fat,  which  if  made  into  butter 
^vouid  make  a difference  of  over  one  pound  in  five  days. 
Each  cow  consumed  134.1  pounds  of  dry  matter  in  the  food 
to  produce  13.2  and  11.5  pounds  respectively  of  solid  matter 
in  the  milk. 

In  the  case  of  Bess  8.58  per  cent  of  the  solid  matter  of  the 


14 


food  was  returned  in  the  solid  matter  of  the  milk,  while  with 
Sully  9.85  per  cent  was  returned.  The  difference  in  the 
weight  of  the  solid  matters  digested  by  the  two  cows,  1.02 
pounds,  does  not  entirely  account  for  the  difference  in  the 
solid  matter  of  the  milk  produced,  1.7  pounds.  This  ques- 
tion will  be  farther  discussed  after  considering  the  amount  of 
the  nitrogen  of  the  food  retained  in  the  body  ofeachcow,and 
the  gain  and  loss  in  live  weight. 

The  composition  and  quantity  of  the  urine  is  another  im- 
portant factor  in  determining  the  completeness  of  the  digest- 
ive process,  inasmuch  as  over  half  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  food, 
in  these  experiments,  was  returned  in  the  urine. 


AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  A HUNDRED  POUNDS  OF  URINE. 


1 1 
Total  Lbs.  1 Water. 

Solids. 

| Ash. 

TotalNitro. 

Bess 

115 

| 91.76  | 

8.24  | 

3.00 

1.21 

Stilly : 

110.5  | 

91.3  | 

1 1 

8.70  J 

3.15 

1.24 

TOTAL 

POUNDS  IN  THE  URINE  OF  EACH  COW. 

Bess 

115 

105.55 

■ 

9.54  | 

1 

3.45 

1.39 

Stilly 

110.5 

100.82  | 

| 9.63  | 

1 

3.45 

1 

1.35 

All  of  the  data  concerning  the  total  dry  matter,  ash  and 
total  nitrogen  of  the  food,  and  the  amount  of  each  recovered 
in  the  dung,  urine  and  milk  will  be  found  tabulated  below: 


BESS. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Nitrogen. 

Pounds 

Per  Cent 

Pounds 

Per  Cent 

Pounds 

Per  Cent 

Tn  fond 

134.1  1 

7.47 

2.66 

In  dung 

318.1 

23.7 

2.88 

38.5 

.53 

20. 

In  milk 

115. 

1 8.50 

.62 

8.00 

.51 

19.1 

In  urine 

94.5 

7.04 

75.56 

47. 

1.39 

52.25 

Totals  Returned.. .. 

52.76 

39.4 

6.95 

93. 

2.43 

91.3 

SULLY. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Nitrogen. 

Pounds 

Per  Cent 

Pounds 

Per  Cent 

Pounds 

Per  Cent 

Tn  food 

134.1 

7.47 

2.66 

In  dung 

30.79 

23 

2.69 

36. 

.52 

19.5 

In  milk 

13.2 

9.85 

.77 

1. 

.65 

24.4 

Tn  urine 

9.63 

7.18 

3.45 

46. 

1.35 

50.7 

Totals  Returned.... 

53.62 

40. 

6.90 

92.3 

2.52 

94.7 

15 


Bess  returned  39.4  per  cent  of  the  total  dry  matter  of 
the  food;  Sully  returned  40  per  cent  in  the  dung  the  milk  and 
the  urine.  The  question  naturally  arises,  What  becomes  of 
the  remaining  60  per  cent  of  the  total  dry  matter  of  the 
food,  since  it  is  not  returned  in  the  dung,  urine  or  milk?  It 
must  be  remembered  that  there  is  another  means  of  escape  of 
the  food  that  has  not  as  yet  been  considered,  namely:  the 
losses  by  respiration  and  through  the  pores  of  the  skin.  The 
food  during  digestion  undergoes  a series  of  chemical  changes, 
the  body  is  supplied  with  heat,  and  this  heat  is  the  result  of 
the  burning  of  some  of  the  food.  WTien  food  is  burned  either 
within  the  body  or  outside  it  is  reduced  to  gaseous  products 
and  is  no  longer  solid  matter. 

The  percent  of  nitrogen  returned  by  each  cow  was  some- 
what less  than  the  amount  in  the  food.  Sully  returned 
nearly  95  per  cent,  while  Bess  returned  a little  over  91  per 
cent,  indicating  that  none  of  the  vital  functions  had  been 
carried  on  at  the  expense  of  the  muscles  of  the  body  without 
due  compensation  from  the  protein  of  the  food.  Nearly  the 
same  per  cent  of  ash  was  returned  by  each  cow. 

Had  the  pea  ensilage  been  less  digestible,  a larger  daily 
quantity  of  food  would  have  been  required  to  furnish  these 
amounts  of  digestible  compounds,  and  more  undigestible  ni- 
trogen would  have  been  returned  in  the  dung. 

In  this  case  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  returned  in  the 
dung  would  have  been  correspondingly  greater.  Hence  the 
per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  food,  returned  in  the  dung, 
urine  and  milk  for  one  food  does  not,  and  cannot  be  applied 
to  another  food,  since  the  foods  may  have  both  a different 
chemical  composition  and  different  co-efficients  of  digestibility. 

The  gain  and  loss  in  weight  of  the  cows  was  within  nar- 
row limits,  and  was  materially  influenced  by  the  amount  of 
water  consumed;  the  variati ons  in  live  weights  cannot  be 
taken  alone  as  actual  indications  of  gain  or  loss  in  flesh,  due 
to  the  pea  ensilage  and  wheat  oran,  because  the  variations 
in  live  weight  are  small  compared  with  the  daily  amounts  of 
water  consumed,  which  in  turn  are  unequal  for  the  two 
cows.  The  amount  of  water  given  off  by  the  lungs  and  also 


16 


the  amount  formed  by  the  combustion  of  the  food  are  un- 
known factors,  and  no  accurate  estimates  of  these  amounts 
canbelormed.  About  eighty-two  pounds  of  dry  matter  were 
burned  up  in  the  body  of  each  cow,  equivalent  to  a little 
over  sixteen  pounds  per  day. 

The  total  weight  of  the  two  cows  at  the  close  of  the  ex- 
periment was  seventeen  pounds  less  than  at  the  beginning. 
Bess  gained  ten  pounds  and  Sully  lost  twenty-seven.  Bess 
consumed  twenty-eight  pounds  more  water  than  Sully,  and 
also  returned  sixteen  pounds  more  in  the  dung,  urine  and 
milk,  as  the  following  table  will  show: 


WATER  CONSUMED. 


BESS. 

Pounds. 

SULLY. 

Pounds. 

Tm  Hrink  . 

308 

280 

In  food 

t 

96 

96 

Total 

404 

376 

WATER  RETURNED. 


BESS. 

Pounds. 

SULLY. 

Pounds. 

In  urine 

105.5 

92.7 

174. 

100.8 

84.3 

171. 

In  miilc 

In  dung 

Total 

372. 

356. 

Not  returned 

32. 

20. 

The  amount  of  water  in  the  dung,  urine  and  milk  of  Bess 
amounted  to  372  pounds,  thirty-two  pounds  less  than  the 
amount  that  she  consumed,  equivalent  to  six  pounds  per  day 
in  addition  to  that  formed  by  the  combustion  of  the  food  to 
be  disposed  of  by  the  lungs  and  pores  of  the  skin.  With  Sully 
twenty  pounds  more  of  water  was  consumed  than  returned. 
Bess  returned  sixteen  pounds  more  water  than  Sully,  or  a 
difference  of  twelve  pounds  more  than  the  difference  between 
the  amounts  consumed  and  returned  by  Sully.  Hence  the 
loss  of  weight  of  Sully  is  not  a loss  in  flesh.  This  is  shown 
more  conclusively  in  the  nitrogen  return  of  the  food  already 
referred  to. 

From  the  same  number  of  pounds  of  food,  Bess  gained  ten 


17 


pounds  on  live  weight  and  retained  nearly  three  per  cent, 
more  nitrogen  in  her  body  than  Sully.  Sully  made  no  gain 
in  live  weight,  digested  one  per  cent  more  of  solid  matter  of 
the  food  and  returned  over  one  per  cent  more  solid  matter  in 
the  milk,  which  made  a return  of  over  one  pound  of  butter  in 
five  days.  Taking  these  facts  into  consideration  it  is  plain 
to  be  seen  why  Sully  made  a better  milk  rerurn  than  Bess 
when  each  consumed  the  same  number  of  pounds  of  food. 

The  more  complete  digestive  work  of  Sully;  with  no  ten- 
dency to  gain  in  flesh  or  retain  the  nitrogen  of  the  food,  gave 
better  milk  returns  than  the  less  complete  digestive  work 
of  Bess  with  a tendency  to  gain  ill  weight  and  to  retain  more 
of  the  nitrogen  of  the  food. 

In  feeding,  any  one  of  these  factors  taken  alone  would 
usually  be  considered  too  sm?  11  to  be  of  any  account,  and 
within  the  limits  of  error;  but  these  are  the  factors  when 
working  together  that  go  far  towards  making  dairying  succes- 
ful  or  unsuccessful,  since  they  are  the  results  of  the  mechani- 
cal workings  of  a good  dairy  cow  compared  with  a poorer 
one  that  consumed  the  same  quantity  of  food,  but  produced 
one-fifth  of  a pound  less  of  butter  per  day. 


THE  MANURIAL  VALUE  OF  PEA  ENSILAGE. 


Another  important  factor  in  considering  the  value  of  any 
cattle  food  is  the  composition  and  value  of  the  manure  re- 
turned. The  elements,  the  compounds  of  which  give  a man- 
ure its  commercial  value  are  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash,  since  these  are  usually  the  important  materials  that 
are  found  in  the  least  abundance  in  the  soil.  In  commercial 
fertilizers,  nitrogen  in  its  most  available  forms  is  valued  at 
17  cents  per  pound,  phosphoric  acid  at  about  seven  cents 
and  potash  at  about  four  cents.  Faim  manures  contain 
these  same  elements  in  forms  equally  as  valuable,  and  an 
analysis  of  the  dung  and  urine  of  any  animal,  fed  on  any 


18 


food,  shows  the  number  of  pounds  of  these  compounds  con- 
tained in  a hundred  pounds  of  the  manure.  Multiplying  the 
pounds  per  hundred  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
by  twenty  will  give  the  number  of  pounds  of  each  per  ton. 
The  price  of  each  element  per  pound  being  known  the  value 
per  ton  can  then  easily  be  determined.  An  analysis  of  the 
dung  and  urine  of  each  cow  showed  the  average  percentages, 
or  pounds  per  hundred,  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  po- 
tash to  be: 


Nitrogen. 

l Phosphoric  Acid. 

Potash. 

Dung 

.26 

.44 

.32 

Urine '. 

1.21 

.06 

1.09 

DUNG. 

URINE. 

Lbs.  per  Ton. 

Value. 

Lbs.  per  Ton. 

Value. 

Nitrogen 

5.2 

$ .884 

Nitrogen .. 

24.1 

$3,497 

Phos.  Acid 

8.8 

.616 

Phos.  Acid 

.12 

.084 

Potash 

6.4 

.254 

Potash 

21.8 

.872 

Value  per  ton. 

$1,754 

Val.per  t’n 

$4,453 

Value  per  day  of  dung, 

$036 

Value  per  day  of  urine,... 

$ .049 

Value  per  day  of  mixed  dung  and  urine, $.085 

“ “ ton  “ “ “ “ 2.70 


This  is  much  higher  than  manure  is  usually  rated  by  far- 
mers of  the  state,  and  in  many  cases  is  more  than  it  would  be 
worth  to  them;  however,  it  represents  what  these  same  ele- 
ments would  cost  if  purchased  in  the  form  of  commercial  fer- 
tilizers. From  these  figures  it  will  be  seen  that  the  nitrogen 
is  by  far  the  most  expensive  element  in  the  manure.  Of  the 
total  nitrogen  in  the  food,  about  twenty  per  cent  was  re- 
turned in  the  dung,  from  twenty  to  twenty -five  per  cent  in 
the  milk,  and  over  fifty  per  cent  in  the  urine.  Nearly  all  of 
the  phosphoric  acid  was  returned  in  the  dung. 

The  results  show  that  the  urine  is  of  greater  commercial 
value  than  the  dung,  since  half  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  food 
was  returned  in  the  urine,  and  only  a fifth  in  the  dung.  The 
nitrogen  in  the  urine  is  soluble  and  more  available  as  plant 
food,  while  the  nitrogen  in  the  dung  is  largely  insoluble,  as 
the  determinations  of  albuminoid  nitrogen  show.  The  value 
of  the  manure  depends  mainly  upon  the  nitrogen,  and  this  is 
contained  largely  in  the  urine. 


19 


Care  should  be  taken  to  lose  as  little  of  the  urine  as  pos- 
sible. This  can  be  done  by  closing  up  the  leaks  in  the  stable 
floor,  maintaining  well  constructed  gutters,  and  the  liberal 
use  of  straw  and  other  absorbents. 

In  conclusion,  the  important  points  briefly  stated  in  re- 
gard to  ensilaged  peas  and  wheat  bran  as  a cattle  food,  are; 

g 1.  Peas  furnish  a food  rich  in  nitrogenous  compounds, 
of  which  the  dry  matter  contains  about  twelve  per  cent, 
which  is  about  twice  the  amount  in  ordinary  ensilaged  crops. 

2.  In  every  hundred  pounds  of  the  dry  matter,  seventy- 
six  pounds  were  digested,  and  all  of  the  constituents,  except 
the  ash  and  fiber,  were  nearly  equally  and  evenly  digestible. 

3.  The  pea  ensilage  and  bran  alone  took  the  place  of  corn 
ensilage,  hay  and  a mixed  grain  ration,  saving  the  more  ex- 
pensive barley  and  oil  meal,  and  giving  the  same  milk  and 
butter  yield. 

4.  The  cow  that  gave  the  better  returns  in  milk  and  but- 
ter from  the  same  weight  of  food  digested  one  per  cent  more 
of  solid  matter  and  retained  three  per  cent  less  nitrogen  than 
the  one  that  gave  a fifth  of  a pound  less  butter  per  day. 

5.  Nearly  ninety-five  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  food 
was  returned  in  some  form;  about  one-half  was  returned  in 
the  urine,  one-fifth  in  the  dung,  and  from  one-fifth  to  one- 
fourth  in  the  milk. 

6.  About  eighty-  two  per  cent  of  the  original  fertilizer 
materials  in  the  food  was  returned  in  the  dung  and  urine. 

7.  Finally,  pea  ensilage  is  a valuable  cattle  food,  rich  in 
nitrogen,  largely  digestible,  and  returns  a valuable  manure 
to  the  soil. 

The  storing  of  peas  in  the  silo  as  described  in  this  article 
may  be  unfamiliar  to  many  and  appear  to  be  out  of  the  reach 
of  the  ordinary  farmer,  but  this  is  not  so.  A silo  like  the  one 
in  which  these  peas  were  stored  can  be  made  by  any  farmer 
at  no  great  expense,  and  anyone  who  is  desirous  of  securing 
one  more  valuable  cattle  food,  should  give  peas,  either  field 
cured  or  ensilaged,  a trial. 


II.  BARLEY  AND  SHORTS 


t 

Digestibility  and  Manunal  Value. 

For  this  experiment  a Poland-China-Duroc-Jersey  bar- 
row  weighing  about  250  pounds  was  used.  The  experiment 
was  carried  on  in  May  at  medium  temperature.  The  pig 
was  of  a quiet  disposition,  and  did  not  seem  to  be  disturbed 
by  the  close  confinement.  The  daily  ration  fed  consisted  of 
9 5-7  pounds  of  a mixture  of  one-half  barley  and  one-half 
shorts  by  weight.  The  percentage  composition  of  each  was. 


| Water 

1 

1 Dry  | 

| Matter  | 

Ash 

| Ether  | 
| Extract  | 

Crude  | 
Protein  | 

Crude  | 
Fiber  | 

Nitro  gen 
j Free  Ex. 

Barley 

...|  11.78 

| 88.22  | 

2.32 

| 2.70 

| 11.57  | 

6.00  | 

| 65.63 

Shorts 

...|  10.12 

| 89.88  | 

2.79 

| 4.90 

| 13.75  | 

8.35  | 

l 60.09 

After  the  preliminary  feeding  the  dung  and  urine  were 
collected;  the  pounds  of  ash,  fiber  and  protein,  in  the  thirty- 
four  pounds  of  each  of  the  feeds  consumed,  and  the  totals, are 
given  in  the  following  table. 


j Water  j 

Dry 

Matter 

Ash 

Ether 

Extract 

Crude  | 
Protein  j 

Crude 

Fiber 

| Nitrogen 
| Free  Ex. 

Barley 

....|  4.005  | 

30.00 

.789 

.918 

| 3.935  | 

2.04 

| 22.24 

Shorts 

....j  3.443  | 

30.55 

.949 

1.666 

| 4.675  | 

2.84 

| 20.43 

Total. .. 

....1  7.448  1 

60.55 

1.738 

2.584 

1 8.610  1 

4.88 

l_ 42.67 

The  experiment  was  divided  into  two  periods  of 
three  and  four  days  each.  During  the  first  period  nearly  25 
pounds  of  manure  was  made,  or  an  average  of  eight  pounds 
per  day,  which  contained  1.91  pounds  of  dry  matter;  during 
the  second  period  31  pounds  were  made  or  an  average  of 
about  eight  pounds  per  day,  which  contained  about  two 
pounds  of  dry  matter. 


21 


AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  DRY  MANURE  IN  POUNDS  PER  100. 


Period..) 

W ater 

1 Dry  | 
j Matter  | 

Ash 

1 Ether  | 
j Extract  | 

Crude 

Protein 

| Nitrogen  | 
|Free  Ex.| 

Crude 

Fiber 

|True  Ai- 
| bum’ids 

First....  | 

77.36  | 

22.64  1 

14.54 

1 3.80  | 

16.22 

| 42.72 

22.62 

| 12.50 

Second.  | 

74.50  | 

25.50  j 

10.22 

| 4.82  | 

14.72 

| 45.62 

24.52 

| 11.S8 

The  variations  in  the  composition  of  the  manure  for  the 
two  periods  are  greater  than  in  the  experiment  with  pea  en- 
silage and  wheat  bran . The  differences  in  composition  of 
the  manure  for  the  two  periods  when  calculated  to  the  num- 
ber of  pounds  of fiber,  protein,  etc.,  made  per  day,  are  partly 
balanced  by  differences  in  dry  matter,  and  the  total  weight 
•of  the  manure  for  each  period.  All  of  the  important  data  of 
this  experiment  will  be  found  in  the  following  table: 


SUMMARY  OF  DIGESTION  RESULTS. 


Dry 

Matter 



Ash 

Organic 
M atter 

Ether 

Extract 

Crude 

Protein 

Crude 

Fiber 

Nitrogen 

Free 

Extract 

True  Al- 
buminoids 

Total  pounds  in  food 

60.55 

1.738 

58.812 

2.584 

8.61 

4.88 

1 

42.67 

7.65 

Total  pounds  in  manure 

13.56 

^ 1.632 

11.822 

j .596 

1.92 

! 3.22 

6.01 

17.45 

Total  pounds  digested... 
Co-efficient  of  digestibili- 

46.99 

.106 

46.984 

.199 

6 69 

1.66 

36.66 

5.90 

ty  of  shorts  and  barley 
1 

77.61 

! 

! .600 

1 

7.970 

7.895 

7.77 

1 

34  01 
1 

85.92 

1 

77.12 

1 

The  co-efficient  of  digestibility  for  the  crude  protein,  if 
not  corrected  for  the  biliary  nitrogen  would  be  75.8,  showing 
that  the  biliary  matters,  as  ordinarily  determined,  affected 
the  results  to  the  extent  of  about  two  per  cent. 

Twenty-eight  pounds  of  urine  was  made  during  the  seven 
days.  The  average  composition  showed  that  the  urine  con- 
tained 5.60  per  cent  solids,  .38  per  cent  ash  and  2.05  per 
cent  nitrogen.  In  the  28  pounds  of  the  urine  there  were  about 
26.2  pounds  of  water,  .11  pounds  of  ash,  and  .57  pounds  of 
nitrogen. 

The  pounds  of  nitrogen  and  ash  in  the  food  and  the 
pounds  recovered  in  the  dung  and  urine  were: 


22 


ASH.  NITROGEN, 

In  food 1.739  1.37 

In  the  dnng 1.63  .32 

In  the  urine 11  .57 


The  sum  of  the  ash  and  nitrogen  in  the  dung  and  urine, 
when  taken  from  the  number  of  pounds  in  the  food  leaves  the 
amount  retained  in  the  body  which  is  .48  of  a pound  for  the 
nitrogen,  and  no  appreciable  amount  for  the  ash.  During 
the  same  period  the  pig  consumed  111  pounds  of  water,  of 
which  69  pounds  passed  in  the  dung  andmdne and 42 pounds 
were  either  in  part  retained  in  the  body  or  given  oft  through 
the  pores  of  the  skin  and  by  respiration.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  experiment  the  pig  weighed  254  pounds,  and  at  the 
close  273  pouuds,  the  daily  weighings  showing  an  average 
gain  of  over  2 pounds.  A large  proportion  of  this  gain  was 
a gain  in  flesh,  since  over  65  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  of  the 
food  was  retained  in  the  body. 

An  average  of  eight  pounds  of  manure  and  four  pounds 
of  urine  were  made  per  day;  a fertilizer  analysis  of  the  fresh 
mannre  and  the  urine  showed  the  following  percentage  com- 
position: 

MANURE.  URINE 

Nitrogen 57%  2.05% 

Phosphoric  Acid 72“  .06“ 

Potash 32“  .04“ 

If  these  constituents  of  the  dung  and  urine  were  purchased 
in  eastern  markets  in  the  form  of  commercial  fertilizers, based 
upon  analysis,  the  dung  would  be  valued  at  $3.30  per  ton 
and  the  urine  $7.31  per  ton.  The  value  of  the  dung  made 
in  one  day  would  be  worth  $.012  and  of  the  urine  $.016. 
The  mixed  urine  and  dung  together  would  be  worth  nearly 
three  cents  per  day.  The  analysis  shows  that  the  urine  is  of 
greater  money  value  than  the  dung,  since  over  40  per  cent  of 
the  nitrogen  of  the  food  was  returned  in  the  urine,  while 
about  25  per  cent  was  returned  in  the  dung. 


III.  BARLEY. 


Digestibility  and  Manurial  Value. 

After  determining  the  digestibility  of  barley  and  shorts, 
this  same  pig  was  gradually  changed  from  barley  and  shorts 
to  a ration  of  pure  barley,  and  the  digestibility  of  the  barley 
separately  determined.  In  this  experiment  the  dung  and 
urine  were  collected  for  six  days;  during  this  time,  as  well 
as  during  the  preliminary  feeding  period,  6 pounds  of  barley 
was  fed  per  day.  The  barley  was  taken  from  the  same  lot 
as  that  used  in  the  barley  and  shorts  mixture,  but  was  not 
fed  in  such  liberal  quantities.  The  variations  in  the  compo- 
sition of  the  manure  from  each  period  were  slight.  A little 
over  24  pounds  of  manure  was  made,  or  an  average  of  four 
pounds  per  day.  All  of  the  important  data  [in  connection 
with  this  experiment  will  be  found  reported  in  the  followfng 
table: 


SUMMARY  OF  RESULTS. 


Kind  of  Sample 

Pounds 

of 

Dry  Matter 

Pounds 

of 

Ash 

Pounds 
of  Or- 
ganic Mat’r 

Pounds  ' 
of  Ether 
Extract 

Pounds  of 
Crude 
Protein 

Pounds 

of 

Fiber 

Pounds  of 
Nitrogen 
Free  Extrat 

Pounds 
of  Al- 
buminoids 

In  36  pounds  barley 

1 

31.36 

I 

! .834 

1 

, 30.42 

1 1 

.972 

1 

4.1  65 

1 1 
3.006[  24.82 

1 

4.05 

In  manure 

6.80 

j .79 

6.01 

| .318 

.779 

1.531 1 3.38 

.765 

Amount  digested 

24.56 

.045 

, 24.4  > 

1 .554 

3.386 

! 1.475  21.44 

3.285 

Digestion  Co-efficient 

80.15 

5.39 

i 

80.25 

.654 

81.42 

48.741  86.56 

81. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  the  pig  weighed  271 
pounds  and  at  the  close  274,  the  six  pounds  of  barley  per  day 
being  just  about  sufficient  to  maintain  the  live  weight.  The 
pig  consumed  52  pounds  of  water,  and  voided  36  pounds  in 
the  dung  and  urine.  The  food  contained  0.666  pounds  of 
nitrogen;  .123  pounds  were  retained  in  the  dung,  and  51 


pounds  in  the  urine,  making  a total  recovery  of  94.2  percent 
of  the  nitrogen  of  the  food. 

The  average  fertilizer  analysis  of  the  dung  and  urine 
showed  the  following  percentage  compositions. 


DUNG. 


Nitrogen 43 

Phosphoric  acid 70 

Potash 62 

Value  per  ton $ 3.07 

Value  per  day 006 


URINE. 


Nitrogen 2.05 

Phosphoric  acid .16 

Potash .10 

Value  per  ton $ 7.30 

Value  per  day 0108 


Total  Value  per  day, 


$ .017 


IV.  CORN  AND  SHORTS. 


Digestibility  and  Manurial  Value. 

The  barrow  selected  for  this  experiment,  a Yorkshire- 
Berkshire-Duroc  Jersey,  was  of  a more  contrary  disposition 
than  the  one  used  in  the  experiment  with  barley,  and  barley 
and  shorts.  The  preliminary  feeding  showed  that  about 
half  the  food  offered  was  refused.  This  necessitated  the  feed- 
ing of  an  amount  of  food  equivalent  to  about  half  that 
consumed  in  the  barley  and  shorts  experiment.  The  daily 
ration  of  a little  over  five  pounds  was  just  sufficient  to  even- 
ly maintain  the  weight  of  the  animal.  The  food  consisted  of 
a mixture  of  equal  parts  of  corn  and  shorts,  having  the  fol- 
lowing percentage  composition: 


1 

Water 

Ash 

Ether 
Extract  J 

1 

Crude 

Protein 

Crude 

Fiber 

Nitrogen 
Free  Extr’t 

Corn 

11.73 

1.46 

3.88 

i 11.25 

2.28 

69.40 

Shorts 

10.12 

2.78 

4.90 

13.75 

8.35 

60.09 

The  experiment  was  carried  on  for  seven  days  and  during 
that  time  eighteen  pounds  of  each  were  fed. 


POUNDS  OF  EACH  CONSTITUENT  CONSUMED. 


Water 

Ash 

Ether  1 
Extract 

Crude 

Protein 

Crude  Nitrogen 
Fiber  Free  Ex. 

True  Al- 
buminoid 

Corn 

2.106 

1.821 

262 

.501 

.6984 

.872 

1 

2.0304 

2.475 

I 

| 12.49  | .4106 

10.516  | 1.506 

Shorts 

Total 

3.927 

.775 

1.57 

4.505  1 

1 23.306  1 1.916 

1 1 

4.194 

The  experiment  was  divided  into  two  periods,  but  the 
dung  from  each  period  was  uniform  in  composition,  and  the 
average  of  all  the  analyses  showed  the  composition  to  be: 


26 


Water 

Ash 

Ether 

Crude 

Nitrogen  Free 

Crude 

Extract 

Protein 

Extract 

Fiber 

70.92 

14.79 

4.00 

1 

15.62 

45.59 

1 

i 20.00 

During  the  experiment  seventeen  pounds  of  dung  was 
evacuated  and  the  seventeen  pounds  were  composed  of  the 
following  number  of  pounds  of  each  constituent: 


Water 

Dry 

Matter 

Ash 

1 

Ether 

Extract 

Crude 

Protein 

Nitrogen 
Free  Ex. 

Crude 

Fiber 

1 

True  Al- 
bumin’ds 

12.05 

! 

4.95 

| 73.28 

.198 

.795 

1 

| 2.25 

1 

.99 

.683 

And  when  these  undigested  portions  are  taken  from  the 
amounts  in  the  food,  the  amounts  digested  are  obtained, 
from  which  the  digestion  co-efficients  of  the  corn  and  shorts 
are  found  to  be: 


Dry 

Matter 

Ash 

Organic 

Matter 

Ether 

Extract 

Crude 

Protein 

Crude 

Fiber 

Nitrogen 
Free  Ex. 

True  Al- 
bpmin’ds 

84.2 

4.15 

86.5 

I 

87.3 

1 

| 82.35 

48.3 

90.3 

1 

83.31 

The  barrow  drank  51  pounds  of  water,  and  gave  off  in 
the  dung  and  urine  30  pounds,  leaving  21  pounds  to  be  dis- 
posed of  through  the  lungs,  pores  of  the  skin,  or  retained  in 
the  body.  At  the  beginning  pig  weighed  236 
pounds  and  at  the  close  235  pounds,  daily  weighing 
fluctuating  about  2 pounds.  The  nitrogen  in  the  urine 
amounted  to  .528  pounds,  in  the  dung  .135  pounds,  making 
a total  of  .663  pounds,  while  the  amount  in  the  food  was  .658 
pounds.  The  total  recovery  of  the  nitrogen  was  therefore  a 
little  over  100  per  cent.  All  of  the  daily  food  consumed,  51/? 
pounds,  was  used  up  in  supporting  the  machinery  of  the  ani- 
mal, leaving  none  of  the  food  to  allow  for  any  material  gain 
in  flesh. 

A fertilizer  analysis  of  the  fresh  dung  and  urine  showed 
them  to  have  the  following  percentage  composition: 


DUNG. 

URINE. 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  acid.... 

Potash 

Value  per  ton. 
Value  per  day. 

80 

1.20 

$ 5.16 

006 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  acid 

Potash 

Value  per  ton 

Value  per  day 

2.65 

20 

15 

$ 9.45 

0120 

Total  value  per  day,.... 

$.018 

V.  CORN 


Digestibility  and  Manurial  Value. 

A few  weeks  later  the  barrow  that  had  been  used  in  the 
corn  and  shorts  experiments  was  changed  to  a ration  of 
corn.  By  this  time  the  animal  had  recovered  from  his 
previous  contrary  indisposition  to  digestion  experiments, and 
was  willing  to  eat  a comparatively  larger  amount  of 
corn  than  of  corn  and  shorts.  Some  of  the  same  corn  was 
used  as  in  the  previous  experiment.  Forty-five  pounds  of 
feed  were  consumed  and  12 V2  pounds  of  dungreturned  in  one 
week.  As  usual  the  experiment  was  divided  into  two  peri- 
ods, the  composition  of  the  manure  from  each  period  was 
quite  uniform,  and  so  only  the  average  results  are  recorded. 


COMPOSITION  OF  DRY  MANURE. 


Water 

I 

Dry 

Ash 

1 

| Ether 

1 

I 

1 

Crude 

Crude 

1 

| Nitrogen 

1 

Matter 

1 

| Extract 

1 

Protein  | 

Fiber 

j Free  Ex. 
1 

67.88 

1 

I 

1 

32.12 

I 

1 16.36 

1 

j 10.05 

1 

1 

1 

12.81  | 

1 

12.83 

1 47.95 

1 

The  number  of  pounds  of  each  of  these  compounds  in  the 
food  and  in  the  manure  are  given  in  the  following  table,  to- 
gether with  the  percentage  of  each  digested: 


SUMMARY  OF  RESULTS — CORN  DIGESTIBILITY. 


Kind  of  Samples 

1 

Pounds 

of 

Dry  Matter 

Pounds 
of  Or- 
ganic Mat’r 

Pounds 

of 

Ash 

Pounds  of 
Ether 
Extract 

Pounds  of 
Crude 
Protein 

Pounds  of 
Crude 
Fiber 

Pounds  of 
Nitrogen 
Free  Ex’act 

True  Al- 
buminoids 

In  forty-five  pounds  of 
Corn 

39.72 

39.07 

.657 

1.746 

5.062 

1.027 

31.23 

4.635 

In  1214  pounds  manure. 

4.02 

3.37 

.657 

.40 

.51 

| .52 

1.927 

.465 

Pounds  digested 

35.07 

35.70 

1.35 

4.55 

.507 

29.303 

4.17 

Co-efficient  of  digestibi- 
lity  

89.7 

91.3 

77.6 

89.9 

1 

1 48.7 

93.91 

89. 

28 


The  most  important  point  of  these  retults  is  that  none  of 
the  ash  of  the  corn  was  digested,  and  the  amount  lost  in  the 
urine  was  entirely  at  the  expense  of  that  already  stored  in 
the  body. 

The  urine  contained  2.05  per  cent  nitrogen  and  had  a 
specific  gravity  of  1.0305,  about  the  same  as  that  of  milk. 
The  urine  for  the  seven  days  contained  .520  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen while  the  dung  contained  .10  pound;  the  nitrogen  in  the 
food,  .8  pound,  exceeded  that  in  the  dung  and  urine  by  .18 
pounds,  showing  that  22  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  food 
was  retained  in  the  body.  At  the  beginning  of  the  experi- 
ment the  pig  weighed  247  pounds;  and  at  the  close  255.  The 
pig  consumed  in  all  48  pounds  of  water,  and  voided  in  the 
dung  and  urine  about  28  pounds. 

The  fertilizer  analysis  of  the  dung  and  urine  showed 
the  following  composition: 


DUNG. 


Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  acid... 

Potash 

Value  per  ton 
Value  per  day. 


URINE. 


.82 
.89 
.70 
$ 3.76 
.0033 


Nitrogen 2.05 

Phosphoric  acid 29 

Potash ; 21 

Value  per  ton $ 7.59 

Value  per  day 0095 


Total  value  per  day, 


$.0128 


VI.  DIGESTIBILITY  OF  SHORTS. 


In  the  experiments  reported  in  this  bulletin,  the  digesti- 
bilities of  barley  and  shorts  and  of  barley,  were  separately 
determined  upon  the  same  animal.  From  the  data  furnished 
by  these  two  experiments,  the  digestibility  of  the  shorts  may 
be  obtained  by  the  usual  method  of  difference.  The  digesti- 
bilities of  corn  and  shorts,  and  of  corn  were  also  separately 
determined  upon  another  animal,  thus  furnishing  entirely 
different  data  for  another  determinrtion  of  the  digestibility 
of  shorts  in  the  same  way. 

Before  considering  these  results  it  is  necessary  to  review 
briefly  the  conditions:  In  the  experiments  with  barley 

and  shorts,  the  pig  was  fed  a very  liberal  ration  of  nearly 
ten  pounds  per  day,  and  made  rapid  gains  in  weight;  when 
barley  alone  was  fed  the  ration  was  cut  down  to 
six  pounds  per  day,  and  the  pig  made  no  ap- 
preciable gain.  In  the  experiments  with  corn  and  shorts, 
a ration  of  5 Vz  pounds  per  day  made  no  gain, 
while  with  six  pounds  of  corn  per  day  a noticeable  gain  re- 
sulted. With  each  set  of  experiments  it  will  be  observed  that 
the  conditions  were  intentionally  varied;  furthermore  the 
pigs  used  for  these  experiments  were  of  different  breeds,  of 
different  dispositions,  and  of  slightly  different  weights. 
Breed,  live  weight,  individual  characteristics,  combinations 
of  the  shorts  with  other  grains,  and  the  quantity  of  the  food 
fed  are  all  factors  so  entirely  different  throughout,  that  the 
results  obtained,  for  the  digestibility  of  shorts,  when  com- 
pared, are  under  the  most  severe  tests  to  which  they  could 
be  subjected. 


The  results  are  as  follows: 


30 


SHORTS — DIGESTIBILITY  BY  DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN. 


Dry 

Matter 

Ash 

Crude 

Protein 

Crude 

Fiber 

! _ 

I 

Nitrogen 

FreeExtract 

Barley  and  Shorts  and  Barley 

Corn  and  Shorts  and  Corn 

74 

79 

6.6  | 
4.1 

1 

1 

71 
i 76 

1 

25 

48 

1 

1 85.5 
| 88. 

1 

Except  the  fiber,  the  most  extreme  difference  is  five  per 
cent  for  the  dry  matter  and  the  protein,  showing  that  the  di 
gestibilitj  of  the  shorts  was  increased,  when  fed  in  combina- 
tion with  a more  digestible  grain,  and  under  more  favorable 
conditions. 

Outline . — In  the  previous  experiments  with  pigs  the  ani- 
mals weighed  on  the  average  about  250  pounds.  In  the  fol- 
lowing experiments,  growing  pigs  of  about  150  pounds  were 
used.  The  digestion  work  as  here  reported  canttbe  divided  at 
this  point.  The  object  of  this  division  will  appear  when  the 
disposition  of  the  food  is  discussed.  In  the  following  work 
the  digestibilities  of  corn  and  bran,  peas  and  bran,  and  peas, 
are  given;  this  furnishes  data  for  two  determinations  of 
bran.  All  of  the  experiments  were  divided  into  two  and  three 
periods  each,  and  the  results  given  are  the  averages  of  all  of 
the  analyses  made,  which  in  no  case  was  less  than  six. 


VII.  CORN  AND  BRAN  —Digestibility. 


SUMMARY  OF  RESULTS. 


Dry 

Matter 

Ash 

Organie 

Matter 

Ether 

Extract 

Crude 

Protein 

Crude 

Fiber 

Nitrogen 

Free 

Extract 

True 

Al- 

buminoids 

Total  pounds  in  29 
pounds  food 

25.59 

1.15 

| 24.44 

1.34 

3.84 

1.97 

17.29 

3.53 

Total  pounds  in  dung.  .. 

7.28 

.864 

1 6.36| 

.40 

.83 

1.36 

3.76 

.77 

Total  pounds  digested... 

18.36 

.28 

| 18.08 

| .95 

3.00 

.60 

| 13.52 

2.76 

Digestion  Co-efficients... 

71.7 

24  6 

1 

1 

| 73.9 
1 1 

| 70.1 

1 ' 

78.3 

30.6  | 

78.2 

78.1 

The  food  consumed  consisted  of  a mixture  of  one  half  corn 
(ground)  and  one  half  bran;  29  pounds  of  this  mixture  was 
fed  for  one  week,  and  24  pounds  of  dung  was  returned  in 
the  same  time.  The  pig  consumed  56  pounds  of  water  and 
voided  29  pounds  in  the  dung  and  urine.  The  total  nitrogen 
in  the  urine  amounted  to  .22  pounds, in  the  dnng  .14  pounds. 
There  was  .61  pounds  of  total  nitrogen  in  the  food.  The 
pig  weighed  141  pounds  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment, 
and  150  at  the  close.  The  mixed  bran  and  corn  and  the 
manure  returned  had  the  following  compositions;  the  results 
for  the  manure  are  calculated  to  dry  substance;  the  results 
on  the  bran  and  corn  are  for  the  mixture  as  fed: 


| Water 
1 

Ash. 

1 

1 | 

1 Ether  Ext. 

1 

1 

| Protein 

| Fiber 

N.  Free  Ex. 

Bran  and  Corn 
Manure 

11.76 

69.87 

3.97  1 

12.00 

1 

4.60 
| 5.40 

1 

13.25 

11.56 

6.80 

18.9 

59.62 
j 52.14 

The  average  fertilizer  analysis  for  the  dung  and  urine 
gave  the  following  results  in  percentages: 

COMPOSITION  AS  VOIDED. 


DUNG. 

URINE. 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  acid... 

Potash 

Value  per  day. 
Value  per  ton. 

57 

1.70 

$ .008 

4.06 

. 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  acid 

Potash 

Value  per  day 

Value  per  ton 

1 

1.57 

52 

20 

$ .006 

6.22 

Value,  Mixed, 

$5.10 

VIII.  PEAS  AND  BRAN.— Digestibility. 


SUMMARY  OF  RESULTS. 


Dry 

Matter 

Ash 

Organic 

Matter 

Ether 

Extract 

Crude 

Protein 

Crude 

Fiber 

Nitrogen 

Free 

Extract 

True 

Al- 

buminoids 

Total  pounds  in  31 
lbs.  of  bran  and  peas... 

37.70 

1.38 

1 

| 26.22 

.913 

5.71 

2.65 

16.92 

5.49 

Pounds  in  manure 

5.80 

.92 

i 4.87 

.232 

.98 

1.12 

2.53 

.77 

Pounds  digested 

21.90 

.46 

1 21.33 

.681 

4.73 

1.53 

14.39 

4.72 

Digestion  Co-efficients... 

79. 

1 

33.5 

| 81.3 

74.5 

82.7 

57.6 

| 85. 
1 

85. 

The  food  consumed  consisted  of  a mixture  of  ground 
peas  and  bran,  half  and  half  by  weight;  31  pounds  of  this 
mixture  was  consumed  in  seven  days;  26  pounds  of 
urine  and  37.45  pounds  of  dung  were  returned  in  the  same 
time;  69  pounds  of  water  was  consumed  and  55  pounds 
voided  in  the  dung  and  urine.  The  food  contained  .91  pounds 
of  nitrogen,  the  dung  .15  pounds,  urine  .40  pounds.  The  pig 
weighed  135  pounds  at  the  beginning  and  138  at  the  close. 

The  composition  of  the  peas  and  bran  as  fed,  and  of  the 
dry  dung  are  as  follows: 


1 

| Water 
1 

Ash 

1 

Ether  Ex.| 

| Fiber  | 

1 

Protein 

1 

N.  Free 

Album'ds 

Peas 

Bran 

Dung 

| 11.90 

| 9.40 

.....|  84.50 

1 

3.06 

5.95 

15.90 

.85  | 

5.05  1 

4.00  | 

1 

7.46 

10.25 

19.40 

1 

21.69 

15.18 

17,00 

55.04 

54.17 

43.7 

20.62 

14.81 

14.07 

The  fertilizer  compounds  were  present  in  the  fresh  dung 
and  urine  in  the  following  percentages: 


DUNG. 

I 

1 

URINE. 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  acid 

44 

94 

1 

i 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  acid 

1.54 

35 

Potash 

Value  per  day 

Value  per  ton 

50 

$.0075 

3.20 

1 

! 

Potash 

Value  per  day 

Value  per  ton 

10 

$ .01 

5.80 

IX.  PEAS.— Digestibility. 


SUMMARY  OF  RESULTS. 


Dry 

Matter 

Ash 

Organic 

Matter 

Ether 

Extract 

Crude 

Protein 

Crude 

Fiber 

Nitrogen 

Free 

Extract 

True 

Al- 

buminoids 

In  24  pounds  of  peas 

21.15 

.734 

20.42 

.204 

5.20 

1.79 

13.209 

4.95 

In  dung,  pounds 

2.16 

.438 

1.72 

.104 

.59 

3.96 

.628: 

.48 

Digestible,  pounds 

18. b9 

.296 

18.69 

.100 

4.61 

1.39 

12.56 

4.46 

Digestion  Co-efficients... 

89.8 

40.3 

91.5 

(50) 

88.6 

77.9 

95.08 

90. 

In  this  experiment  the  dung  and  urine  were  collected  for 
only  four  and  a half  days.  At  the  beginning  of  the  experi- 
ment the  pig  weighed  152  pounds  and  at  the  close  151%. 
The  confinement  to  a pea  diet  finally  resulted  in  producing  a 
diarrhoea.  At  this  point  the  experiment  was  stopped. 


X.  BRAN.— Digestibility. 


From  the  experiments  on  the  digestibility  of  corn  and 
bran,  peas  and  bran,  and  peas,  all  of  the  data  that  are  neces- 
sary are  given  for  two  determinations  of  the  bran,  one  in 
combination  with  corn  and  the  other  with  peas.  When  fed 
with  corn  the  dry  matter  of  the  bran  was  only  53  per  cent 
digestible,  with  peas  77  per  cent. 

This  difference  is  too  great  to  be  overlooked,  and  would 
indicate,  as  in  the  case  with  shorts,  that  the  per  cent  digest- 
ed is  materially  influenced  by  two  factors,  viz:  Combination 

in  which  it  is  fed,  and  peculiarities  of  the  animal  to  which  it 
is  fed. 

In  reviewing  the  factors  given  by  different  investigators 
on  the  digestibility  of  bran,  results  will  be  found  that  vary 
as  much  as  the  ones  here  given.  One  factor  that  always 
tends  to  make  a disagreement  for  bran  co-efficients,  is  the 
variations  in  the  composition  of  the  samples  of  bran,  due 
to  the  differences  in  the  completeness  of  the  milling  process, 
and  the  character  of  the  wheat. 

The  digestion  results  that  are  obtained  from  a bran  from 
which  everything  is  removed  that  possibly  can  be,  are  not 
applicable  to  a bran  in  which  variable  quantities  of  the  in- 
- terior  of  the  grain  are  left.  A chemical  analysis  of  these  two 
kinds  of  bran,  alone,  cannot  be  taken  as  a safe  guide  in  de- 
termining this  point,  and  to  apply  digestion  co-efficients  to 
such  brans  would  be  even  more  impossible.  In  the  following 
table  are  given  the  results  of  analyses  of  samples  of  bran 
and  shorts,  from  different  grades  of  wheat  in  which  the  mil- 
ling process  was  not  as  complete  as  for  the  bran  and  shorts 
used  in  these  experiments.  The  low  per  cent  of  the  protein 
ill  some  of  these  samples  is  due  entirely  to  the  incomplete  re- 
moval of  the  starch  in  the  flour.  These  samples  are  usually 
considered  of  more  value  as  feed,  on  account  of  the  flour  that 


35 


has  not  been  removed,  and  if  digestion  co-efficients  were  ap- 
plied to  such  samples  the  results  would  be  far  from  the  true 
value. 


WHEAT  BRAN — COMPOSITION  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  POUNDS. 


Kind  of  Sample. 

Water 

Ash 

Ether 

Extract 

Crude 

Protein 

Crude 

Fiber 

Nitrogen 

Free 

Extract 

Al- 

buminoids 

Weight 
Grain 
per  Bushel 

Scotch  Fite 

10.59 

6.37 

4.30 

13.43 

11  .20 

54.11 

13.12 

63% 

Bine  Stem 

10.82 

6.01 

4.60 

15.00 

12.60 

50.97 

14.37 

59 

Ladoga 

10.97 

6.78 

4.40 

12.81 

12.61 

50.53 

12.50 

57 

Scotch  Fife 

10.32 

6.13 

5.02 

14.43 

10.57 

53.53 

14.06 

61% 

Scotch  Fife  bleached 

10.65 

6.53 

5.31 

13.75 

11.00 

52.76 

13.43 

60 

Scotch  Fife  badly  bleae’d 

10.24 

6.12 

5.60 

16.12 

10.32 

51.60 

15.56 

'57% 

Scotch  Fife  frosted 

10.40 

5.48 

4.12 

13.89 

10.50 

55.61 

13.50 

58i/2 

Scotch  Fife  badly  frosted 

10.33 

5.82 

4.03 

15.62 

15.00 

55.12 

15.00 

58 

SHORTS — COMPOSITION  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  POUNDS. 


Scotch  Fife 

10.12 

4.30: 

Blue  Stem 

10.40 

3.80 

Ladoga 

9.21 

4.40 

Scotch  Fife 

10.24 

2.25 

Scotch  Fife  bleached 

10.42 

2.40 

Sc’ch  Fife  badly  bleached 

10.89 

2.18 

Scotch  Fife  trosted 

10.62 

2.40 

Scotch  Fife  badly  frosted 

10.34 

3.25 

4.00 

11.62  

11.43  63% 

3.75 

14.25  

13.75  59 

! 3.30 

11.25  

10.60  57 

2.75 

12.12  

11.37  61% 

2.92 

10.87  

n 

10.31  60 

2.65 

11.62  

11.25  67% 

2.50 

10.06  

9.62  ! 58% 

2.95 

l 2.08  

11.87  58 

SUMMARY  OF  DIGESTION  CO-EFFICIENTS. 


Kind 
of  Gram. 


Dry 

Matter 


Ash 


Corn... 

Shorts. 

Barley  andShorts 

Barley 

Shorts 

Com  and  Bran ... 

Bran 

Peas  and  Bran.... 
Peas 
Bran 


89.7 
79  4.15 

77.6  6.09 

80.1  5.39 

74  6.63 

71.7  24.6 

53.7  

79  33.5 

89.8  40 


Ether 

Extract 


87.3 


77.6 


78.9 

67.3 


70.1 

65.4 

74.5 


78.1 


Crude 

Protein 

Crude 

Fiber 

Nitrogen 

Free 

Extract 

Albumi- 

noids 

82.4 

48.3  | 

1 1 

| 90.3  1 

1 

| 81.3 

89.9 

48.7 

93.9 

1 

89 

76 

48  , 

t 88 

77.7 

34 

85.9 

77.1 

81.4 

48.7 

86.6 

81 

71 

25  1 

85.5 

78.3 

30.6 

78.2 

78.1 

75.8 

26.9 

56 

82.7 

57.6 

85 

85 

88,6 

77.9 

95 

90 

74.4 

39.1 

75 

75.8 

36 


In  order  to  form  some  idea  of  the  comparative  value  of 
these  grains  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  consideration  the 
chemical  composition  as  well  as  the  digestibility.  The 
chemical  analyses  show  how  many  pounds  of  ash,  fiber  and 
protein  there  are  in  a hundred  pounds  of  the  grain  or  fodder. 
The  digestibility  is  simply  the  amount  that  is  digestible. 
The  corn,  for  example,  was  found  to  be  composed  of  11.25 
per  cent  of  protein  or  11.25  pounds  of  protein  in  every  hun- 
dred pounds  of  the  corn.  This  protein  was  found  to  be  89.9 
per  cent  digestible,  and  in  11.25  pounds  of  protein  there  are 
11.25  times  .899  or  10.11  pounds  of  digestible  protein  in  ev- 
ery hundred  pounds  of  the  corn.  In  like  manner  the  pounds 
of  digestible  organic  matter,  fiber  and  other  compounds  are 
calculated. 

In  the  following  table  the  percentage  composition  of 
each  grain  is  given,  and  then  the  number  of  pounds  of  digest- 
ible organic  matter,  fiber  and  protein  in  every  hundred 
pounds  of  the  grain  as  fed: 


37 


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COMPARISON  OF  THE  MANURIAL  VALUES. 


In  the  following  table  the  fertilizer  value  of  the  food  con- 
sumed by  each  animal  per  day,  and  the  corresponding  values 
of  the  dung  and  urine  are  given,  together  with  other  impor- 
tant data,  for  a comparison  of  the  manurial  values: 


Kind  of 
Food 

Pounds  of 
food  per 
day 

Per  cent 
of  nitro- 
gen retained 
in  body 

Fertilizer 
Valtie 
of  the  food 
consumed 

| Value  of 
the  urine 
per  day 
(Cents) 

Value  of 
the  dung 
per  day 

Total 
Value  per 
day 

Initial 
weight  of 
pigs 

Bariev  and  Shorts 

9 5-7 

I 

35 

.043 

.016 

1 

.012 

.028 

254 

Barley 

6 

6 

.02 

.010 

.006 

.016 

275 

Corn  and  shorts 

5 1-7 

0 

.021 

.012 

.006 

.018 

235 

Corn 

6l4 

22 

.016 

.010 

.003 

.013 

258 

Peas  and  Bran 

4 3-7 

, 28 

.01 

.007 

.017 

135 

Corn  and  Bran 

4 1-7 

25 

1 

.008 

.006 

.014 

141 

The  value  of  the  manure  returned  in  one  day,  it  will  be 
seen,  depends  upon  the  quantity  and  kind  of  food  and  the 
per  cent  of  nitrogen  retained  in  the  body.  The  dung  re- 
turned from  a hundred  pounds  of  the  barley  is  more  valuable 
than  that  returntd  from  a hundred  pounds  of  the  corn.  The 
addition  of  shorts  to  either  barley  or  corn  very  noticeably 
increased  the  value  of  the  dung. 

The  money  values  assigned  to  the  mixed  dung  and  urine 
are  much  greater  than  the  actual  returns  would  be  to  the  far- 
mer; and  the  results  in  order  to  conform  to  his  conditions 
should  be  divided  at  least  by  three  and  possibly  four,  since 
ordinarily  all  the  urine  is  lost,  which  in  these  experiments 
amounts  to  over  half  the  value  of  the  dung.  A farther  and 
additional  loss  occurs  from  drainage  before  the  dung  is 
spread  in  the  fields. 


THE  NITROGEN  IN  THE  FOOD  SUPPLY. 


COMPARISON  OF  RESULTS. 

In  the  following  table  the  important  data  in  connection 
with  the  nitrogen  of  the  food  supply,  and  the  amounts  re- 
turned in  the  dung  and  urine,  will  be  found,  together  with 
the  amounts  retained  in  the  body. 


Kind  of 
Food. 

Pounds  of 
food  per 
day 

Initial 
weight  of 
pigs 

Total  lbs  of  nitrogen  per  week  in 

Pounds  per 
day  of  di- 
gestible pro- 
tein in  food 

Pounds  of 
gain 

per  week 

Food  1 

I 

Dung  1 
1 

Urine 

| Retai’d 
1 in 

1 body 

Barley  and  Shorts 

9 5-7 

254 

1.37 

.32 

.57 

.48 

.95 

19 

Barley 

6 

271 

.76 

.14 

.58 

.04 

.56 

3 

Com  and  Shorts.. 

5 1-7 

236 

.66 

.14 

.53 

.00 

.52 

loss  1Y2 

Com 

ey2 

247 

.80 

.10 

.52 

.18 

1 -75 

8 

It  will  be  seen  that  when  no  nitrogen  was  retained  in  the 
body  there  was  a slight  loss  of  weight,  and  when  only  a 
small  quantity  of  nitrogen  was  retained  a slight  gain  resul- 
ted. An  increase  in  weight  will  be  found  to  be  accompanied 
by  an  increase  of  the  nitrogen  stored  up  in  the  body.  With 
about  half  a pound  of  digestible  protein  per  day  in  the  food, 
the  pigs  fed  on  barley,  and  corn  and  shorts  made  no  appreci- 
able gains,  but  when  the  digestible  protein  was  increased  to 
three  quarters  of  a pound  per  day,  and  the  other  compounds 
increased  in  the  same  ratio,  the  pig  made  a fair  gain,  and 
when  the  amount  was  still  farther  increased  to  nearly  a 
pound  per  day  the  pig  gained  nineteen  pounds  in  a week. 
From  the  table  it  will  be  seen  that  a little  over  half  a pound 
of  nitrogen  per  week  was  passed  in  the  urine  of  each  animal, 
and  this  occurred  whether  the  animal  was  gaining  or  losing 
in  weight.  The  amount  of  nitrogen  carried  off  in  the  dung 
varied  according  to  the  amount  of  undigestible  nitrogen  to 
be  disposed  of  in  the  food.  The  nitrogen  in  the  urine  repre- 


40 


sents  nearly  all  of  the  digestible  nitrogen  of  the  food  that 
was  used  in  the  body  for  mechanical  purposes,  while  the  ni- 
trogen in  the  dung  represents  mainly  the  indigestible  nitro- 
gen of  the  food. 

When  the  digestible  nitrogen  in  the  food  was  increased 
above  the  amount  required  to  maintain  the  animal,  nearly 
all  of  this  increase  was  stored  up  in  the  body. 

To  the  farmer  these  results  mean  that  for  every  six  and 
one-half  pounds  of  barley  or  corn  fed  to  a pig  weighing  250 
pounds,  about  six  pounds  are  used  up  mechanically,  in  the 
body,  and  only  about  half  a pound  goes  to  make  flesh.  The 
chief  benefits  that  are  derived  from  the  food,  comes  from  the 
small  amount  that  is  in  excess  of  that  required  for  mainten- 
ance. These  figures  show  how  unprofitable  it  is  to  deal  out 
small  or  unbalanced  rations  for  fattening  mature  animals 
since  a certain  amount  must  go  for  supplying  fuel  and  doing 
work,  and  nearly  all  above  this  amount  is  made  into  flesh. 
It  is  economical  to  feed  a liberal  ration. 


University  of  Minnesota. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

BULLETIN  No.  27. 

CHEMICAL  DIVISION. 

PEBBTJiLET,  1893. 

I.  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  FODDERS,  WHEAT  AND 
MILLED  PRODUCTS. 

II.  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  DAIRY  PRODUCTS. 

III.  SUGAR  BEETS. 

tfey*  The  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the 
State  who  make  application  for  them. 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK,  RAMSEY  CO., 

MINNESOTA. 


University  of  Minnesota 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis,  - - - - - 1896. 

The  HON.  GREENLEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - - 1894. 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - 1894. 

The  HON.  JOHN  LIND,  New  Ulm, 1896. 

The  HON.  JOEL  P.  HEATWOLE,  Northfield,  - 1896. 

The  HON.  O.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth, 1896. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson,  - - - - 1896. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  EMERY,  Lake  City, 1895. 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  Minneapolis,  - - 1895. 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  St.  Paul,  -----  Ex-Officio. 
The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  DAVID  L.  KIEHLE,  M.  A..  St.  Paul,  - - - Ex-Officio . 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHROP,  LL.  D.,  Minneapolis,  - Ex-Officio . 

The  President  of  the  University. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  J.  S.  PILLSBURY. 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  EMERY. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION: 


CLINTON  D.  SMITH,  M.  S.,  - - -----  Director. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S.,  - - Horticulturist. 

OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  - - - - Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S., Chemist. 

T.  L.  If  DECKER, - Dairying. 

CHRISTOPHER  GRAHAM,  B.S.,V.M.D.,  - - - -Veterinarian. 

J.  A.  VYE, Secretary. 


I.  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  FODDERS  AND 
GRAINS. 


BY  HARRY  SNYDER. 


A.  WHEAT  AND  MILLED  PRODUCTS. 

During  the  year  1892  a number  of  analyses  have  been 
made  of  different  grades  of  wheat,  together  with  the  flour 
and  products  obtained  from  them.  These  samples  represent 
a number  of  different  grades  of  wheat  from  the  crop  of  1891. 
No  attempt  is  made  to  distinguish  between  the  different  com- 
mercial grades  of  wheat  as  to  chemical  composition,  since 
this  would  require  a larger  number  of  analyses  than  have 
yet  been  made.  The  results  are  given,  as  they  show  fairly 
well  the  average  composition  of  wheat  as  grown  in  Minne- 
sota. These  analyses  show  that  these  samples  are  much 
richer  in  gluten  and  other  valuable  food  compounds  than  the 
average  as  generally  given  for  American  wheat. 

The  results  are  expressed  in  percentages,  or  parts  per 
hundred.  In  the  table  the  averages  are  first  given,  then  the 
extremes  or  highest  and  lowest  percentages.  The  starch  and 
dextrin  (soluble  starch)  were  separately  determined  in  each 
sample.  In  the  flour,  sixteen  samples  are  reported.  The 
flour  was  made  from  eight  of  the  eighteen  samples  of  wheat 
whose  analyses  are  reported,  and  contains  more  starch  and 
less  gluten  and  nitrogenous  matters  than  the  original  wheat. 
The  small  amount  of  ethersoluble  matter  (mainly  fat)  is  no- 
ticeable. In  the  wheat,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  ratio  of  the 
gluten  to  the  starch  is  about  1 to  4;  in  the  flour  1 to  6.5. 

The  composition  of  the  wheat  germ  is  extremely  interest- 
ing, inasmuch  as  there  is  more  nitrogenous  matter 
in  this  product  than  in  the  original  wheat  or  any  of  the  other 


44 


products.  This  is  quite  suggestive.  The  germ  is  too  valuable 
a food  product  to  be  incorporated  into  the  by-products.  The 
shorts  and  bran  reported  are  not  from  the  same  milling  as 
the  wheat,  flour  and  germ.  They  represent,  however,  the 
average  composition  of  bran  from  exhaustive  milling.  The 
shorts  contain  less  nitrogen,  ash  and  fiber  than  the  bran; 
these  same  compounds  in  the  shorts  are,  as  a rule,  more  di- 
gestible than  those  of  the  bran.  The  reader  is  referred  to 
bulletin  26  page  29  for  a more  complete  discussion  of  the  di- 
gestibility of  bran  and  shorts. 

It  will  be  seen  on  examining  the  table,  that  on  the  aver- 
age there  is  more  water  in  the  flour  and  each  one  of  the 
products,  than  was  present  in  the  original  wheat.  Whether 
this  is  true  in  general  yet  remains  to  be  seen.  Wheat  starch  is 
quite  hydroscopic,  and  without  doubt  many  of  the  discrep- 
ancies in  the  weighings  of  large  quantities  of  wheat  are  due 
to  the  differences  in  the  amounts  of  hydroscopic  moisture 
present.  A difference  of  one-half  of  one  per  cent  of  water 
would  make  a difference  of  a half  a pound  on  a hundred 
pounds  of  wheat.  A difference  of  half  of  a pei  cent  of  water 
in  the  same  sample  of  wheat  at  different  times  is  not  an  un- 
common occurrence.  In  the  wheat  97  per  cent  of  the  nitro- 
gen is  in  the  form  of  gluten  and  other  albuminoids;  in  the 
flour  98.  Practically  all  of  the  nitrogen  is  in  the  form  of 
gluten  and  albuminoids.  This  is  not  in  accord  with 
statements  found  in  many  chemical  journals  and  books, 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  chemical  methods  for  the 
determination  of  nitrogen  have  been  materially  improved 
within  comparatively  recent  years. 

The  per  cent  of  starch  and  dextrin  in  the  wheat  ranged 
from  62.4  to  nearly  68,  with  an  average  of  about  65.  The 
starch  and  gluten  make  up  about  90  per  cent  of  the  total 
composition  of  the  dry  organic  matter  of  the  wheat.  The 
extremes  reached  in  the  composition  of  these  wheats  were 
marked  by  the  Ladoga  wheat.  It  contained  the  most  miner- 
al matter,  fiber  (woody  material)  and  the  least  gluten  of  any 
of  the  wheats  examined;  and  the  same  was  true  of  the  La- 
doga flour. 


45 


WHEAT  AND  ITS  MILLED  PRODUCT. 


Kind  of  Sample. 

Number  of 
Samples 

Water 

Ash  

Ether  Extract 

Protein. 

. , 

Starch  and 
• Dextrin 

Undetermined 

Fiber 

Total 

Gluten 

Wheat  ,1891)— 

Average  ... 

18 

10.16 

1.84 

2.01 

13-75 

13.50 

64.90 

4.14 

3.20 

Highest  ... 

12.10 

2.10 

2.26 

14.12 

14.01 

67.86 

5.64 

4.32 

Lowest 

9.61 

1.61 

1.71 

10.10 

9.37 

62.40 

1.71 

2.90 

Flour — 

u 

Average  ... 

16 

10.63 

.45 

.55 

11.25 

1 1.00 

70.39 

Highest.... 

13.98 

.76 

.71 

13-35 

13.05 

74.00 

Lowest 

9.53 

.35 

.34 

6.88 

6.81 

68.80 

Wheat  Germ — 

Average.... 

8 

10.41 

2.74 

3.50 

15.74 

15,31 

Highest.... 

10.98 

3.33 

5.00 

18.75 

18.42 

Lowest 

10.32 

2.51 

3.01 

13.75 

13.13 

Nitrogen  free 

extract. 

Wheat  Shorts — 

Average.... 

6 

10.12 

3.12 

2.90 

13.11 

12.87 

65.33 

5.42 

Highest.... 

14.12 

4.40 

4.00 

14.16 

13.70 

68.80 

6.98 

Lowest 

9.04 

2.18 

2.41 

10.06 

9.68 

61.60 

4.12 

Bran — 

Average.... 

5 

10.40 

5.95 

5.05 

15.38 

14.81 

52.87 

10.25 

Highest .... 

13.12 

6.25 

5.62 

18.12 

17.64 

59.80 

14.8 

Lowest 

9.40 

4.87 

4.37 

12.16 

11.81 

50.04 

7.12 

B.  FODDER  PRODUCTS  OF  CORN. 

The  composition  of  corn  ensilage, corn, corn  and  cob  meal  and 
the  tops  and  butts  of  corn  stalks  are  given  in  tabular  form. 
In  the  case  of  ensilage  the  results  are  the  averages  of  dupli- 
cate analyses  of  eight  samples.  For  the  sake  of  a uniform 
basis  for  comparison,  the  composition  of  corn  stalks,  with 
and  without  the  grain,  and  of  ensilage,  is  given  in  terms 
ofthe  dry  matter  (water  free  basis.)  Comparing  the  com- 
position of  corn  and  of  corn  and  cob  meal,  it  will  be  seen  that 
there  is  more  fiber  (woody  material,)  more  ash,  less  protein 
and  ether  extract  in  the  corn  and  cob  meal  than  in  the  corn 
meal.  Comparing  the  composition  of  the  tops  and  butts  of 
corn  stalks,  it  will  also  be  seen  that  there  is  about  the  same 
difference,  namely:  more  fiber  and  ash  in  the  butts  than  in 
the  tops.  The  tops  are  richer  in  the  more  valuable  food  ma- 
terials than  the  butts. 


46 


The  composition  of  the  dry  matter  of  ensilage  is  practi- 
cally the  same  as  the  composition  of  the  stalks  with  the 
grain,  when  cured  as  dry  corn  fodder. 

In  the  corn  ensilage  88  per  cent  of  the  total  nitrogen  is 
in  the  form  of  albuminoids;  in  the  corn  and  stalks  about  90 
per  cent.  The  corn  and  corn  and  cob  meal  are  not  strictly 
comparable  as  to  this  point,  since  they  are  not  from  the  same 
corn.  As  a rule,  the  more  nitrogen  there  is  present  in  the 
form  of  albuminoids  the  more  valuable  the  fodder. 


FODDER  PRODUCTS  OF  CORN. 

COMPOSITION  EXPRESSED  IN  POUNDS  PER  HUNDRED. 


Kind  of  Sample. 

Number  of 
Samples. 

Water 

> 

Vi 

cr 

Ether  Extract 

Protein. 

Nitrogen  Free 
Extract 

Crude  Fiber... 

Nitrogen  in 
form  of  Al- 
buminoids .. 

Total 

1 

Albs 

Corn  Ensilage — 

Average .... 

8 

73.85 

1.41 

.89 

1.96 

1.73 

13.88 

6.28 

88% 

Highest 

77.21 

1.47 

.95 

2.22 

1.79 

16.00 

6.51 

Lowest 

71.00 

1.20 

.84 

1.89 

1.65 

12.00 

6.17 

Corn  (whole  ker- 

nel)— Average 

5 

10.73 

1.46 

3.88 

10.25 

9.60 

70.4 

2.25 

93% 

Highest 

11.75 

1.49 

4,16 

11.25 

10.20 

72.01 

2.30 

Lowest 

10.60 

1.42 

2.88 

9.92 

9.01 

68.80 

2.10 

Corn  and  cob  meal 

Average .... 

4 

6.48 

1.65 

3.65 

7.56 

7.22 

70.55 

10.11 

95% 

Highest 

10.16 

1.69 

3.79 

7.84 

7.71 

74.80 

11.63 

Lowest 

5.12 

1.61 

3.41 

7.41 

7.05 

68.24 

9.83 

IN  THE  FOLLOWING  SAMPLES  THE  RESULTS  ARE  GIVEN  ON  DRY 

MATTER. 


Com  Stalks,  (no 
grain) 

2 

6.25 

1.90 

4.30 

3.88 

54.17 

29.20 

90% 

Corn  Tops 

1 

5.80 

2.01 

5.01 

4.82 

59.24 

25.12 

96% 

Corn  Butts 

1 

7.06 

1.46 

4.03 

3.60 

51.44 

32.41 

89% 

Stalks  with  Corn.. 
Corn  Ensiiage 

5.00 
5 04 

3.45 

3.43 

7.61 

7.52 

6.84 

6.12 

52.09 

53.39 

25.00 

24.00 

90% 

88% 

C.  MISCELLANEOUS  GRAINS  AND  FODDERS. 

Comparing  the  average  composition  of  barley  with  that 
of  oats,  it  will  be  seen  that  oats  contain  more  fiber,  ash  and 
ether  extract,  the  average  amount  of  protein  in  each  being 
about  the  same.  The  peas  are  characteristically  rich  in  ni- 
trogenous compounds;  gluten  meal  is  even  more  so;  while 


47 


germ  meal  is  richer  than  ordinary  grain.  The  flax  seed  is 
rich  in  both  the  fat  and  the  albuminoid  compounds.  The 
average  per  cent  of  the  total  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  albu- 
minoids is  the  same  for  both  the  oats  and  the  barley,  viz:  94. 
It  would  appear  that  there  is  but  little  amide  nitrogen  in 
the  grains.  This  is  of  great  importance  since  the  amide  com- 
pounds are  considered  to  have  a lower  food  value  than  the 
albuminoid  compounds.  In  calculating  crudeprotein  no  dis- 
tinction is  made  between  amide  and  albuminoid  nitrogen. 
With  ordinary  grains  this  does  not  seriously  affect  the  re- 
sults. Hence  but  little  or  no  correction  is  necessary  for  non- 
albuminoid nitrogen  in  wheat,  flour,  oats,  barley,  corn,  glu- 
ten meal  and  flax  seed;  with  the  hay  and  straw  this  does 
not  hold  true,  as  a reference  to  the  table  will  show. 

The  per  cent  of  ash  in  the  wheat  straw,  oat  straw,  timo- 
thy and  millet  appears  incredibly  large  when  compared  with 
older  analyses.  In  the  older  analyses,  the  insoluble  silica 
and  carbon  dioxide  were  deducted  from  the  ash.  In  the  case 
of  all  of  the  above  samples  this  seriousiy  affects  the  per  cent 
of  ash,  since  in  the  case  of  wheat  straw  nearly  half  the  ash  is 
insolubie  silica  (sand);  and  if  this  insoluble  silica  was  deduc- 
ted from  the  ash,  the  wheat  straw  would  contain  about  4.50 
per  cent  ash,  instead  of  9.  The  total,  soluble  and  insoluble 
silica  were  determined  in  each  sample,  and  since  they  com- 
pose such  a large  per  cent  of  the  mineral  matters  of  the  straw, 
they  are  interesting  to  observe: 


Wheat  Straw. 

Oat  Straw. 

Timothy. 

Total  Silica 

57.95 

45.25 

46.65 

Insoluble  Siiica 

48.7 

41.76 

44.62 

Soluble  Silica 

9. *-’5 

3.49 

2.03 

This  also  affects  the  per  cent  of  nitrogen  free  extracts  in 
these  samples  from  3 to  4 per  cent,  making  the  samples  so 
much  less  valuable.  Nitrogen  free  extract  is  a very  broad 
term,  and  at  one  time  it  included  a little  sand. 

Among  the  miscellaneous  fodder  articles  timothy,  millet 
and  ths  straws  will  be  found  to  be  poor  in  protein  compared 
with  clover,  pea  hay  and  lucem.  The  plants  that  are  rich  in 


48 


nitrogenous  compounds  are  frequently  called  the  nitrogen- 
ous plants;  clover,  lucern  and  pea  hay  are  good  examples  of 
such  fodders.  Pea  hay  compares  closely  and  favorably  with 
clover  hay;  pea  hay  is  extremely  rich  in  mineral  matter. 
Wolff,  in  his  “Aschen  Analysen,”  gives  average  results  of  an- 
alyses with  even  higher  percentages  of  ash.  Pea  hay  ash  is 
rich  in  lime,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  all  essential  mate- 
rials for  bone  growth  in  young  and  growing  animals.  In 
bulletin  No:  26,  page  12,  it  will  be  found  that  the  ash  is  quite 
completely  digested  by  milch  cows. 

Millet  and  timothy  hay  are  quite  similar  in  composition, 
with  the  advantage  as  far  as  protein  is  concerned,  in  favor  of 
millet.  The  dry  matter  of  the  rape,  particularly  of  the 
leaves, is  rich  in  nitrogenous  compounds.  Attention  should 
: >e  given  to  the  raising  of  fodders  that  contain  more  of  the 
albuminoid  compounds. 

With  the  exception  of  the  wheat  the  grain  and  fod- 
der crops  reported  were  grown  upon  the  experiment  station 
tarm  during  the  seasons  of  1891  and  1892.  A number  of 
these  fodder  articles  can  be  added,  to  advantage  to  many 
farmers’  crops. 

GRAINS  AND  SEEDS. 


Kind  of  Sample. 


3 

P 


Parley — 

Average .... 

Highest 

Lowest  .... 


4 


11.78 

13.60 

9.80 


> 


K 


Protein. 


> 
2. 51 

w 3 


3.32 

2.64 

2.12 


2.70 


2.41 


11.57 

13.60 

10.12 


10.92 

13.16 

9.58 


67.63  3.00 

68.80  1 5.12 

62.12  4.48 


Oats — 


Average....  5 
Highest..... 
Lowest 


8.60 

9.43 

8.09 


3.62 

3.38 

2.85 


4.88 

5.32 

4.12 


11.70 

11.84 

10.14 


11.01 

11.71 

9.84 


60.94 

62.99 

61.34 


6.64 

11.70 


94 


5.64 


Cl  ax  Seed 

< lertn  Meal... 
Oluten  Meal. 


1 5.10 

1 6.52 

1 9.02 


3.54 

1.25 

.87 


38.60 

6.47 

7.62 


27.50 

14.00 

27.46 


26.12 

13.01 

25.40 


19.24 

63.71 

55.64 


7.40 

8.25 

1.39 


95 

93 

93 


Ocas — 


Average .... 

Highest 

Lowest ..... 


4 


9.84 

11.90 

9.72 


3.40 

3.62 

3.06 


1.03 

1.16 

.85 


22.00 

23.04 

21.69 


21.05 

22.12 

21.02 


58.00 

59.60 

55.04 


5.73 


96 


7.46 

5.64 


1 11.92 


2.65 


3.25 


10.60 


8.42 


60.81 


10.77 


buckwheat  (wild) 


49 


HAY,  STRAW  AND  MISCELLANEOUS. 


Number  of 
Samples 

Water 

> 

U) 

m 

rt- 

Protein. 

Nitrogen  Free 
Extract 

O 

>-t 

m.  n> 

Kind  of  Sample. 

3* 

C5* 

rt> 

i-t 

71 

X 

►t 

P 

o 

Total 

> 

2.51 

$®  3 
: f 

ss 

a 

n 

5 

o'* 

o 

n 

r cent  oi  to- 
;al  Nitrogen' 
n form  of 
Ubumin’ds. 

Wheat  Straw 

1 

1 

7.41 

9.22 

.97 

3.25 

2.50 

38.27 

40.88 

71.4 

Oat  Straw 

1 

8.36 

9.00 

1.40 

4.06 

2.90 

41.11 

38.07 

70. 

Clover  Hay 

1 

10.25  ! 

6.45 

2.59 

13.43 

12.00 

42.64 

24.67 

89. 

Timothy  Hay 

1 

10.17  | 

5.64 

1.60 

5.62 

4.80 

44.56 

32.41 

85. 

Millet  Hay 

1 

7.65  j 

9.33 

1.55 

6.68 

5.98 

43.79 

31.00 

88. 

Lucern  Hay 

1 

10.12 

6.91 

2.10 

13.54 

12.02 

39.13 

28.20 

89. 

Rape,  dry  (whole 
plant) 

1 

1 

84.51 

7.60 

1.80 

11.75 

7.18 

63.56 

15.29 

61. 

Rape,  dry  leaves... 

1 

88.16  - 

7.50  | 

3.20 

17.04 

13.09 

60.03 

11.06 

75. 

Pea  Hay 

1 

9.75 

12.72 

2.63 

14.58 

12.25 

32.86 

27.46 

84. 

II.  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  DAIRY  PRODUCTS. 


A.  MILK. 

General  Composition. — Milk  is  composed  of  water  and 
solid  matter.  The  milk  solids  obtained  by  evaporating  milk 
to  dryness  at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water  form  a light 
brown,  shiny,  brittle  mass,  made  up  of  four  classes  of  com- 
pounds, viz:  Fats,  sugar,  nitrogenous  matters  such  as  ca- 

sein, albumen  and  ash.  The  fats,  nitrogenous  matters  and 
ash  are  each  in  their  turn  made  up  of  a number  of  com- 
pounds; the  ash,  for  example,  is  partially  composed  of 
common  salt,  lime  and  potash.  A complete  analysis  of  milk 
usually  means  nothing  farther  than  a determination  of  the 
percentage  amounts  of  each  class  of  compounds  such  as  the 
fats,  ash,  and  milk  sugar,  that  are  present,  and  not  a separ- 
ation of  these  groups  into  simpler  compounds.  Milk  is  ex- 
tremely complex  in  its  composition  and  to  separate  a sample 
into  the  twenty-four  or  more  compounds  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed is  the  labor  of  a number  of  days. 

Milk  fats  are  familiar  to  every  one  as  the  product  recov- 
ered in  the  butter.  A pound  of  butter  contains  only  about 
.85  of  a pound  of  pure  milk  fats,  the  remaining  .15  being 
made  up  of  water,  casein,  salt  and  other  matters. 

Pure  milk  sugar  in  appearance  resembles  ordinary  con- 
fectionery sugar;  the  milk  sugar  of  commerce  usually  has  a 
yellowish  hue  due  to  impurities.  Since  it  is  not  sweet  to  the 
taste  it  is  quite  unlike  cane  sugar. 

The  nitrogenous  matters  in  milk  are  extremely  complex  and 


51 


comprise  the  casein  and  albumen  groups.  The  casein  is  com- 
monly known  as  the  curd.  The  albumen  in  milk  is  not  re- 
covered in  either  butter  making  or  ordinary  cheese  making. 

During  the  past  year  approximate  analyses  have  been 
made  of  the  milk  from  the  individual  cows.  Some  of  the  re- 
sults are  given  in  the  following  tables,  and  show  the  daily 
composition  of  the  milk  of  different  cows  for  periods  of  1 week. 
At  the  time  these  samples  were  taken  the  cows  were  all  in 
about  the  same  condition, their  food  was  practically  uniform, 
and  hence  the  differences  in  composition  and  yield  are  due 
mainly  to  breed  and  individuality. 

The  quantity  of  milk  yielded  is  equally  as  important  in 
determining  the  value  of  a cow  as  the  percentage  composi- 
tion or  quality.  Either  factor  taken  alone  possesses  but  lit- 
tle value,  but  when  taken  together  they  determine  the  total 
yield  of  fats  or  solids  for  that  particular  period.  In  the  ta- 
bles will  be  found  both  the  daily  percentage  composition  of 
the  milk,  and  under  the  headings  “yield  per  day”  the  total 
number  of  pounds  of  solids,  ash,  casein,  sugar,  and  fat  in  the 
two  milkings  for  that  particular  day. 

The  figures  in  heavy  type  at  the  end  of  each  separate  table 
are  the  averages  for  that  particular  cow. 

BECKLEY. 


Per  Centage  Composition. 

Yield  Per  Day  in  Pounds. 

Solids 

Fat 

Ash 

Casein 

Sugar 

Solids 

Fat 

Ash 

Casein 

Sugar 

Milk 

14.80 

1 

6.00  i 

1 

! .69 

3.56 

4.46 

2.83 

1.14 

.13 

.68 

.85 

19.1 

14.09 

5.45 

1 .67 

3.47 

4.50  . 

2.77 

1.07 

.13 

.68 

.89 

19.7 

14.79 

5.20 

.68 

4.01 

4.90 

2.99 

1.05 

.14 

' .88 

.99 

20.2 

14.89 

5.90 

.67 

3.62 

4.65 

2.92 

1.06 

.12 

.71 

1.02 

19.7 

14.61 

5.40 

.70 

4.01 

4.50 

2.88 

1.06 

.14 

.79 

.88 

19.7 

14.64 

5.30 

.76 

3.78 

4.80 

3.06 

1.10 

.16 

.79 

.99 

20.9 

14.98 

5.75 

.77 

’-..56 

4.99 

2.93 

1.13 

.15 

.70 

.96 

19.6 

14.70 

5.57 

1 

.71 

3.71 

4.67 

2.91 

1.09 

.14 

.75 

.94 

i 

20. 

GERTIE. 

15.24 

6.50 

.72 

3.17 

4.85 

2.96 

1.26 

.14 

.61 

.94 

19.4 

14.89 

5.80 

.69 

3.45 

4.90 

3.25 

1.26 

.15 

.75 

1.07 

21.8 

15.13 

5.40 

.78 

3.90 

5.05 

3.37 

1.20 

.17 

.87 

1.15 

22.3 

14.88 

5.25 

.78 

3.85 

5.00 

3.18 

1.12 

.17 

.82 

1.07 

21.4 

14.87 

5.30 

.74 

3.98 

4.85 

3.19 

1.14 

.16 

.85 

1.04 

21.5 

15.13 

5.10 

.78 

4.20 

5.05 

3.36 

1.13 

.17 

.93 

1.13 

22.2 

14.68 

5.50 

.76 

3.35 

5.1 

3.19 

1.19 

.16 

.72 

1.10 

21.7 

14.97 

5.55 

.75 

3.70 

4.97 

| 

3.21 

1.19 

.16 

.79 

1.07 

21.4 

52 


OLIVE. 


Per  Centage  Composition. 


Yield  Per  Day  in  Pounds. 


Solids 

Fats 

> 
c » 
P* 

I Casein 

Sugar 

Solid 

Fat 

Ash 

Casein 

Sugar 

Milk 

12.71 

4.7 

.64 

3.07 

4.30 

4.32 

1.6 

.22 

1.04 

1.46 

34. 

12.18 

3.9 

.69 

3.09 

4.50 

4.35 

1.37 

.25 

1.10 

1.60 

35.7 

12.52 

3.8 

.62 

3.10 

5.05 

4.42 

1.35 

.22 

1.10 

1.78 

35.4 

12.40 

3.8 

.60 

3.00 

5.00 

4.34 

1.33 

.21 

1.05 

1.75 

35. 

12.36 

4.0 

.64 

3.02 

4.70 

4.36 

1.41 

.23 

1.06 

1.65 

35.3 

12.76 

4.0 

.66 

3.00 

5.10 

4.53 

1.42 

.24 

1.06 

1.81 

35.5 

712.89 

4.4 

.64 

3.00 

4.85 

4.63 

1.58 

.23 

1.07 

1.74 

35.9 

12.56 

4 09 

.64 

3.04 

4.78 

4.42 

1.44 

.23 

1.07 

1.68 

35.2 

REDDY. 


13.97 

5.45 

.66 

3.36 

4.50 

3.19 

1.25 

.15 

.77 

1.03 

22.9 

13.80 

5.10 

763 

3.22 

4.85 

3.87 

1.43 

.18 

.90 

1.36 

21.8 

13.34 

5.00 

; .6i 

3.03 

4.70 

3.25 

1.22 

.15 

.74 

1.15 

24.4 

14.01 

4.95 

.65 

3.46 

4.95 

3.24 

1.14 

.15 

.80 

1.14 

23.1 

14.24 

5.30 

.65 

3.54 

4.75 

3.37 

1.22 

.15 

.82 

1.10 

23.1 

14.34 

5.00 

; ,7,0  ■ 

3.59 

5.05 

3.20 

1.11 

.15 

.80 

1.13 

22.3 

13.63 

4.40 

.65 

3.68 

4.90 

3.23 

1.04 

.15 

.87 

1.16 

23.7 

13.91 

5.03 

.65 

3.41 

4.81 

3.34 

1.20 

.15 

.81 

1.15 

23. 

ROSSIE. 


12.69  1 

4.20 

.64 

3.25 

4.60 

2.73 

.90 

.14 

.69 

.99 

21.5 

12.73  | 

3.7 

.60 

3.32 

4.90 

3.09 

.89 

.14 

.79 

1.26 

24. 

13.01  ; 

3.8 

.59 

3.62 

5.00 

2.92 

.85 

.14 

.81 

1.12 

22.5 

12.64  ! 

3.45 

.62 

3.62 

4.95 

2.84 

■ .77 

.14 

.81 

1.11 

22.5 

12.80 

3.7 

.67 

3.63 

4.80 

3.20 

: .92 

.16 

.91 

1.20 

25.3 

12.86 

3.9 

••.63 

3.28 

5.05 

3.11 

.95 

.15 

.80 

1.23 

24.3 

12.90 

| 4.00 

• .62 

3.48 

4.80 

3.47 

1.07 

.16 

.92 

1.28 

26;9 

12.80 

I 3.82 

>t5.62f  • 

3.46 

4.87 

3.05 

| .91 

.15 

.82 

1.03 

23.8 

ROXY. 


13.59 

5.05 

..67 

. 3.17 

4.50 

4.41 

1.64 

.22 

1.03 

1.49 

32.5 

13.32 

4,55  : 

v .;63 

3.09 

5.05 

4.88 

1.67 

.23 

1.13 

1.85 

36.7 

13.25 

4.10  : 

, , .,65 

3.35 

5^15 

4.38 

1.36 

.21 

1.10 

1.70 

33.1 

13.33 

4.35  ; 

7 ..66 

. 3.2^ 

5.10 

4.61 

1.50 

.23 

1.09 

1.76 

34.6 

13.21 

4.05  . 

' .67 

3:39 

4.95 

4.52 

1 .38 

.23 

1.17 

1.69 

34.2 

13.20 

4.20  , 

\ '70 

3.20 

5.10 

4.75 

1.51 

.25 

1.15 

1.87 

36.0 

12.83 

4.^0 

• -67 

3,06 

4.90 

4.70 

1.43 

.24 

1.12 

1.80 

36.7 

13.25 

4.331  ’ 

° .’67: 

3i2i 

4.97 

4 61 

1.50 

.23 

1.11 

1.74 

347 

53 


SWEET  BRIAR. 


Per  Centage  Composition. 


Yield  Per  Day  in  Pounds. 


Solids 

Fat 

Ash 

14.55 

5.00 

.67 

13.75 

4.80 

.62 

13.76 

4.60 

.65 

13.47 

4.40 

.68 

13.81 

5.00 

.72 

13.58 

4.50 

.72 

14.00 

5.00 

.70 

13.85 

4.76 

.68 

O 

P 

09 

3’ 


3.88 

3.52 

3.38 
3.29 

3.39 
3.11 
3.31 

3.41 


5.00 

4.80 

4.95 

5.10 

4.70 

5.25 

5.00 

4.97 


t/i 

o 

E 

09 


4.23 

4.37 

4.57 

3.91 

4.46 

4.28 

4.48 

4.33 


Fat 

Ash 

O 

P 

0) 

n> 

S* 

Sugar 

1.45 

.20 

1 13 

1.45 

1.52 

.20 

1.12 

1.52 

1.52 

.21 

1.23 

1.64 

1.27 

.20 

.95 

1.47 

1.61 

.23 

1.06 

1.52 

1.42 

.22 

.98 

1.62 

1.60 

.22 

1.05 

1.60 

1.49 

.22 

1 07’ 

1.54 

29.1 

31.8 

33.2 

28.9 

32.3 
31.5 
32.0 


31.2 


TRIXY. 


13.07 

4.6  .68 

3.19 

4.60 

4.18 

1.47 

.22 

1.02 

1.47 

32. 

13.21 

4.95  .60 

3.00 

4.65 

4.49 

1.68 

.20 

1.02 

1.58 

34. 

13.24 

4.80  .70 

3.09 

4.65 

4.63 

1.68 

.24 

1.08 

1.53 

35. 

13.84 

5.00  .72 

3.15 

4.95 

4.39 

1.58 

.23 

1.00 

1.58 

31.7 

14.61 

4.80  .71 

3.90 

5.20 

4.89 

1.60 

.24 

1.30 

1.74 

33.5 

18.09 

4.25  .68 

3.66 

4.50 

4.24 

1 37 

.22 

1.18 

1.45 

32.4 

13.00 

4.25  .68 

3.37 

4.70 

4.25 

1.47 

.22 

1.09 

1.53 

32.7 

13.44 

4.66  .68 

3.34 

4.75 

4.44 

1.55 

.22 

1.10 

1.55 

33. 

Milk, 


THE  AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  MILK  FROM  EACH  COW  FOR  FOURTEEN  MILKINGS. 


54 


Yield  Per  Day  in  Pounds. 

Milk 

20.0 

21.4 

35.2 

23.0 
23.8 

34.7 

31.2 

33.0 

27.8 

Sugar 

.94 

1.07 

1.68 

1.15 

1.03 

1.74 

1.54 

1.55 
1.35 

Casein 

l>NOOqoOHOHC5 
H H H H 

Ash 

.14 

.16 

.23 

.15 

.15 

.23 

22 

.22 

.19 

Fat 

1.09 

1.19 
1.44 

1.20 
.91 

1.50 

1.49 

1.55 

1.30 

Solids 

2.91 

3.21 

4.42 

3.34 

3.05 

4.61 

4.33 

4.44 

3.79 

Per  Centage  Composition. 

Sugar 

4.67 

4.95 

4.78 

4.81 

4.87 

4.97 

4.97  ; 

4.75 

4.85  | 

1 

Casein 

3.71 

3.70 

3.04 

3.41 

3.46 

3.21 

3.41 
3.34 

3.42 

Ash 

.71 

.75 

.64 

.65 

.62 

.67 

.68 

.68 

.67 

Fats 

5.57 

5.55 

4.09 

5.03 

3.82 

4.33 

4.76 

4.66 

4.74 

Solids 

14.70 

14.97 

12.56 

13.91 

12.80 

13.25 

13.85 

13.44 

13.68 

Name  of  Cow. 

Beckley 

Gertie 

Olive 

Reddy 

Rossie 

Roxy 

Sweet  Briar 

Trixy  

General  Average 

55 


On  examining  the  table  it  will  be  seen  that  when  an  or- 
dinary cow  produces  a pound  of  butter  fat,  she  produces  at 
the  same  time  a little  more  than  a pound  of  milk  sugar, about 
.8  of  a pound  of  casein  and  albumen,  and  nearly  .15  of  pound 
of  minerals. 

These  analyses  represent  the  daily  composition  of  the 
milk  from  eight  cows  for  a period  of  one  week  or  the  analy- 
ses of  112  samples  of  milk. 


Average 

Composition. 

Highest. 

Lowest. 

Water 

86.32 

84.76 

87.82 

Dry  Matter 

13.68 

15.24 

12.18 

Fats 

4.74 

6.50 

3.45 

Casein,  etc 

3.42 

4.20 

3.00 

Milk  Sugar 

4.85 

5.25 

4.30 

Ash 

.67 

.78 

.59 

The  average  composition  of  forty-three  samples  of  milk 
purchased  for  the  purpose  of  making  cheese  during  the  win- 
ter of  1892,  shows  a somewhat  lower  percentage  composi- 
tion, and  probably  represents  more  nearly  the  average 
throughout  the  state: 


Water 

Dry  Matter. 
Fats 


.12.80 
.87.20 
. 3.65 


Casein,  etc.. 
Milk  Sugar. 
Ash 


3.57 

4.85 

.71 


The  use  of  the  lactometer  and  milk  test  in  determining 
the  character  of  milk. — The  specific  gravity  of  normal  milk 
ranges  from  1.029  to  1.035.  The  ash,  casein  and  milk  sugar 
are  the  compounds  that  increase  the  specific  gravity  while 
the  fat  tends  to  decrease  it.  In  normal  milk  there  is  a point 
where  these  two  opposite  forces  neutralize  each  other;  hence 
any  serious  change  in  the  composition  of  milk  immediately 
affects  its  gravity.  The  addition  of  water  lowers  the  gravity 
while  the  removal  of  the  fat  raises  it.  The  specific  gravity  is 
usually  taken  with  the  lactometer,  which  should  always  be 
provided  with  a thermometer  in  the  bulb,  and  whenever  a 
reading  is  taken  the  temperature  should  be  noted.  Correc- 
tions are  made  for  a high  or  low  temperature  by  the  table 
that  usually  accompanies  the  instrument.  In  using  the  lac- 
tometer and  test  jointly,  the  following  general  rules  can  be 
applied  in  cases  of  suspected  adulteration: 


56 


1.  A high  specific  gravity  and  a low  fat  indicates  fat 
removed. 

2.  A low  specific  gravity  and  a low  fat  indicates  water- 
ing. 

3.  An  average  specific  gravity  and  a low  fat  indicates 
fats  removed  and  watered. 

These  rules  are  not  infallible  but  they  will  aid  in  detect- 
ing any  of  the  ordinary  forms  of  sophistication. 

Another  important  use  that  can  be  made  of  the  lacto- 
meter and  test  is  in  gaining  an  idea  of  the  total  solid  matter 
in  milk,  and  to  meet  this  want  a number  of  formulae  have 
been  proposed.  The  most  recent  and  trustworthy  ones  are 
those  given  by  Fleischman,  and  Hehner  and  Richmonds. 

Fleischman’s  formula  is:  x — 1.2F  + 2.665  — — in 

which  X = the  total  solids,  F the  per  cent  of  fat  and  S the 
specific  gravity.  As  a rule  this  rule  gives  results  nearer  those 
found  by  analyses  than  Hehner  and  Richmond’s. 

The  solids  found  by  calculation,  using  either  formula,  in 
the  most  extreme  cases  amounts  to  about  .2  of  a per  cent, 
the  average  being  about  .1  of  a per  cent. 

Hehner  and  Richmond’s  formula  is:  f=  ( t — from 
which  the  value  of  T is  obtained;  t — iy5  f + ^ ; in  which  T 
= the  total  solids,  F the  per  cent  of  fat,  and  G the  number 
indicated  on  the  specific  gravity  spindle.  If  the  percent  of  fat 
is  found  to  be  4.1  and  the  specific  gravity  1.033  at  60°,  ap- 
plying the  formula  4.1  X 1.2  — 4.92  and  33^-4  = 8.25. 
The  sum  of  4.92  and  8.25  is  13.12,  the  per  cent  of  total  sol- 
ids in  the  milk.  This  formula  is  simpler  to  apply  and  as  a 
rule  gives  fairly  approximate  results. 

B.  BUTTER. 

Twenty-seven  samples  of  butter  have  been  analyzed,  in 
connection  with  various  experiments  during  the  year.  The 
samples  of  butter  represent  the  products  from  individual 


57 


cows,  and  also  that  from  the  whole  herd.  The  percentage 
composition  was  found  to  be: 


Average. 

Highest. 

Lowest. 

Water 

12.22 

16.20 

8.21 

Fat 

85.00 

90.20 

79.42 

Ash  and  Salt 

2.10  1 

3.03 

.74 

Casein,  etc 

.68 

2.09 

.21 

Comparing  these  results  with  older  analyses  it  will  be 
seen  that  with  improved  butter  making  there  is  a tendency 
to  incorporate  less  casein,  water  and  other  foreign  matters 
with  the  butter.  The  tendency  is  thus  to  improve  the 
keeping  qualities  of  the  product. 

The  butter  made  from  cream  separated  by  the  DeLaval 
Danish  Weston,  and  other  centrifugals,  is  about 
the  same  in  composition  as  butter  made  from  the  cold  deep 
setting  process.  The  average  of  duplicate  churnings  gave 
for  the  composition  of  the  butter  product  from  these  various 
machines: 

i 

Water 10.42  1 Casein,  etc 1.03 

Fat 81.98  Ash  and  Salt 1,57 


The  examination  of  the  product  from  the  outter  extrac- 
tor showed  the  average  composition  of  different  churnings: 


Water. 

Fat. 

Casein. 

j Salt  and  Ash. 

December  10 j 

11.29 

83.37 

2.74 

2.50 

'•  11 

13.40 

81.20 

| 2.74 

2.66 

“ 22 

16.19 

79.85 

2.46 

1.50 

Jannarj'  6 | 

16.08 

79.56 

1 

2.81 

1.55 

C.  LOSSES  OF  MILK  SOLIDS  IN  CHEESE  MAKING. 


A clearer  understanding  of  this  question  can  be  gained 
by  first  following,  in  a general  way,  the  solid  matters  in  the 
milk  through  the  process  of  cheese  making. 

A hundred  pounds  of  milk  ordinarily  contains  from  12.50 
to  13  pounds  of  dry  solid  matter.  This  solid  matter  is  com- 
posed of  3.5  to  4 pounds  of  milk  fats,  314  to  3%  pounds  of 
casein  and  albumen,  about  4.80  pounds  of  milk  sugar,  % of 
a pound  of  ash,  and  at  the  time  the  rennet  is  added  there  is 


58 


about  .15  of  a pound  of  lactic  acid.  When  the  whey  is  drawn 
off  and  weighed  there  is  from  85  to  88  pounds  of  whey  for 
every  hundred  pounds  of  milk. 

While  the  milk  is  in  the  vat,  about  two  pounds 
of  water  are  lost  by  evaporation,  for  every  hundred 
pounds  of  milk,  the  amount  lost  depending  upon  the  temper- 
ature and  condition  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  cheese  room. 

Of  the  12.5  to  18  pounds  of  solids  in  the  milk 
from  6 to  6.3  pounds  are  lost  in  the  whey,  so  that  but  little 
more  than  half  of  the  solids  in  the  milk  are  recovered 
in  the  green  cheese.  From  .28  to  .34  of  a pound  of  fat  is 
lost  out  of  the  3.50  to  4 pounds  in  the  milk.  The  nitro- 
genous matters  (casein  and  albumen)  are  not  so  economical- 
ly recovered  as  the  milk  fats;  of  the  3%  to  3%  pounds  of 
casein  and  albumen  in  the  milk,  about  .8  of  a pound  is  lost 
in  the  whey,  mainly  albumen  which  is  not  coagulated  by 
the  rennet,  and  is  a very  valuable  food  product.  But  little 
of  the  milk  sugar  is  retained  in  the  cheese,  and  out  of  the 
4.8  pounds  originally  present  in  the  100  pounds  of  milk, from 
4.30  to  4.60  are  lost  in  the  whey.  Hence  the  solid  matter 
recovered  in  the  cheese  is  composed  mainly  of  fats  and  ca- 
sein. When  the  milk  solids  are  increased,  the  amount  recov- 
ered in  the  green  cheese  is  increased,  while  the  amount  of  so- 
lid matter  lost  in  the  whey  remains  about  the  same.  Any 
increase  in  the  solids  of  milk  is  due  to  an  increase  in 
fat  or  casein,  since  the  variations  in  the  per  cents  of  ash  and 
milk  sugar  are  limited. 

All  of  these  points  are  illustrated  in  the  following  sam- 
ples of  milk  as  given  in  the  table.  All  of  the  results  are  ex- 
pressed in  pounds  per  hundred  of  the  milk  used.  The  figures 
in  the  first  column  indicate  the  number  of  pounds  of  each 
compound  in  the  milk.  Under  the  whey  column  is  the  pounds 
of  each  lost  in  the  whey,  and  in  the  green  cheese  column  are 
the  pounds  recovered  in  the  green  cheese.  In  the  cheese  90 
and  120  days  old  are  given  the  amounts  as  found  by  an- 
alysis at  those  dates.  The  salt  used  and  the  cheese  bandage 
is  deducted  from  the  weight  of  the  solid  matter  of  the  cheese. 


59 


In  the  column  headed  loss  in  curing  is  given  the  number  of 
pounds  of  each  compound  lost  in  the  120  days  of  curing. 
Finally,  the  percentage  composition  of  the  cheese  is  given. 

A more  extended  series  of  tables  could  be  given,  but  a few 
typical  examples  are  selected.  The  first  is  that  of  average 
milk,  requiring  about  ten  pounds  of  milk  to  make  one  pound 
of  cheese;  the  second, one  of  richer  milk;  the  third  one  testing 
the  same  in  fats  as  the  second  but  making  a less  number  of 
pounds  of  marketable  cheese,  and  the  fourth  example  one  of 
milk  made  rich  by  the  addition  of  cream,  while  the  last  one 
is  a good  example  of  skim  milk  cheese. 


60 


Example  No.  1. 


Milk  and  Products  in  Pounds  per  100  of  Milk  Used. 


Milk 

Whey  and 
Press 

Green 
Cheese 

Cheese  90 
Days 

Cheese  120 
Days 

Loss  in 
Curing 

Compositi’n 
of  Cheese 
Percent- 
ages   

Water 

87.52 

80.97 

3.65 

3.41 

3.20 

.45 

34.29 

Solid  Matter 

12.48 

6.23 

6.25 

6.12 

6.05 

.20 

65.71 

Ash 

.80 

.52 

.28 

Fat 

3.50 

.30 

3.20 

3.17 

3.15 

.05 

33.76 

24.47 

Casein  and  Albumen 

3.22 

.84 

2.38 

2.30 

2.32 

.06 

Milk  Sugar 

4.80 

4.35 

Lactic  Acid 

.15 

.22 

Example  No.  2. 


Water 

86.79 

80.89 

Solid  Matter 

13.21 

6.11 

Ash 

.64 

.40 

Fat 

4.00 

.34 

Casein  and  Albumen 

3.71 

.81 

Milk  Sugar 

4.50 

4.30 

Lactic  Acid 

.15 

.26 

3.59 

7.11 

.24 

3.66 

2.90 

3.30 

6.94 

3.17 

6.86 

.42 

.25 

31.3 

68.7 

3.60 

2.84 

3.58 

2.81 

.08 

.09 

35.3 

27.7 

Example  No.  3. 


Water 

Solid  Matter 

Ash 

1 

87.14 

12.86 

.64 

4.00 

3.52 

4.60 

1 

81.00 

6.25 

.53 

.31 

.SO 

4.35 

.24 

3.85 

6.61 

.11 

3.69 

2.72 

3.52 

6.38 

.12 

3.68 

2.68 

3.45 

6.29 

.10 

3.62 

2.64 

.40 

.22 

34.84 

65.16 

Fat 

Casein  and  Albumen 

Milk  Sugar 

.07 

.08 

36.56 

25.86 

Lactic  Acid 

| .10 

Example  No.  4.— 

Creamed  Milk. 

Water 

1 

85.87 

1 

76.01 

1 

4.56 

4.22 

4.02 

.52 

32.42 

Solid  Matter 

14.13 

5.69 

8.44 

8.25 

8.19 

.25 

67.58 

Ash 

.77 

.42 

.35 

.36 

.32 

Fat 

6.00 

.49 

f .51 

5.49 

5.40 

.11 

43.55 

Casein  and  Albumen 

3.12 

.52 

2.60 

2.50 

2.48 

.12 

20.00 

Milk  Sugar 

4.12 

4.00 

Lactic  Acid 

.12 

.26 

Example  No.  5. — Skimmed  Milk. 


1 

Water 

Solid  Matter 

Fat 

Ash  ... 

1 1 

87.8 
12  20 
2.75 
.80 
3.95 
4.55 
.15 

1 1 
80.8 
6.19 
.34 
.31 
.82 
4.45 
.27 

1 

3.00 

6.01 
2.41 

.49 

3.13 

1 Cured  Cheese. 
2.67 
5.81 
2.36 
.49 
3.86 

1 

.33 

.20 

.05 

30.68 

69.32 

27.09 

Casein  and  Albumen 

Milk  Sugar 

.07 

36.00 

Lactic  Acid 

Losses  of  Pats  in  Cheese  Making, 

summary  of  results. 


No.  of  Trials. 

Fat  in  Milk. 

Average  Fat. 

Pounds  Fat  lost 
Per  100 
Pounds  Milk. 

Per  Cent 
Fat  Recovered  it 
Cheese. 

28 

3.5—4 

3.85 

.32 

91.69 

31 

4.1— 4.4 

4.29 

.31 

92.77 

14 

4.4— 4.9 

4.62 

.33 

92.86 

4 

5.00 

5.05 

.28 

94.45 

61 


The  per  cent  of  water  and  dry  matter  in  the  cheese  does 
not  depend  upon  the  richness  of  the  milk  in  fat,  for  there  is 
a greater  difference  in  the  per  cent  of  water  in  the  two  cheeses 
made  from  4 per  cent  milk  than  between  the  ones  made  from 
milk  testing  2.75  and  6 per  cent  fat.  The  per  cent  of  water 
in  the  cheese  depends  upon  the  thoroughness  of  pressing. 
Tire  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  skim  milk  cheese  was  27,  and  the 
creamed  milk  cheese  43.5.  The  cheese  made  from  the  3.5  per 
cent  milk  contained  33.76  per  cent  fat.  Comparing  the  sec- 
ond and  the  third  examples  it  will  be  seen  that  the  per  cent 
of  fat  in  the  milk  was  4 in  each  case.  In  example  No. 2,  7.11 
pounds  of  solid  matter  was  recovered  in  the  green  cheese, 
while  in  No.  3 there  was  6.61  pounds.  This  difference  was 
due  to  the  fact  that  in  No. 2 there  was^a  pound  more  casein 
in  tne  milk  than  in  No.  3.  This  is  partly  balanced  by  the 
fast  that  No.  3 contained  more  water  than  No.  2.  Hence 
two  samples  of  milk  testing  the  same  in  fats  may  not  make 
the  same  amounts  of  marketable  cheese. 

• 

The  legal  standard  for  cheese  in  this  state  is  that  40  per 
cent  of  the  total  solid  matter  of  the  cheese  shall  be  butter- 
fat.  In  the  case  of  milk  skimmed  from  3.50  to  2.75,  a re- 
moval of  over  20  per  cent  of  the  fat,  over  40  per  cent  of  the 
total  solid  matter  of  the  cheese  was  butter-fat.  In  another 
case  in  which  the  milk  was  skimmed  to  2.80  per  cent  fat, over 
40  per  cent  of  total  solid  matter  in  the  cheese  was  butter-fat. 
In  the  case  of  normal  milk  testing  3:50  per  cent  fat  over  50 
per  cent  of  the  total  solid  matter  was  fat. The  fats  in  full  milk 
cheese  should  always  exceed  the  casein,  since  there  is  always 
more  fat  in  the  milk  than  casein  and  albumen,  and  a larger 
per  cent  of  the  fat  recovered  in  the  cheese  than  of  the  casein  and 
-albumen. 

The  loss  of  weight  in  the  curing  of  cheese  is  largely  a loss 
of  water.  The  loss  of  solid  matter  in  curing  is  about  a quar- 
ter of  a pound  for  every  hundred  pounds  of  milk,  whether 
rich  or  poor.  This  includes  all  mechanical  losses.  The  re- 
sults indicate  that  there  is  a slight  loss  of  casein  and  fat,  in 
curing,  in  addition  to  mechanical  losses. 


62  , 

Artificial  digestion  experiments  were  made  of  the  nitro- 
genons  compounds.  The  results  are  not  reported  since  it 
was  found  that  the  per  cent  of  salt  in  the  cheeses  com- 
pared was  not  the  same,  and  the  salt  that  was  present  in 
variable  quantities  re-acted  with  the  acid  in  the  digestive 
mixture,  and  introduced  an  unknown  factor.  In  general  it 
can  be  said  that  the  casein  in  well  cured  cheese  from  normal 
milk  is  nearly  all  digestible. 

In  the  table  headed  “Losses  of  Fats  in  Cheese  Making’ y 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  amount  of  fat  lost  in  every  hundred 
pounds  of  milk  is  about  .3  of  a pound,  and  is  practically  the 
same  for  both  rich  and  poor  milk.  The  per  cent  of  the  total 
milk  fats  retained  in  the  cheese  made  from  rich  milk  is  great- 
er than  that  made  from  poor  milk.  All  of  the  additional  far 
that  is  in  a rich  milk  goes  into  the  cheese,  and  whether  it 
pays,  financially,  to  make  the  extra  fat  into  cheese,  depends 
upon  the  price  that  the  cheese  commands.  It  must  be  re- 
membered, however,  that  a good  article  cannot  be  made 
from  poor  material. 


III.— SUGAR  BEETS. 


The  relation  of  the  Experiment  Station  to  the  growing  of 
sugar  beets  and  the  introduction  of  the  mannfacture  of  sugar 
therefrom  is  limited  to  sending  out  beet  seed  of  known  origin 
^ach  season  to  intelligent  farmers  in  different  sections  of  the 
state,  there  to  be  grown  under  known  conditions  of  climate, 
soil  and  cultivation,  and  determining  in  the  beets  grown  the 
richness  and  purity  of  the  juice.  The  chemical  investigations 
are  thus  directed  towards  discovering  the  adapta- 
bility of  soil  and  climate  of  the  different  sections  of  the  state 
to  the  growth  of  sugar  beets  sufficiently  rich  in  sugar  to 
warrant  their  cultivation  for  the  manufacture  of  that  article. 
The  experiments  are  repeated  in  order  to  determine  the  influ- 
ence of  variations  of  seasons  on  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
the  beets.  Chemical  analysis  can  do  more  than  give  this 
.aid  towards  answering  the  question  whether  beet  sugar  fac- 
tories would  or  would  not  be  successful  ventures  ; the  purely 
financial  aspect  of  the  question  must  be  left  to  other  hands. 

In  addition  to  the  analyses  of  beets  grown  from  seed  sent 
out  by  this  station,  there  is  reported  in  this  bulletin  analyses 
of  beets  grown  from  seed  distributed  in  the  counties  along 
the  line  of  the  St.  Paul  & Duluth  railroad  under  the  direction 
of  Mr.  Hopewell  Clarke,  the  land  commissioner  of  the  road. 
Counties  from  which  such  beets  were  received  are  Washing- 
ton, Chisago,  Pine  and  Carlton.  Many  of  the  beets 
from  Anoka  county  were  grown  under  the  supervision  of 
Mr.  Max  Wittges,  an  expert  from  the  Oxnard  beet  sugar  fac- 
tories of  Grand  Island,  Neb.  The  purity  of  the  juice  and 
high  per  cent  of  sugar  of  the  beets  grown  on  the  sandy 
loams  of  this  county  under  wise  direction  is  significant  as  is 
the  small  size  of  the  beets  sent  for  analysis. 

In  the  following  tables  are  given  first,  the  results  of  the 
analyses  of  the  beets  grown  during  the  season  upon  the  sta- 
tion farm,  and  afterwards  the  analyses  of  the  beets  grown 
in  the  different  counties  of  the  state. 


SUGAR  BEETS  RAISED  AT  THE  STATION 


Plot. 

NAME 

OF  VARIETY. 

i 

Date. 

Average 
Weiight  in 
Ounces  of 
Beets. 

Per  Cent 
of 

Sugar  in 
Juice. 

Purity  of 
Juice. 

1 

French,  Verv  Rich 

Sept. 26 

8 

1 2.2- 

80.3 

2 

Vilmorin  Improved 

“ “ 

10 

13.7 

83. 

3 

Zuckerreichste  Elite 

<<  «< 

11 

14.2 

84.5 

4 

Kleiner  Elite 

“ 24 

12 

14.05 

82.3 

5 

Dippe’s  Klein  Wanzlebener 

“ “ 

14 

14.6 

83.9 

6 

12 

14.3 

84.6 

7 

Vilmorin  White  Improved 

12 

14.6 

85.4 

8 

Dippe’s  Improved 

12 

15.5 

87.9 

9 

Knauer’s  Imperial 

“ lt 

12 

13.9 

82.2 

10 

Klein  Wanzlebener 

it  a 

12 

14.4 

84.7  • 

11 

“ “ 

“ 26 

9 

13.4 

82.2 

A 

“ “ 

12 

12.5 

80.7 

A 

“ “ 

12 

14.1 

84.4 

A 

“ “ 

18 

12.6 

80.8 

A 

“ “ 

tt  tt 

12 

13.8 

83.6- 

A 

“ “ 

11 

13.6 

85.1 

A 

“ 

15 

13.4 

88.2' 

B 

Vilmorin  Improved 

“ 28 

12 

14.4 

90.1 

B 

15 

15.3 

90. 

B 

“ “ 

it  tt 

13 

15.5 

86.5 

B 

“ “ 

tt  tt 

15 

14.7 

88. 

B 

“ *•  

< . tt 

20 

14.3 

87.2 

Average 

14.4 

84.3 

1 

French,  Very  Rich 

Oct.  5 

14 

13.5 

83  3 

2 

Vilmorin  Improved 

a a 

12 

14.7 

88.4 

3 

Zuckerreichste  Elite 

a i i 

15 

14.6 

86.4 

4 

Kleiner  Elite.. 

12 

13.6 

83  4 

5 

Dippe’s  Klein  Wanzlebener 

t i a 

11 

14.7 

87.5 

6 

Vilmorin  White  Imroved 

a i i 

11 

15.6 

91.8 

7 

Dippe’s  Klein  Wanzlebener 

a a 

10 

14.7 

87.5 

8 

Improved 

12 

15.3 

86. 

9 

Knauer’s  Imperial 

“ 6 

10 

15.1 

86.3 

10 

Klein  Wanzlebener 

10 

14.4 

83.2 

11 

Vilmorin 

a a 

14 

13.7 

84. 

A 

“ 

a a 

11 

14.9 

84.2 

A 

“ 

a a 

13 

14.4 

85.9 

A 

“ 

“ 7 

13 

14.1 

84.9 

A 

“ 

16 

15. 

89.6 

A 

“ 

14 

14.1 

90.3 

B 

Klein  Wanzlebener 

“ 8 

16 

14.1 

82.4 

B 

“ “ 

a a 

12 

15.7 

86-3 

B 

.<  <« 

a a 

22 

16.1 

87.1 

B 

11  “ 

a a 

16 

15.9 

84.6 

B 

“ “ 

a a 

16 

15.7 

86.8 

Average, 

1 4.6 

86. 

1 

French,  Verv  Rich 

Oct.  25 

13 

15.75 

86.7 

1 

8 

16.8 

88.9 

2 

Vilmorin  Improved  

i i H 

16 

15.8 

85.4 

2 

n n 

6 

16.9 

86.6 

3 

Zuckerreichste  Elite 

a 4 i 

20 

15.5 

86.5 

3 

“ 

u u 

9 

17.1 

91. 

4 

Kleiner  Elite 

4 i ii 

14 

17. 

93.9 

4 

“ 

a n 

8 

17. 

95. 

5 

Dippe’s  Klein  Wanzlebener 

a i i 

16 

15.5 

91.3 

5 

“ 

<4  H 

7 

15.9 

91.9 

o 

“ 

ii  ii 

15 

16. 

95. 

6 

“ 

a a 

8 

16.5 

95. 

7 

Vilmorin  White  Improved  

a a 

13 

16.2 

88.9 

7 

*• 

a a 

6 

16.6 

90. 

8 

Dippe’s  Improved 

“ 26 

19 

16.7 

83.8 

8 

ii  ii 

8 

17. 

93.4 

9 

Knauer’s  Imperial 

a a 

18 

16.6 

86.6 

9 

a a 

10 

16.8 

89.2 

SUGAR  BEETS  RAISED  AT  THE  STATION. 

(continued.) 


Plot. 

NAME 

OF  VARIETY. 

Date. 

Average 
Weight  in 
Ounces  of 
Beets. 

Per  Cent 
of  1 

Sugar  in 
Juice.  i 

Purity  of 
Juice. 

10 

Klein  Wanzlebener 

Oct.  26 

12 

16. 

85.2 

10 

“ 

“ “ 

8 

15. 

86.9 

11 

Vilmorin 

“ 

11 

14. 

84.8 

11 

“ 

“ “ 

7 

15. 

85.7 

A 

Klein  Wanzlebener 

8 

14.7 

85.9 

A 

“ 

14 

14.9 

85.1 

A 

“ 

7 

14.6 

88. 

B 

Vilmorin  Improved 

27 

16 

15. 

83.9 

B 

“ “ 

10 

15.7 

86.3 

B 

“ 

“ “ 

21 

15.4 

87. 

B 

“ 

“ “ 

16 

15.3 

86.5 

B 

li  

“ “ 

12 

15.7 

86.7 

Average, 

15.8 

88.1 

Date  of  analy- 
sis  

Description  of  Sample. 

Total  weight 
in  ounces .... 

Sugar  in  juice 

H3 

2. 

rt- 

O 

' S' 

o 

n> 

No.  of  plot.... 

<u  : 

Oct.  7 

4 Beets  partly  grown  aboveground 

12 

11.3 

70.4 

^ +-»  : 

1 Beet  18y>  inches  in  length 

24 

14.5 

86.3 

C/3  rt  • 

“ 8 

1 Beet  grown  half  above  ground.... 

30 

12.6 

76.2 

4».S  : 

**  “ 

1 Beet  2 ft.  long,  4 in.  aboveground 

32 

12.0 

75.9 

&i,o  : 
c oj  ; 

5 small  b.,  forked  roots,  below  “ 

22 

13.5 

82.3 

fla  : 

5 “ good  form,  “ “ 

12 

14.2 

82.1 

1 good  form  beet,  medium  size 

10 

18.5 

92  3 

“ 3 

1 coarse  largeb.,  part  aboveground 

35 

9.1 

74.6 

m.S  cS 
S u 

“ 29 1 “ “ y3 

80 

9.1 

70.0 

o > 

1 

1 

Cd 

Average  ef  73  Samples  raised  at 

I 

the  Station  

1 

14.9 

1 

86.3 

1 

I 

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University  of  Minnesota. 


VN  ' 

T 


’ 0. 


v. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  No.  28. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL  DIVISION. 


1893. 


The  Classification  of  Insects  and  Their  Relation  to 
Agriculture. 


The  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the 
State  who  make  application  for  them. 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK,  RAMSEY  CO., 

MINNESOTA. 


EAGLE  JOB  PRINT,  DELANO,  MINN. 


University  of  Minnesota 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis, 1896 . 

The  HON.  GREENLEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - - 1894 . 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - 1894 . 

The  HON.  JOHN  LIND,  New  Ulm,  -------  1896. 

The  HON.  JOEL  P.  HEATWOLE,  Northfield,  - 1896. 

The  HON.  O.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth, - - 1 896. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson,  -----  1896. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  EMERY,  Lake  City,  ------  1895. 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  Minneapolis,  - 1895. 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  St.  Paul, Ex-Officio. 

The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  DAVID  L.  KIEHLE,  M.  A..  St.  Paul,  - - - Ex-Officio. 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHROP,  LL.  D.,  Minneapolis,  - Ex-Officio. 

The  President  of  the  University. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  J.  S.  PILLSBURY. 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  EMERY. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION: 

CLINTON  D.  SMITH,  M.  S., - Director. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S.,  - - - - - - Horticulturist. 

OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  - - - - Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S.,  --------  Chemist. 

T.  L.  HACKER,  _ _ - Dairying. 

CHRISTOPHER  GRAHAM,  B.S.,V.M.D.,  - - - -Veterinarian. 

J.  A.  VYE, Secretary. 


Entomology, 


There  is  a constant  and  rapidly  increasing  demand  from 
farmers,  horticulturists  and  others  more  or  less  directly  in- 
terested in  insects,  or  more  frequently  in  the  ravages  and 
losses  caused  by  them,  for  a bulletin  giving  in  a condensed 
form  such  information  as  is  required  to  fight  our  tiny  foes  in 
an  intelligent  manner.  Information  of  this  kind  in  a printed 
form  is  of  more  utility  than  any  number  of  letters  that  might 
be  written,  since  the  illustrations  necessary  to  describe 
clearly  any  insect  can  not  well  be  given  in  a letter. 

When  we  consider  the  immense  numbers  of  insects  that 
exist  in  all  parts  of  the  habitable  globe  the  task,  to  give  in 
a few  printed  pages  even  an  outline  of  their  classification, 
seems  to  be  a more  than  futile  effort.  Moreover,  any  classi- 
fication of  this  multitude  of  forms  (one  million  species  of  ex- 
isting insects  is  not  an  exaggerated  estimate)mustbe  a more 
or  less  artificial  one,  and  it  is  therefore  best  to  only  attempt 
one  of  such  insects  as  are  known  to  occur  in  our  own  state. 

Geologists  speak  of  the  age  of  shells,  of  fishes,  of  rep- 
tiles, periods  all  passed  long  ago, and  they  might  well  call  the 
present  geological  age  the  age  ofinsects, because  these  animals 
outnumber  all  others  combined . In  fact  insects  are  found  in  ev- 
ery part  of  the  globe  that  man  has  ever  been  able  to  reach, 
with  the  exception  of  the  oceans,  where  they  are  replaced  by 
closely  allied  animals,  the  crustaceans.  And  yet,  notwith- 
standing the  abundance  of  insects  and  their  almost  omni- 
presence, how  few  persons  are  really  able  to  give  a definition 
of  an  insect?  The  term  insect  is  derived  from  two  latin 
words  in  and  seco — cut  into , because  the  body  is  insected  or 
divided  into  rings.  At  one  time  this  term  was  applied  to 
the  entire  group  of  articulates  or  jointed  animals,  and  con- 
sequently early  writersspoke  of  “six-legged,”  “eight- legged,” 


76 


“many -legged”  insects.  Articulates  or  jointed  animals, 
which  by  persons  not  familiar  with  zoology  are  frequently 
called  insects  are:  Wood-lice  or  Tow-bugs, Mites  and  Ticks, Spi- 
ders, Harvest-men,  Book-scorpions,  True-scorpions,  Centi- 
pedes, Thousand-legs  and  others  not  found  in  Minnesota. 
A glance  at  the  illustrations  (Fig,  1 to  6)  will  show  that 
none  of  these  animals  possess  the  essential  characters  of 
true  insects  as  defined  below. 


Fig.  3.  Book-scorpion,  greatly  en- 
larged. 


77 


At  the  present  time  we  use  the 
term  insect  only  for  those  articu- 
lates that  possess  six  legs,  and  that 
have  their  external  skeleton  appa- 
rently composed  of  thirteen  joints 
or  rings,  which  are  grouped  into 
three  regions,  viz:  the  head , thorax 
and  abdomen.  (See  Fig.  7.)  The 
true  insects,  or  hexapoda , (six-feet) 
undergo  a more  or  less  complete 
metamorphosis, possess  in  the  adult 
stage  wings,  and  breathe  through  a 
peculiar  respiratory  system  with  ex- 
ternal openings  termed  spiracles. 
All  insects  are  developed  from  eggs, 
with  a few  apparent  exceptions; 
plant  lice,  for  instance,  reproduce 
both  by  eggs  and  by  budding.  The 
body  of  an  adult  insect  is  divided 
into  three-regions,  each  with  pecu- 
liar functions.  The  head  contains  the  organs  of  vision  (com- 
pound eyes  and  simple  eyes),  the  jointed  antennae  or  feelers, 
which  are  the  principal  organs  of  touch,  smell  and  hearing, 
and  the  mouth-parts,  organs  of  taste  and  feeding.  The  tho- 
rax contains  the  organs  of  locomotion — the  three  pairs  of 


Fig.  5.  Centipede.  One-half  size. 

legs  and  two  pairs  of  wings:  The  abdomen  contains  the  or- 

gans of  digestion, reproduction  and  often  of  defense.  All  insects 
pass  through  a number  of  transformations  or  metamorpho- 


Fig.  4.  Scorpion.  Nat  size. 


78 


Fig.  6.  Thousand-leg.  Enlarged. 

ses  before  reaching  the  adult  or  winged  and  sexual  stage. 
The  first  of  the  four  principal  stages  is  the  egg.  In  most 
cases  this  is  deposited  by  the  female  upon  the  proper  food, 


Antenns? 

Eyes 


~ Head 


and  is  there  left  to  hatch  without  any  further  maternal  care. 
In  social  insects,  such  as  bees,  ants,  etc.,  the  eggs  are  taken 
care  of  by  various  methods.  In  exceptional  cases  the  egg  is 


79 


retained  in  the  oviduct  until  ready  to  hatch,  or  even  until  it 
has  hatched.  The  larva  (caterpillar,  worm,  maggot,  slug, 
grub,  etc.,)  hatches  from  the  egg, and  it  is  in  this  stage  of  the 
life  of  an  insect  that  most  growth  is  made.  But  as  the  ex- 
ternal skeleton  of  an  insect  does  not  grow  the  space  within 
soon  becomes  too  small,  and  the  larva  has  to  throw  off  this 
old  shell  and  replace  it  by  a new  and  more  commodious  one. 
This  action  of  throwing  off  the  old  shell  is  called  moulting , 
and  the  process  has  to  be  repeated  a number  of  times  before 
the  larva  reaches  its  full  size.  During  the  larval  existence  of 
an  insect  there  is  stored  up  all  the  material  required  to  pro- 
duce wings  and  organs  of  reproduction,  as  well  as  to  trans- 
form the  other  organs,  as  eyes,  legs,  etc.,  into  their  final 
shape.  When  fully  grown,  the  larva  is  transformed  into  the 
third  stage,  or  pupa  (chrysalis,  nymph).  In  this  stage  the 
insect  is  usually  quiescent,  at  least  apparently  so,  though  in 
reality  it  is  a very  active  stage,  as  the  most  wonderful 
changes  have  to  take  place  inside  the  stiff  and  rigid  pupal 
shell,  and  freqently  within  a very  short  period.  After  a cer- 
tain time  the  skin  of  the  pupa  breaks  open,  and  the  fourth 
and  final  stage  or  imago  appears,  ready  to  perform  all  the 
functions  of  a winged,  sexual  insect.  Although  these  trans- 
formations seem  to  be  very  sudden,  they  are  really  nothing 
but  continuous  growth,  arrested  at  intervals  by  the  inflexi- 
bility of  the  outer  skeleton.  The  metamorphoses  of  insects 
vary  very  much,  and  serve  as  the  basis  for  separating  all  in- 
sects into  two  groups,  those  with  a complete  metamorpho- 
sis, as  described  above,  and  those  with  an  incomplete  one. 
A complete  metamorphosis  is  one  of  the  most  wonderful 
transformations  known  to  natural  history.  From  an  egg 
hatches  a worm-like  creature,  always  hungry,  growing  ra- 
pidly until  its  full  size  is  attained,  when  it  suddenly  stops 
feeding,  and  changing  to  an  apparently  lifeless  object,  be- 
comes a pupa.  Remaining  almost  motionless  in  this  condi- 
tion it  breaks  open  and  gives  forth  a much  larger  being,  pos- 
sessing many  organs  not  found  before  in  the  earlier  stages, 
and  able  to  fly  about  to  mate  and  deposit  again  eggs.  In  a com- 
plete metamorphosis  the  different  stages  such  as  egg,  larva, 
pupa  and  imago  do  not  resemble  each  other  at  all.  In  an 


80 


incomplete  metamorphosis  we  have  no  such  notable  changes  of 
form.  The  egg  hatches  into  a being  that  looks  very  much 
like  the  parent,  being  of  course  quite  small,  and  lacking  all 
traces  of  wings  or  sexual  organs.  This  larva  feeds  just  as 
ravenously,  and  has  in  consequence  of  its  rapid  growth  also, 
to  moult  a number  of  times,  and  during  these  slight  changes 
in  size  it  acquires  gradually  rudimentary  wings,  which  in- 
crease in  size  until  the  adult  stage  has  been  reached.  But 
during  this  whole  period  of  growth  no  quiescent  state  like 
that  of  a true  pupa  appears,  and  the  young  insect  resembles 
its  parent  throughout  the  period  of  growth.  Butterflies 
are  a good  illustration  of  a complete  metamorphosis,  and 
locusts  of  an  incomplete. 

Illustrations  of  a complete  metamorphosis  are  given  in 
Fig.  8,  10,  19,  26,  33,  34, 46, 49,  50,  51,  54,  55,  58,  76,  78,  and 
of  an  incomplete  one  in  Fig.  61,  66,  67,  80. 

The  mouth-parts  of  insects  give  us  also  an  excellent 
means  for  classifying  them  into  three  groups.  One  group 
possesses  a biting  and  sucking  mouth;  the  second  one  con- 
tains insects  which  chew  their  food  by  means  of  a pair  of 
horny  jaws  acting  in  a horizontal  direction;  the  third  group 
possesses  apparently  no  jaws,  and  the  species  belonging  here 
are  sucking  insects.  They  obtain  their  food  by  piercing  and 
sucking  by  means  of  four  bristles  enclosed  in  a jointed  beak, 
or  fluid  food  by  means  of  a long  and  flexible  tongue. 

But  why  is  it  at  all  necessary  to  classify  insects  for  any 
practical  purpose?  In  reply  it  must  be  stated  that  we  can 
not  fight  against  injurious  insects  with  any  hope  of  success 
if  we  do  not  know  their  structure.  For  instance,  an  insect 
that  has  no  mouth  to  bite  or  chew  can  not  be  poisoned,  and 
idle  application  of  any  arsenical  insecticides  would  in  most 
cases  be  perfectly  useless.  Nor  is  it  enough  to  know  the 
structure  of  the  insects;  we  must  also  know  their  habits  and 
transformations,  because  this  knowledge  alone  will  enable 
us  to  apply  the  remedies  at  the  proper  time.  In  fact,  not- 
withstanding the  great  progress  made  in  economic  entomol- 
ogy during  the  last  ten  years,  we  are  only  able  to  combat 
successfully  a limited  number  of  injurious  insects  by  means  of 
insecticides.  A large  number  of  others,  and  the  most  injuri- 


81 


ous  ones  at  that,  can  not  be  reached  in  that  manner.  Time, 
labor  and  material  to  do  so  successfully  would  cost  much 
more  than  the  whole  crop  would  be  worth.  The  chinch-bug, 
locusts,  cut-worms  and  others,  if  very  abundant,  can  not  be 
fought  successfully  by  means  of  insecticides.  Yet  this  is  no 
reason  why  we  should  not  be  able  to  reduce  their  ravages  to 
a minimum.  But  without  being  perfectly  familiar  with  the 
habits  of  these  insects,  with  their  life-history  in  all  and  every 
detail,  including  their  insect  and  plant  foes,  we  can  not  hope 
to  succeed.  But  by  knowing  all  this  we  may  be  able  to  dis- 
cover a weak  spot  into  which  a wedge  can  be  driven  to  break 
up  their  ranks.  Only  by  attacking  the  weak  spot  of  a well 
fortified  castle  is  victory  possible. 

When  we  consider  the  immense  numbers  of  insects,  and 
the  fact  that  they  devour  every  and  all  kinds  of  organized 
matter,  it  seems  almost  vain  even  to  try  to  fight  against 
them.  All  insects  are  not,  however,  enemies  to  man ; on  the 
contrary,  the  great  majority  are  either  indifferent  to  him,  or 
are  either  directly  or  indirectly  beneficial.  The  indifferent 
ones  eat  substances  we  can  not  or  do  not  use ; the  beneficial 
ones  eat  noxious  plants,  or  decaying  substances,  thus  puri- 
fying the  air  and  making  space  for  other  living  organisms. 
Without  them  the  soil  would  be  covered  with  dead  vegetable 
matter,  the  now  existing  plants,  i.e.,  those  that  are  fertilized 
by  the  wind,  would  become  smaller  and  smaller,  because 
their  seeds,  not  eaten  by  insects,  would  all  have  an  opportu- 
nity to  grow,  thus  crowding,  dwarfing  and  killing  each  oth- 
er. Without  insects  the  great  majority  of  our  brightly  col- 
ored flowers  would  not  produce  seeds,  as  most  of  them  are 
dependent  upon  the  work  of  these  animals  to  cause  cross-fer- 
tilization. 

The  question  is  frequently  asked:  “ Why  is  it  that  farm- 

ers, horticulturists,  gardeners,  etc.,  are  more  troubled  in  the 
United  States  with  noxious  insects  than  they  are  else  where?’  ’ 
or  “Why  is  it  that  more  injurious  insects  and  of  different 
kinds  are  found  now  than  formerly?”  The  reasons  for  this 
increase  of  insects,  both  in  numbers  and  kinds, are  not  so  very 
difficult  to  give.  In  Minnesota,  when  settlements  were  few 
and  widely  scattered,  the  whole  country  was  covered  with 


82 


its  virginal  vegetation.  Plants  and  animals  were  adapted 
to  each  other,  and  as  soon  as  one  of  them  became  for  any 
reasons  exceedingly  numerous,  natural  checks  in  the  form  of 
enemies  to  such  plants  or  animals  soon  reduced  them  to 
their  normal  numbers.  In  a state  of  nature  plants  distri- 
bute themselves  in  such  a manner  that  one  kind  never  occu- 
pies the  ground  exclusively.  Our  native  forests  are  not  com- 
posed of  one  species  of  trees,  but  of  very  many  kinds,  in 
constantly  varying  proportions  which  depend  upon  the 
character  of  the  soil  and  the  needs  of  the  different  kinds  of 
trees.  The  same  is  true  of  the  plants  that  clothe  our  beauti- 
ful prairies.  Notwithstanding  the  uniformity  of  the  soil  the 
prairies  are  covered  here  and  there  with  different  plants. 
Animals,  and  chiefly  insects,  depending  directly  or  indirectly 
upon  plants,  naturally  follow  their  distribution.  When  the 
sod  of  our  prairies  was  broken  to  receive  the  seeds  of  plants 
not  grown  there  before,  the  soil  responded  freely  to  the  new 
demands  and  yielded  phenomenal  crops.  This  prospective 
reward  for  agricultural  toil  soon  attracted  more  and  more 
farmers  until  the  prairies  were  teeming  with  human  beings, 
eager  to  mine  the  golden  grains — the  only  form  of  mining 
that  will  make  a people  really  happy  and  prosperous.  But 
in  cultivating  more  and  more  soil,  man  destroyed  the  finely 
balanced  relation  between  the  animal  and  vegetable  king- 
doms by  adding  a disturbing  factor.  At  first  but  few  de- 
structive insects  to  the  new  crops  were  found , because  they 
had  to  be  introduced  from  elsewhere;  but  as  soon  as  they 
found  this  Eldorado — an  immense  area  covered  with  the  best 
kind  of  food  for  them — they  were  not  slow  to  appropriate  to 
themselves  what  was  not  planted  for  them.  Insects  of  all 
kinds,  but  at  first' mainly  injurious  ones,  will  invariably  take 
possession  of  fields  where  plants  of  one  kind  are  grown  upon 
a large  scale.  Insect  foes  of  such  plants  will  soon  find  their 
way  to  such  fields  and  fix  there  a new  home.  In  course  of 
time,  however,  things  will  change  for  the  better,  simply  be- 
cause the  foes  of  such  newly  introduced  species  will  also 
make  their  appearance  and  wage  war  upon  their  old 
enemies.  This  is  one  reason  why  in  the  older  settled  parts 
of  the  globe  insect  outbreaks  are  less  frequent,  though  they 


83 


are  by  no  means  unknown.  The  disturbed  relationship  be- 
tween plants  and  animals  has  there  become  re-established. 
Moreover  a more  diversified  farming  is  the  rule  in  older 
countries,  and  insects  there  do  not  find  such  an  abundance 
of  food  as  in  regions  where  their  favorite  food  is  grown  upon 
a very  large  scale. 

To  enable  the  reader  to  recognize  his  friends  and  foes 
amongst  insects  the  following  two  artificial  classifications 
are  given.  Both  are  very  simple,  and  the  study  of  insects,  in 
most  cases,  requires  no  magnifying  glasses.  It  is  best  to 
compare  with  both  classifications  any  insect  to  be  located^ 
that  no  errors  be  made.  Both  classifications  apply  only  to 
the  adult  or  winged  insects. 


I. 

Insects  with  both  a biting  and  sucking  mouth: 


Wings  with  few  veins: 

Insects  with  a biting  mouth: 

Upper  wings  horny: 

Upper  wings  like  pergament: 

Upper  wings  with  many  veins: 

Insects  with  a sucking  mouth: 

All  wings  scaly: 

Only  two  wings: 

Upper  wings  half  leathery  and  half  membran- 


Hymenoptera _ 


ous: 


II. 


Coleoptera .. 
Orthoptera 
Neuroptera. 

Lepidoptcra ... 
Dip  ter  a* 

Hemiptera 
Diptera .. 


1.  With  two  wings: 

2.  With  four  wings: 

A.  Upper  and  lower  similar: 

a.  All  wings  scaly:  Lepidoptera . 

b.  All  wings  naked  or  a little  hairy: 

1.  Wings  with  numerous  veins:  Neuroptera . 

2.  Wings  with  few  veins:  Hymenoptera . 

B.  Upper  and  lower  wings  dissimilar: 

a.  Mouth-parts  forming  a sucking  tube:  Hemiptera . 

b.  Mouth-parts  not  forming  a sucking  tube: 

1.  Upper  wings  horny:  Coleoptera .. 

2.  Upper  wings  like  pergament:  Orthoptera ^ 


INSECTS  WITH  COMPLETE  METAMORPHOSIS. 


HYMENO PTERA  (membrane- wings.) 

This  order  of  insects  seems  to  include  the  most  numerous  and 
perfect  forms  ofinsects,  such  as  Bees,  Wasps,  Ants,  Ichneumon- 
flies,  Gall-flies,  Saw-flies  and  Horntails.  The  order  is  distin- 
guished by  the  possession  of  both  a biting  and  sucking  mouth 
and  by  having  four  similar  wings  with  few  veins . Most  of  the 
insects  belonging  to  it  undergo  the  most  complete  metamor- 
phosis. Their  larvae  are  usually  unable  to  search  for  food  and 
have  to  be  fed  by  the  adults  unless  it  is  stored  up  for  them  in 
such  a manner  that  they  are  surrounded  by  it.  The  saw-flies 
form  an  exception,  however,  and  they  live  like  the  caterpil- 
lars of  butterflies,  in  fact  frequently  resemble  them  so  much 
as  to  be  called  “False  caterpillars.”  Among  the  members 
of  this  order  we  have  many  that  act  very  beneficially  by  fer- 
tilizing most  of  our  flowers,  by  producing  honey  and  wax,  and 
by  destroying  injurious  insects.  Others  are  very  destructive 
and  hence  are  great  enemies  to  farming. 

Hymenoptera  may  be  divided  into  two  sections : 

1.  Stinging  species,  such  as  Bees,  Wasps,  Digger-wasps, 
Ants,  etc. 

2.  1 Piercing  species , such  as  Ichneumon-flies,  Gall  flies, 
Saw-flies,  Horn-tails. 

1.  The  stinging  hymenoptera  are  divided  into  four 
tribes : Bees,  True  wasps,  Wood-wasps,  Sand  and  Digger- 
wasps. 

Bees  are  classed  as  social,  solitary  and  parasitic.  To  the 
first  belong  the  well-known  Honey-bee  and  Bumble-bee; 


85 


Fig.  8.  A.  1,  Queen  bee:  2,  Worker  bee.  3,  male;  heads  of  same  to  the  right. 
B.  hind  leg  of  worker,  showing  brush  (a)  and  basket  (b).  C,  egg  enlarged.  D, 
larva  and  pupa. 


2 


Fig.  9.  1,  Honey  comb  with  two  queen-cells  and  German  bee;  2,  Italian;  3, 

Egyptian  bee. 


(Figs. 8 and  9);  to  the  second  the  Carpenter,  the  Mason  and 
the  Leaf- cutting  bees. 

The  True  wasps  and  Digger-wasps  have  also  social  and 
solitary  species.  To  the  former  belong  the  Paper-wasps, 
Hornets  (Fig.  10,  page  86),  Yellow  Jackets,  and  other  well- 
known  species.  The  Wood-wasps  bore  into  wood,  where 
they  form  their  cells,  and  usually  fill  them  with  large  num- 
bers of  plant-lice  and  other  small  insects.  The  Digger-wasps 
are  our  largest  and  brightest  colored  insects ; the  Mud- 
daubers  (Fig.  11),  Tarantula-killers  and  others  belong  here. 
The  Ants  (Fig.  12),  of  which  we  have  a large  number  of 

cies,  close  the  section  of  stinging  hymenoptera. 


86 


Fig.  11.  Mud-dauber,  and  Pompilus  with  larva  fastened  to  spicier. 


87 


Fig.  12.  Ant-hill.  B,  1,  male;  2,  female;  3,  worker,  natural  size. 


Eig.  13.  Parasite  (O phion)  inserting  egg  in  caterpillar. 


88 


2.  The  piercing  species  includes  two  very  important 
groups  of  insects,  the  very  useful  Insect-eaters , and  the  des- 
tructive Plant-eaters. 

Insect-eaters  (Figs.  13,  14,  15  and  16)  contain  several 
families,  best  known  by  the  name  of  Ichneumon-flies  and 
Chalcid-flies.  To  this  series  we  must  add  the  Gall-flies  (Fig. 
17  and  18),  well  known  by  the  peculiar  swellings  or  galls 
they  cause  to  form  upon  various  plants. 


Fig.  14.  Parasites.  Ichneumon  above  pupa  destroyed  by  it.  Bphialtes  in  the  act  of 
laying  eggs  upon  wood-boring  larva. 


Plant-eaters  contain  such  insects  as  Horn-tails  (Fig.  19), 
and  Saw-flies  (Figs.  20  and  21).  The  latter  are  the  par- 
ents of  the  so-called  “ False  Caterpillars  ” or  slugs,  so  des- 
tructive to  many  species  of  wild  and  cultivated  plants.  The 
Horn-tails  contain  but  few  species,  the  larvae  of  which  in- 
habit the  solid  wood  of  trees. 


Fig.  15.  Parasites.  Pfmp/a  female  laying  egg.in  caterpillar ; another  issu- 
ing from  pupa  of  moth  ; below  it  a male,  natural  size. 


Fig.  16.  Parasite  ( Microgaster );  its 
larva  issuing  from  caterpillar. 


Fig.  IS.  Rose-gall  and  Gall-fly. 


-1- 


90 


Fig.  17.  Oak-galls  and  Gall-flies  (1,  2 and  3). 


Fig.  19.  Horn-tail,  larva,  pupa  and  adult. 


91 


Fig.  20.  Large  Saw-fly,  larvae,  cocoon  (d)  and  adult  insect,  natural  size. 


C0LE0PTERA  (sheath- wings.) 

This  order  is  usually  considered  the  largest  one,  as  more 
than  one  hundred  thousand  described  beetles  are  already 
in  our  collections.  Yet,  with  the  exception  tof  af  very 
few  extreme  forms,  all  the  species  can  be  readily  'recog- 
nized by  their  sheath-like  upper  wings,  which  meet  in  ~a 


92 


straight  line  down  the  back  and  cover  not  alone  the  abdo- 
men but  also  the  two  lower  joints  of  the  thorax.  These 
upper  wings  are  not  used  for  flight,  but  to  protect  the  softer 
parts  below.  Only  the  lower  and  soft  wings,  possessing  but 
few  veins,  and  which  are  usually  during  rest  folded  beneath 
the  upper  ones,  are  used  for  flight.  Beetles  have  a biting 
mouth  and  pass  through  a complete  metamorphosis.  Many 
beetles  are  very  injurious,  others  are  indifferent  to  farming, 
and  still  others  are  decidedly  beneficial. 

Beetles  are  divided  into  two  divisions  : 

1.  True  beetles , with  all  mouth-parts  present. 

2.  Snout-beetles , in  which  the  front  part  of  the  head  is 
prolonged  into  a beak  or  snout. 

1 . True  beetles  are  usually  divided  according  to  the  struc- 
ture of  their  feet  and  their  feelers. 

Carnivorous  beetles,  with  thread-like  antennae. 

Here  belong  Tiger-beetles  (Fig.  22),  Ground-beetles  (Fig. 
23),  Carnivorous  Water-beetles  (Fig.  24),  Whirligigs  or 
Apple-smellers.  Almost  all  are  beneficial. 


Fig.  22.  Tiger-beetles,  with  larva  and  pupa.  Slightly  enlarged. 


93 


Fig.  24.  Carnivorous  Water-beetles. 

Club-horns , with  club-shaped  antennae. 

Here  belong  Burying-beetles,  Rove-beetles,  Lady-bugs 
(Fig.  25),  Larder-beetle  (Fig.  26),  Carpet-beetles  and  others 
of  various  habits.  Mostly  beneficial,  with  exception  of  Lar- 
der-beetles and  Carpet-beetles. 


94 


Fig.  26.  Larder-beetle,  with  larva  and  pupa. 


95 


Fig.  27.  Snapping-beetle  or  Wire- worm,  with  larva?. 


Fig.  29.  Fire-flies  and  their  larvje. 


96 


Saw-horns , with  toothed  or  serrated  antennae. 

Wire-worms  or  Snapping-beetles  (Fig.  27),  Flat-headed  bor- 
ers (Fig.  28),  Fire-flies  (Fig.  29),  Soldier-beetles  (Fig.  30),  etc., 
belong  here.  The  first  two  are  mostly  injurious ; the  last 
two  are  beneficial. 


Fig.  30.  Soldier  beetles. 

Leaf-horns , with  knobbed  antennae  composed  of  many 
leaf-like  parts. 

Stag-beetes,  Tumble-bugs  (Fig.  31),  Rose-beetles,  May- 
beetles  (Fig.  32),  June-bugs,  Rhinoceros-beetles,  etc.  All 
more  or  less  injurious. 

Plant-eaters  with  bead-like  antennae  (True  Leaf-beetles) 
or  with  very  long  horns  (Round-headed  Borers). 

Among  the  former  we  have  the  smaller  forms,  as  the  Po- 
tato-beetle (Fig.  33),  Poplar  Leaf-beetle  (Fig.  34),  Cucumber 
beetle,  Striped  Squash-beetle,  Flea-beetles  (Fig.  35),  and 
others  like  the  Pea  and  Bean-weevils.  Among  the  latter  we 
have  some  very  large  insects.  All  beetles  belonging  here 
have  very  long  and  prominent  horns,  so  that  this  series  of 
plant-eaters  is  frequently  called  Longicorns  (Fig.  36).  The 


97 


Fig.  33.  Potato-beetle  in  all  stages. 


98 


common  Twig-girdler  or  Round-headed  Apple-tree  Borer 
represent  their  usual  forms.  All  injurious. 


Fig.  34.  Poplar  Leaf-beetle  in  all  stages. 


Fig.  35.  Different  species  of  Flea-beetles  and  their  larvae. 


99 


Fig.  32.  May-beeFes  at  night. 


100 


To  the  true  beetles  belong  also  the  Blister-beetles  (Fig'. 
37),  Oil-beetles,  Meal-beetles  (Fig.  38),  and  someothers,  dis- 
tinguished from  the  species  mentioned  before  by  having  an 
unequal  number  of  joints  in  their  feet.  Injurious  and  bene- 
ficial forms. 


Fig.  37.  Blister-beetles.  With  first  larva. 

2.  Among  the  Snout-beetles  we  have  insects  like  the  Plum 
and  Apple-curculios,  Nut-weevils  (Fig.  39),  Rice  and  Corn- 
weevils,  Bill-bugs,  Plum-gouger  and  Bark-beetles  (Fig.  40). 
All  are  injurious  if  infesting  cultivated  or  useful  plants. 


Fig.  38.  Meal-beetle. 


Fig.  40.  Work  of  Bark-beetles. 


LEPIDOPTERA  (scale-wings). 


Fig.  41.  Currant-butterfly. 
Natural  size. 


Butterflies  and  moths  are  best 
known  to  the  casual  observer,  the 
former  being  frequently'so  brightly 
colored  as  to  be  called  “winged 
flowers.”  This  order  of  insects  is 
distinguished  by  having  both  sides 
of  their  wings  covered  with  many- 
colored  scales,  arranged  in  definite 
patterns,  like  shingles  upon  a roof. 
Insects  belonging  here  have  in  their 
perfect  or  winged  stage  the  mouth- 
parts  united  in  a long  tongue  coiled 
up  like  a watch  spring.  They  under- 


102 


go  a perfect  metamorphosis,  and  in  their  larval  stage  they 
are  well  known  as  caterpillars.  In  this  stage  they  belong 
most  decidedly  to  the  biting  insects,  as  it  is  in  this  stage  that 
a large  number  of  them  become  very  destructive.  With  very 
few  exceptions  caterpillars  feed  upon  leaves,  fruit  and  wood, 
while  many  of  the  moths  themselves  eat  nothing,  or  honey 
and  other  fluids. 

Lepidoptera  are  usually  divided  into  two  divisions: 

1.  Butterflies,  with  club-horns. 

2.  Moths , with  variable  horns. 

1.  The  butterflies  are  day  flyers,  and  have  stiff  anten- 
nae ending  in  a knob  or  club.  Examples  are  the  Parsley 
Swallow-tail,  the  White  Cabbage-butterfly  and  Currant- 
butterfly  (Fig.  41.) 

2.  The  moths  are  divided  into  many  families,  such  as 
Sphinx-moths,  Clear- winged  moths,  Spinners,  Owlet  or  Cut- 
worm moths,  Span-worms  or  Measuring- worms,  Snout- 
moths,  Leaf-rollers,  Tineids  and  Plume-moths. 


Fig.  42.  Pine-sphinx.  With  eggs,  voting  and  old  caterpillars. 


103 


V 


Sphinx-moths  are  large  and  bulky  insects  which  fly  at 
dusk,  and  produce,  large  caterpillars  possessing  usually  a 
pointed  horn  on  tail.  The  Ash-tree-sphinx  and  Pine-sphinx 
(Fig.  42),  are  examples  of  this  family.  Clear- winged  moths 
are  small  and  resemble  more  or  less  closely  some  wasp  or  fly. 


Fig.  43.  Glassy-winged  Oak-borer  and  empty  pupal  skin. 


Fig.  44.  Large  Bear,  with  larva.  Natural  size. 


Their  larvae  are  all  very  injurious  borers,  as  for  instance  the 
Oak-borer  (Fig.  43),  and  the  Currant-borer.  Spinners  are 
bright-colored,  medium-sized  moths  (Fig.  44),  though  some 
of  our  largest  insects  belong  to  this  family,  for  instance  our 
common  native  Silk-moths.  Most  of  their  caterpillars  spin 


104 


105 


silken  cocoons,  inside  of  which  they  transform  to  pupae,  as 
is  the  case  with  our  destructive  Tent-caterpillars.  Owlet- 
moths  or  Cut-worm  moths  are  night-flying,  medium-sized 
insects,  usually  of  very  plain  colors,  though  remarkable  ex- 
ceptions occur.  Their  caterpillars  are  more  or  less  injurious, 
depending  upon  the  value  of  the  food  they  consume.  The 
Army-worm  ( Fig. 45  and  45 V2) , Lesser  Army-worm , Onion  Cut- 
worm, Corn-worm  are  familiar  examples.  Span-worm  moths 
are  slender  insects,  with  large  and  weak  soft-colored  wings. 


Fig.  48.  Grain-moth.  of  wheat,  and  pupa. 


106 


They  produce  the  peculiar  “measuring  worms”  “or  loopers” 
<Fig.  46),  that  frequently  resemble  very  closely  some  dead 
twig.  Somecspecies,  like  the  Canker-worms,  have  wingless 
females.  The  other  families  of  lepidoptera  are  all  small  with 
various  habits.  Grass-worms, the  Codling-moth, Flour-moth 
<{Fig.  47),  Grain-moth  (Fig.  48)  and  Bee-moth  (Fig.  49), 
Grape-vine  Plume  and  allied  forms  are  familiar  examples. 


Fig.  49.  Bee-moth.  All  stages. 


DIPTERA  (two-wings.) 

All  the  members  of  this  order,  such  as  House- 
flies, Blow-flies,  Bot-flies,  Mosquitoes,  Gnats,  etc.,  are 
at  once  distinguished  from  all  other  insects  by  hav- 
ing only  one  pair  of  wings.  The  hind  wings  are  rudimen- 
tary, usually  thread-like,  each  ending  in  a little  knob,  which 
are  called  halteres  or  poisers.  All  flies  are  soft  and  usually 
rather  small.  The  structure  of  their  mouths  varies  greatly, 
but  all  are  equipped  for  sucking  fluids.  Several  species  of 
flies  can  inflict  painful  injuries  as  their  jaws  are  modified  in 
such  a way  as  to  act  like  sharp  lancets  strong  enough  to 
pierce  even  the  tough  skins  of  large  animals.  The  antennae 
of  flies  are  either  very  short,  or  long  and  sometimes  feather- 
like. The  metamorphosis  of  all  flies  is  complete,  yet  there 
is  a great  difference  among  their  pupae,  which  are  either  en- 
closed in  the  hardened  larval  skin  or  resemble  the  free  pupge 
of  Hymenoptera  and  Coleoptera.  In  some  cases,  as  in  the 


107 


Mosquito,  the  pupa  is  active,  but  does  not  consume  any 
food.  The  larvae  of  flies  are  generally  called  maggots. 

Diptera  are  usually  divided  into  two  divisions: 

1.  Species  in  which  the  free  pupa  leaves  the  larval  skin 
through  a slit  between  the  seventh  and  eighth  joints. 

2.  Species  in  which  the  pupa  is  enclosed  in  the  larval' 
skin,  from  which  the  perfect  insect  escapes  through  a circular 
hole  on  top  of  the  puparium. 

To  the  first  division  belong  flies  like  the  Gall-gnats,  Hes- 
sian-fly (Fig.  50),  Wheat-midge,  Buffalo-gnats,  Mosquitos 
(Fig.  51),  Crane-flies,  Gad-flies  (Fig.  52),  Robber-flies,  Bee- 
flies  and  parasitic  Anthrax-flies  (Fig.  53.) 


Fig.  51.  Mosquito.  With  larva  and  pupa. 


108 


Fig.  52.  Gad-fly  or  Horse-fly.  Fig.  53.  Parasitic  Anthrax-fly. 

To  the  second  division  belong  flies  like  the  Syrphus-flies 
(Fig.  54),  Bot-flies  (Fig.  55),  Tachina-flies,  House  and  Flesh- 
flies  (Fig.  56),  Cheese-flies  and  Frit-flies  (Fig.  57.) 


Fig.  54.  Syrphus-flies.  1 and  2, adults; 
3,  larva  eating  lice;  4,  contracted 
larva;  5 and  6,  pupa. 


c 


Fig.  55.  Bot-fly.  a,  adult;  b,  egg; 
c,  mature  larva;  d,  young  larva; 
e,  puparium. 


109 


Fig.  56.  Flesh  and  HouSe-flies,  with  their  eggs,  larva?  and  pupa?.  12,  House- 
fly killed  by  fungus. 


Fig.  57.  Frit-fhr.  Larva,  pupa  and  adult. 


As  a general  rule  all  flies  are  considered  very  injurious 
insects,  but  there  are  many  very  pleasing  exceptions.  Tachi- 
na-flies,  for  instance,  are  our  best  friends,  checking  the  undue 
increase  of  noxious  insects.  Without  Syrphus-flies  the  Leaf- 
lice  would  soon  destroy  all  vegetation.  Even  the  trouble- 
some House-fly  must  be  called  beneficial,  since  it  performs  the 
functions  of  a public  health-officer,  and  performs  it  well. 
Without  it  the  smaller  particles  of  decaying  animal  and  ve- 
getal matter  would  soon  fill  the  air  near  our  houses  with 
fatal  odors. 

Among  the  flies  of  lower  organization  may  be  counted 
the  Fleas  (Fig.  58),  which  in  their  early  stages  possess  the 


110 


Fig.  58.  Common  Flea.  1,  egg;  2,  larva;  3,  pupa;  4,  adult  Flea;  a-e,  mouth-parts. 

characters  of  the  order.  The  peculiar  Sheep-tick  and  Horse- 
tick  are  also  degraded  flies — degraded  in  form  as  a result  of 
leading  a parasitic  life. 


INSECTS  WITH  AN  INCOMPLETE  METAMOR- 
PHOSIS. 

HEMIPTERA  (half-wings). 

Insects  belonging  to  this  order  are  bug's,  a term 
that  should  not  be  applied  to  any  other  order  of  insects. 
Many  members  of  this  ordei  possess  wings  which  are  half- 
membranous  and  half-leathery,  whence  the  compound  Greek 
term  hemi-ptera — half-wings.  All  obtain  their  food  by  suck- 
ing the  juice  of  living  plants  or  animals.  To  enable  them  to 
do  so  the  mouth  is  composed  of  a three  or  four-jointed  beak, 
in  which  are  snugly  hidden  two  pairs  of  fine  bristles  well 
adapted  to  pierce  and  to  suck.  The  metamorphosis  of  bugs 
is  incomplete,  and  their  pupse  are  as  active  and  feed  as  well 
as  the  larvae  or  the  adults.  We  may  arrange  all  hemiptera 
into  three  groups: 

1.  True  Bugs  (Heteroptera) . 

2.  Harvest-flies , Leaf-hoppers , Plant-lice  ( Homoptera .) 

3.  Lice. 

The  True  Bugs  are  the  only  ones  that  are  distinguished 
by  half- wings,  and  to  which  the  definition  of  bugs  given 
above  applies  in  every  particular.  They  are  terrestrial , am- 
phibious or  aquatic  in  their  habits.  The  terrestrial  bugs 
are  either  plant-feeders  or  cannibals.  Theformer(Fig.59  and 
Fig.  60 — 1 and  2),  mostly  ver}"  injurious  insects,  haveamore 
slender  beak  than  the  latter.  Familiar  examples  are  the 


Ill 


Fig.  60. 


Fig.  59.  Plant-feeding  Heteroptera  ( Calocoris .) 


Plant-feeding  Heteroptera:  1,  Tingis;  2,  Aradus.  Cannibal 

ptera:  3,  Bed-bug. 


Hetero- 


i 


Fig.  60y2.  Diseased  Chinch-bug. 


112 


Fig.  61.  Blood-Sucker  ( Reduvius ) with  active  larvae  and  pupae. 


Fig.  62.  Harvest-flies:  1,  Cicada  orni,  common  in  Manna  in  drug  stores;  2, Sing- 

ing Cicada,  with  pupa. 

Squash-bug,  Chinch-bug  (Fig.  6OV2),  Tarnished  Plant- 
bug,  Four-lined  Leaf-bug,  Negro-bug.  Among  the  cannibal 
bugs  with  shorter  and  stouter  beaks  we  have  many  friends, 
but  also  some  dreaded  foes.  Insects  like  the  Soldier-bug, 
Blood-sucker  (Fig.  61)  and  Bed-bug  (Fig.  60-3)belong  here. 


113 


Among  the  amphibious  bugs  the  best  known  are  those  that 
run  like  spiders  over  the  surface  of  water  in  pools  and  ponds. 
The  Giant  water-bug  or  the  Electric  Light-bug,  the  Water- 
scorpion  and  the  Boat-man  are  familiar  forms  of  aquatic 
bugs. 

2.  The  second  group  of  bugs,  the  Homoptera , are  dis- 
tinguished by  having  their  wings  of  the  same  texture 
throughout.  This  group  is  divided  into  many  families,  all  of 
which  are  vegetable  feeders.  Familiar  examples  of  the  fami- 
lies are  the  Harvest  or  Dog-day  flies  (Fig.  62),  insects  dis- 
tinguished from  most  others  by  the  possession  of  a sound- 
producing  organ,  to  which  belongs  the  famed  Seventeen- 
year  Cicada  or  Locust;  the  Tree-hoppers,  as  the  Buffalo  Tree- 
hopper;  the  Leaf-hoppers,  as  the  Grape-vine  Leaf-hopper  and 
the  Spittle-insect  (Fig. 63). The  Plant-lice(Fig.631/2)also  belong 


Fig.  63.  Spittle-insect.  With  “Cuckoo  spittle”  produced  by  larvae  and  pupae. 

here, many  of  which  are  exceedingly  injurious . As  already  men- 
tioned these  insects  reproduce  in  two  ways — by  laying  eggs 
and  by  producing  living  offsprings.  The  Bark-lice  or  Scale- 
insects  are  also  members  of  this  group.  Although  generally 
very  injurious  some  form  a notable  exception,  as  the  Cochi- 
neal insect  (Fig.  64),  that  produces  the  beautiful  crimson 
color;  others  produce  wax  and  lac. 


114 


Fig.  63^4.  Pine-louse;  a,  young  louse;  b,  female  producing  young;  c,  winged  louse; 
d,  gall  produced  by  lice. 


Fig.  64.  Cochineal  insect. 


3.  Lice  (Fig.  65)  are  also  members  of  the  order  of  hemi- 
ptera,  and  members  not  in  good  standing.  They  are  all 
small,  wingless,  and  are  parasitic  upon  mammals,  including 
man.  Bird-lice,  though  very  similar  to  true  lice,  do  not  be- 
long here,  as  they  possess  a biting,  not  a sucking  mouth. 


Fig.  65.  1,  Head-louse  with  eggs;  2,  Body-louse. 


115 


OR  THOPTERA  ( straight- wings ) . 

Grasshoppers,  locusts,  katydids,  crickets,  walking-sticks, 
roaches  and  others  are  members  of  this  order.  All  are  fairly 
large,  possess  a biting  mouth  and  pass  through  an  incom- 
plete metamorphosis.  Some  of  the  most  injurious  insects 
belong  to  this  order,  such  as  the  Migratory  locusts,  too  well 
known  injMinnesota. 

We  can  divide  this  order  into  four  groups  according  to 
the  structure  of  their^legs  and  their  mode  of  locomotion: 

Jumpers,  Walkers,  Graspers  and  Runners. 

1.  Among  the  jumpers  we  place  such  insects  as  locusts, 
grasshoppers  and  crickets.  Locusts  (Fig.  66  and  67),  fre- 


Fig.  66.  Migratory  Locust  described  in  the  Bible. 

quentlv  misnamed  grasshoppers,  are  very  familiar  insects 
which  devour  all  sorts  of  grass  or  grains  and  other  low 
plants.  As  a general  rule  they  are  of  a dingy  color  so  as  to 
resemble  the  ground  upon  which  they  live,  though  a few  have 
bright-colored  underwings.  These  are,  however,  only  dis- 
played when  the  insect  is  on  the  wing  and  then  only  for  a 
very  short  time,  since  the  common  locusts  do  not  readily  fly 
except  when  disturbed  or  during  their  mating  season.  A few 


116 


Fig.  67.  Rocky-Mountain  Locust,  in  the  act  of  laying  eggs. 


are  social  and  migrate  together  in  such  numbers  as  to 
resemble  clouds  (Fig.  68).  Their  eggs  are  deposited  in  the 
ground  in  bean-shaped  masses.  The  males  of  most  jumpers 
produce  a loud  sound  by  fiddling,  or  by  rubbing  the  inner 
surface  of  the  hind  thighs  over  the  mid-rib  of  the  upper 
wings. 

Among  the  grasshoppers  we  have  such  familiar  insects 
as  the  Katydids,  Cone-heads  and  Sword-bearers.  Most  of 
them  are  bright  green,  more  or  less  arboreal,  and  produce 
their  love  songs  by  rubbing  or  grating  together  the  base  of 
their  upper  wings,  which  are  modified  for  this  purpose.  The 
eggs  of  these  insects  are  usually  inserted  into  the  pith  of 
plants  or  glued  upon  the  surface  of  twigs. 

Crickets , also  members  of  the  jumping  orthoptera,can  be 
separated  into  three  groups,  viz:  Tree-crickets,  Field-crick- 

ets and  Mole-crickets.  Among  the  first  group  we  have  the 
injurious  Snowv-cricket;  among  the  second  the  big-headed 
t>lack  Field-crickets(Fig.69%),  which  are  a very  familiar  sight 
nearstone  walls.  The  Mole-cricket(Fig.69)is  not  often  seen, 
.as  it  seldom  leaves  its  peculiar  burrow  under  ground, and  if  so 
only  at  night.  Not  on  account  of  its  burrowing  habits  alone 
lias  this  insect  received  the  name  of  Mole-cricket,  but  also  be- 
cause its  first  pair  of  legs  are  transformed  into  digging  im- 
plements like  those  of  a mole.  Though  all  crickets  are  more 
or  less  injurious  they  are  not  without  their  redeeming  char- 
acters, since  they  eat  large  numbers  of  injurious  insects. 


117 


118 


Fig.  69.  Mole-cricket. 

They  also  produce  a sound  in  a manner  similar  to  the  grass- 
hoppers. 

It  should  be  mentioned  here  that  the  sounds  produced  by 
insects  are  made  only  by  the  males  to  call  the  females. 


IFig.  69V2.  Field-cricket.  1 and  2,  adults;  4,  active  pupa. 

hatched. 


Below  1 crickets  just 


2.  Walkers . “Walking-sticks,”  “Walking-leaves,”  etc. 
are  very  peculiar  insects,  and  well  deserve  the  above  names. 
We  have  but  one  species  in  Minnesota,  which  looks — when 
at  rest — exactly  like  a dry  twig  (Fig.  70).  When  moving  it 
seems  to  be  suffering  from  some  acute  pains  in  the  joints. 
Every  external  organ  of  these  insects  is  drawn  out  as  long 
as  possible,  which  may  account  for  the  apparent  pains.  The 
insect  feeds  upon  all  kinds  of  foliage,  and  is  sometimes  de- 


119 


structive  to  our  hazelnuts.  It  drops  its  peculiar  eggs  singly 
and  is  not  in  the  mood  to  produce  love  songs. 


3.  Graspers, or  “Devil’s  Riding  Horses,”  ‘‘Camel-crickets’* 
(Fig.  71),  “Rear  Horses,  ’’etc.,  do  not  occur  in  our  state.  They 


Fig.  70.  European  Walking-stick  with  larvae. 


Fig.  71.  Preying  Mantis. 

are  quite  common  farther  south,  and  are  distinguished  by 
their  spiny  front  legs,  well  adapted  to  grasp  their  food>> 
which  consists  of  all  kinds  of  insects.  Their  position  during" 
an  apparent  rest  is  that  of  praying,  but  woe  to  the  poor 
unsuspecting  victim  that  may  come  too  near,  as  it  will  soon 
discover  the  fact  that  in  this  case  praying  is  spelt  preying. 

4.  Runners  are  represented  by  such  insects  as  Cock- 


120 


Fig.  72.  Cockroaches:  a,  winded  male;  b,  unwinged  female,  c,  egg-mass. 

roaches  (Fig.  72),  some  of  which  are  household  pests,  though 
the  great  majority  of  these  disgusting  insects  live  under  loose 
bark  of  trees.  They  are  all  nocturnal  iu  their  habits  and  ex- 
cel in  the  rapidity  of  their  movements.  Such  injurious  in- 
sects as  the  Croton-bug  are  familiar  examples  of  these  run- 
ning orthoptera.  They  deposit  their  eggs  in  one  yellowish- 
brown  bean-shaped  mass,  which  is  frequently  carried  about 
for  some  time  before  being  dropped  into  some  crack  or  cre- 
vice. 

The  Ear-wigs  also,  a small  group  of  insects  distinguished 
by  a formidable  looking  pair  of  forceps  at  their  posterior 
end,  belong  to  the  orthoptera,  and  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  73. 


Fig,  73.  Ear- wig. 

The  peculiar  group  of  insects  termed  Thrips  (Fig.  74) 
and  the  unwinged  Spring-tails  may  also  be  arranged  with 
the  orthoptera.  The  former  are  more  or  less  injurious,  and 


121 


occur  frequently  in  vast  numbers  in  the  heads  of  wheat  and 
clover.  Spring-tails  well  deserve  their  popular  name  on  ac- 
count of  their  mode  of  locomotion.  The  so-called  Snow- 
fleas  (Fig.  75),  which  sometimes  blacken  the  surface  of  the 
snow  by  their  presence,  are  well  known  examples.  The  bit- 
ing lice  infesting  animals,  and  chiefly  birds,  may  also  find  a 
place  at  the  end  of  orthoptera. 


« 


Fig.  74.  Thrips,  the  dots  upon  wheat-plant  showing  natural  size. 


Fig.  75.  Snow-fleas. 


INSECTS  WITH  A COMPLETE  OR  AN  INCOM- 
PLETE METAMORPHOSIS. 


NEUROPTERA  (nerve- wings). 

This  is  an  order  of  insects  that  is  now  separated  into 
many  smaller  ones,  and  for  very  good  reasons;  but  as  only  a 
very  few  of  Ae  insects  that  form  this  assemblage  are  of  any 
economic  importance  it  is  best  to  retain  them  all  in  this  one 
order.  All  the  insects  that  belong  to  it  are  distinguished  by 
possessing  wings  with  many  veins  and  all  have  a biting 
mouth.  The  metamorphosis  Qf  the  various  families  is  quite 
different,  in  some  cases  it  being  a complete  and  in  others  an 
incomplete  one.  We  divide  them  most  naturally  into  two 
sections: 

1.  With  a complete  metamorphosis  {Neuroptera) . 

2.  With  an  incomplete  metamorphosis  ( Pseudo-neuro - 
ptera.) 

To  the  first  section  belong  such  insects  as  the  Caddice- 
flies,  Ant-lions,  Lace- wings,  Hellgrammite-flies  and  others. 

In  the  sesond  one  we  place  Dragon-flies,  May-flies,  Stone- 
flies  and  White  Ants.  Some  unwinged  insects,  as  Book-lice 
may  also  find  here  a place. 

Caddice-flies  are  aquatic  in  their  early  stages  and  feed 
upon  small  water  animals.  The  larva  always  protects  itself 
by  a little  house  made  of  silk  and  covered  in  a more  or  less 
regular  manner  with  all  sorts  of  material  found  at  hand. 
The  mature  insects  look  somewhat  like  moths  denuded  of 
scales  (Fig.  76).  f 

Ant-lions  (Fig.  77)  may  possibly  be  found  in  Minnesota,, 
but  none  have  as  yet  been  recorded.  The  adult  insects  have 
large  lace-like  wings  and  antennas.  Their  larvae  dig  peculiar 
pits  in  sandy  soil  and  devour  insects  that  fall  into  these 
traps. 


123 


e 


Fig.  76.  Caddice-fly:  a,  house  made  of  stems;  b,  adult;  c,  larva  removed  from 

house;  e,  pupa. 


Fig.  77.  Ant-lion,  with  larvae,  enlarged  and  natural  size. 

Lace-wings  or  Aphis-lions  (Fig.  78)  are  very  beneficial  in- 
sects of  small  size.  The  mature  and  winged  insects  are  usu- 
ally green  or  pale  red,  and  possess  unusually  prominent 
•eyes  of  a golden  color.  The  larvae  are  flat,  with  very  large 
jaws,  and  are  almost  constantly  engaged  in  devouring  their 
usual  food,  the  plant-lice.  Their  round  and  white  silken  co- 
coon is  very  small  in  comparison  with  the  large  imago  that 
issues  from  it  through  a circular  lid.  The  eggs  are  fastened 
singly  to  a slender  silken  stalk,  of  which  many  are  fastened 
side  by  side. 

Hellgrammite-flies  are  large  insects  with  a very  forbid- 
ding aspect.  The  larva  is  aquatic  and  carnivorous.  To 
them  belong  the  dark  colored  and  much  smaller  insects  that 


124 


are  sometimes  so  numerous  about  the  shores  of  our  lakes 
(Fig.  79). 

To  the  second  section  belong  a number  of  our  friends, 
such  as  the  Dragon-flies  or  Mosquito-hawks  (Fig.  80). 

These  active  insects,  almost  constantly  upon  their  wings 
during  fine  weather,  possess  four  large  wings  of  rather  uni- 
form size,  frequently  ornamented  with  bright  spots  and  me- 
tallic colors.  Their  food  consists  of  all  sorts  of  adult  insects, 
the  smaller  ones  of  which  they  eat  without  interrupting 
their  flight.  Immense  numbers  of  mosquitos  and  gnats  are 
destroyed  by  them,  and  as  both  mosquito-hawks  and  mos- 
quitos are  raised  in  the  same  pool  of  water  the  former  never 
lack  sufficient  material  for  their  enormous  appetites.  But  as 
the  pupa  is  as  active  in  the  water  as  the  larva,  constantly 
waging  war  upon  other  insects,  they  are  really  very  benefi- 
cial in  all  three  stages.  In  the  early  stages  these  dragon- 


125 


l?ig.  79.  Sialis:  1,  eggs;  2;  larvae;  3,  pupa;  4,  adult  flviug,  and  depositing  eggs. 

flies  posess  a sort  of  mask,  the  anterior  edge  of  which  is  pro- 
vided with  two  sharp  hooks.  This  whole  mask  can  be 
greatly  extended  so  as  to  reach  a victim  at  a distance  and 
carry  it  to  the  true  jaws  for  mastication. 

Mav-flies  or  “One-da}^  flies”  (Fig.  81)  are  exceedingly 
abundant  upon  some  of  our  lakes,  flying  often  in  clouds  over 
the  shores  and  soon  covering  them  with  their  dead  bodies, 
which  in  some  countries  are  gathered  by  the  farmers  as  ferti- 
lizers. Lacking  mouth-organs  the  few  hours  of  winged  ex- 
istence are  simply  utilized  by  the  insects  to  mate  and  to  de- 
posit their  eggs.  Their  larvae,  which  are  aquatic,  grow  but 
slowly  and  have  to  pass  many  moults  before  reaching  the 
adult  stage.  . 


Fig.  80.  Dragon-fly,  with  active  pupa  and  empty  pupal  skin 


Fig.  81.  May-fly  ( Ephemera ) leaving  shel1,  and  active  pupa 


127 


White-ants  are  not  found  in  Minnesota  ; they  are  a tea- 
ture  of  southern  regions  where  they  form  large  colonies  like 
our  true  ants,  in  which  we  find,  besides  the  males  and  fe- 
males, workers  and  soldiers  also.  All  white  ants  feed  upon 
dead  wood  and  are  therefore  useful  scavengers  in  a state  of 
nature. 


/^NTOMOLOGY,  or  the  science  of  insects,  is  divided  into 
'^several  distinct  branches.  Some  students  devote  their 
time  to  describing  and  classifying  insects,  and  consider  main- 
ly their  structures,  not  their  habits  or  life-histories.  Ofcourse 
structure  indicates  to  some  extent  habit.  This  strictly  scien- 
tific entomology  is  very  important,  since  without  itentomol- 
ogy  would  simply  be  chaos.  But  scientific  entomology  is  of 
very  little  use  to  the  tiller  of  the  soil,  as  it  gives  him  only  the 
scientific  names  of  his  enemies  but  not  the  means  to  protect 
himself  against  their  depredations. 

Economic , applied  or  practical  entomology  does  not  dis- 
card scientific  entomology,  without  which  it  could  not  ex- 
ist, but  it  centers  its  attention  upon  the  habits  of  insects,  so 
as  to  become  enabled  to  devise  the  proper  means  either  to 
Combat  or  to  protect  them.  Again  there  are  persons  who 
simpl}7  collect  insects  for  the  sake  of  having  fine  and  com- 
plete collections.  If  this  was  their  only  aim  they  might  as 
well  simply  gather  a complete  collection  of  old  shoes,  so  far 
as  their  aid  to  entomology  is  concerned.  But  happily  there 
are  few  of  such  collectors  who  simply  collect  bright  insects 
and  arrange  them,  perhaps,  in  a more  or  less  spread-eagle 
style,  or  form  out  of  bright  colored  carion-beetles  the  initials 
of  a dearly  beloved  one.  As  a very  general  rule  they  discover 
many  new  species  and  permit  the  scientific  entomologist  to 
make  good  use  of  their  diligence  by  giving  him  free  access  to 
their  treasures. 

Economic  entomology  is  a very  important  science  and  be- 
comes so  more  and  more  with  increased  knowlege. 
Prof.  Fletcher,  the  Dominion  Entomologist  of  Canada,  in 
his  Inaugural  address,  delivered  before  the  third  annual 


128 


meeting  of  the  Association  of  Economic  Entomologists  held 
at  Washington,  D.  C.,  made  the  following  remarks  which 
will  be  a surprise  to  many  readers,  yet  which  are  based  upon 
very  conservative  estimates:  “The  amount  of  damage  done 

to  crops  each  year  is  so  vast  that  the  figures  exite  incredulity 
from  those  who  do  not  study  crop  statistics.  The  agricul- 
tural products  of  the  United  States  are  estimated  at  about 
$3,800,000,000.  Of  this  it  is  thought  that  about  one- tenth 
is  lost  by  the  ravages  of  insects.  This  is  in  many  cases  un- 
necessary- In  short  a sum  of  $380,000,000  is  given  up 
without  a murmur  and  almost  without  a struggle  by  the 
people  of  the  United  States.' ’ It  would  be  folly  to  claim  that 
all  of  this  vast  sum  could  be  saved  by  applying  all  the  means 
we  possees  to  prevent  this  loss.  But  by  studying  closely  the 
habits  of  injurious  insects,  and  applying  the  remedies  sug- 
gested by  such  studies  at  least  one-fourth  if  not  one-hcdf  of 
this  fearful  annual  loss  could  be  saved. 

Economic  entomology  teaches  two  quite  distinct  me- 
thods to  combat  noxious  insects,  or  in  other  words  it  teach- 
es natural  and  artificial  methods  for  this  purpose.  The  for- 
mer are  based  entirely  upon  the  habits  of  insects,  the  latter 
upon  their  structure;  upon  the  character  of  their  mouthy 
whether  biting  or  sucking,  and  upon  the  character  of  the 
skin,  whether  soft  and  easily  affected  by  some  chemical  sub- 
stance or  hard  and  tough  so  as  to  resist  it.  Artificial  means 
can  be  used,  such  as  poison  to  enter  the  mouth  or  skin,  or 
such  as  none-poisonous  substances  to  cause  death  in  various 
ways.  Both  methods  can  only  be  applied  successfully  when 
the  habits  and  structure  of  the  insects  to  be  combatted  are 
thoroughly  known.  As  a very  general  rule  natural  reme- 
dies are  to  be  preferred  as  they  are  more  in  harmony  with 
nature,  and  not  so  apt,  if  properly  applied,  to  kill  the  bene- 
ficial insects  with  the  noxious  ones. 

NATURAL  METHODS. 

In  many  cases  it  is  possible  to  capture  some  species  of  in- 
sects before  they  have  caused  much  damage,  and  if  this  can 
be  done  at  the  right  time  it  will  not  require  much  labor  to 
check  future  damages. 


129 


CATCHING  INSECTS  BY  NETS,  BY  JARRING  AND  BY  BEATING. 

Examples: — The  few  white  Cabbage-butterflies  that  suc- 
ceed in  passing  our  winters  safely  and  which  appear  on  the 
wing  in  spring  near  the  young  cabbage  plants  can  be  readily 
caught  by  small  boys  and  girls  with  a butterfly  net,  which 
anybody  can  easily  make.  By  preventing  these  early  butter- 
flies from  laying  eggs  none  of  the  later  brood  can  appear. 

The  different  species  of  snout-beetles  that  infest  our  plum 
trees  hibernate  as  perfect  insects  and  visit  the  trees  long  be- 
fore any  leaves  are  found  upon  them. 

By  jarring  the  trees  early  in  the  morning  these  insects 
can  be  collected  upon  a sheet  of  muslin  spread  under  the  tree 
and  killed. 

By  beating  the  young  potato  vines  the  beetles  that  have 
collected  there  to  eat  and  to  lay  eggs  can  be  gathered  into  a 
tin  pail  containing  water  with  a little  kerosene  oil,  and  can 
thus  be  destroyed. 

CATCHING  INSECTS  BY  TRAPPING  AND  SEMBLING. 

Examples: — Many  of  the  caterpillars  of  the  Codling-moth 
descend  the  apple  trees  to  pupate.  If  a band  of  folded  papers 
he  put  around  the  trunk  they  will  go  below  this  band,  where 
they  can  readily  be  crushed. 

The  males  of  many  destructive  moths  can  be  collected 
and  killed  by  confining  a freshly  issued  female  under  a sieve. 
Many  males  will  be  attracted  to  the  female  and  will  try  to 
reach  her,  and  while  thus  engaged  can  be  captured.  This 
method  is  often  very  effective,  especially  with  our  larger  des- 
tructive moths. 

CATCHING  INSECTS  BY  ATTRACTING  THEM  TO  EIGHT  AND  BAITS. 

Examples: — A large  number  of  injurious  insects  are  at- 
tracted to  strong  lights,  as  may  be  seen  in  cities  illuminated 
with  electric  lamps.  By  arranging  a vessel  with  water,  up- 
on which  floats  some  kerosene  oil,  under  brightly  burning 
lamps  arranged  in  fields  to  be  protected  many  destructive 
insects  can  be  caught  and  killed. 

By  using  lights  many  beneficial  insects  are  also  captured, 
most  of  which  might  be  saved  by  using  water  alone. 

Baits,  consisting  of  various  materials  corresponding  to 


130 


the  insects  intended  to  be  caught,  are  very  attractive  to  cer- 
tain kinds.  Sugar  or  molasses  dissolved  in  water  and 
mixed  with  a little  real  vinegar  attracts  the  moths  producing 
cut- worms. 

COLLECTING  EGGS  OF  NOXIOUS  INSECTS. 

In  many  cases  injurious  insects  can  be  greatly  reduced  in 
number  by  gathering  and  destroying  their  eggs  at  the  proper 
time. 

Examples: — The  eggs  of  Cabbage-butterflies  and  Potato- 
beetles  can  be  readily  detected  upon  the  young  food  plants. 
Eggs  of  the  Tent-caterpillars  are  prominent  during  the  win- 
ter upon  the  trees  that  are  preferred  as  food,  where  they 
should  be  collected  and  burned.  The  eggs  of  the  Migratory 
Locusts  can  sometimes  be  collected  more  readily  and  in 
larger  numbers  than  the  active  insect  itself. 

BURNING  DEAD  TWIGS  IN  AND  AROUND  ORCHARDS. 

Example: — The  Currant-borers  and  similar  insects  re- 
main in  the  dead  or  dying  canes  until  mature.  By  burning 
canes  thus  infected  in  early  spring  the  culprits  are  killed. 
The  New  York-weevil,  destructive  to  plum  trees,  breeds  in 
oaks,  chiefly  in  those  twigs  that  drop  very  readily.  By 
gathering  and  burning  these  at  the  proper  time  the  insects 
are  prevented  from  invading  orchards. 

BURNING  DEAD  FOLIAGE,  ETC. 

Example: — Many  insects,  for  instance  the  Chinch-bug, 
hibernate  in  and  below  such  rubbish.  By  burning  this 
material  at  a time  when  the  insects  are  in  a torpid  condition 
they  are  destroyed.  If  this  operation  is  carried  out  very  late 
in  autumn  they  are  not  very  likely  to  find  new  hibernating 
quarters,  or  are  thus  exposed  without  any  protection  to  the 
cold. 

PERMITTING  HOGS  OR  OTHER  ANIMALS  TO  GRUB  IN  ORCHARDS, 
WINDBREAKS  AND  TREE  GROVES. 

Examples: — The  large  destructive  Willow  Saw-flv  hiber- 
nates just  under  the  surface  of  the  soil,  or  even  above  it  un- 
der rubbish.  Their  larvae  are  readily  detected  and  greedily 
eaten  by  hogs,  skunks  and  shrews. 


131 


CONCENTRATING  INSECTS  UPON  FAVORITE  FOOD  PLANTS. 

This  can  be  done  either  by  causing  some  plants  in  the 
outer  rows  to  appear  earlier  than  the  rest,  and  thus  con- 
centrating upon  them  the  great  majority  of  the  noxious  in- 
sects, or  by  growing  some  rows  of  varieties  preferred  by 
them.  In  either  case  the  insects  thus  concentrated  upon  a 
few  plants  can  be  much  more  readily  killed  then  if  scattered 
over  a large  field. 

HIGH  CULTURE. 

By  manuring  or  by  working  the  soil  more  thoroughly 
the  plants  grown  upon  it  are  stronger  and  more  able  to  re- 
cover from  damages  caused  by  insects. 

Example: — Young  plants  of  wheat,  eaten  down  to  the 
ground  by  young  locusts,  will  recover  and  still  produce  a 
good  crop  if  the  land  was  in  a prime  condition. 

REFRAINING  FOR  ONE  OR  TWO  YEARS  FROM  CROPS  BADLY 

INFESTED. 

Example: — Chinch-bugs  in  our  southern  counties  forced 
farmers  to  abandon  the  growing  of  wheat  for  a number  of 
years.  Lack  of  food,  and  other  causes,  destroyed  the  insects, 
and  wheat  can  again  be  grown  for  some  seasons. 

Rotation  of  crops  has  a similar,  but  not  so  thorough  an 
effect  upon  insects. 

SELECTION  OF  VARIETIES  LESS  LIABLE  TO  ATTACK. 

This  is  a very  important  natural  remedy,  and  can  be  ap- 
plied in  many  cases,  but  in  other  cases  such  unpalatable 
varieties  are  as  yet  unknown,  and  it  is  the  office  of  the  Ex- 
periment Station  to  make  the  necessary  efforts  to  find  them 
if  they  can  be  discovered. 

Diversified  farming  in  infested  regions  is  also  very  im- 
portant as  in  this  case  it  is  never  likely  that  all  the  crops 
will  be  destroyed,  since  nearly  all  insects  are  dependent  for 
food  upon  certain  plants,  and  neither  cannor  will  eat  others. 

Growing  of  unpalatable  crops  in  place  of  others  greedily 
eaten  is  also  a similar  natural  remedy. 

LATE  SOWING. 

This  is  also  an  excellent  method  to  prevent  certain  noxi- 


132 


ous  insects  from  causing  injury,  and  can  be  applied  in  many 
cases  and  to  various  crops. 

Example: — Late  sowing  of  peas  will  prevent  the  Pea- 
weevil  from  depositing  eggs  upon  such  plants,  because  the 
weevils  die  before  the  plants  are  flowering.  Keeping  seed- 
peas  longer  than  one  year  in  a tight  sack  will  have  the  same 
effect  with  most  species. 

EARLY  SOWING. 

This,  if  done  properly,  will  enable  the  plants  to  attain 
such  growth  and  strength  as  to  be  beyond  serious  injury. 

LATE  PLOWING.  EARLY  PLOWING. 

Both  methods  are  sometimes  of  great  value  to  protect 
crops  grown  upon  fields  thus  treated.  Late  plowing  will 
disturb  and  kill  many  insects  that  are  hibernating  in  the  soil. 
Tender  insects  and  pupae  that  can  not  move  are  thus  killed. 
Early  and  repeated  plowing  will  expose  many  insects  other- 
wise hidden  in  the  ground  to  the  attacks  of  birds,  shrews 
and  other  animals. 

Example: — The  full-grown  larvae  and  pupae  of  Wire- 
worms  are  killed  by  disturbing  the  soil  late  in  the  fall. 
Young  locusts  can  not  reach  the  surface  of  the  ground  if  the 
eggs  are  plowed  under.  Late  plowing  of  fallow  land  is  very 
important,  as  such  fields  attract  many  insects  to  deposit 
their  eggs,  or  to  hibernate  in  the  undisturbed  soil. 

Burning  stubble  at  the  proper  time  is  also  of  great  value 
in  a number  of  cases. 

Example: — If  the  standing  stubble,  or  a layer  of  dry 
straw,  is  burned  at  a time  when  young  locusts  are  hatched 
the  majority  of  them  will  be  destroyed.  Dry  and  dense 
masses  of  dead  grass  harbor  many  injurious  insects,  such  as 
Chinch-bugs,  and  should  be  burned.  By  burning  the  stubble 
we  destroy  also  injurious  insects  that  hibernate  in  the  culms, 
such  as  the  Frit-fly. 

DITCHING. 

To  prevent  such  insects  as  young  Locusts,  Army-worms, 
migrating  Chinch-bugs  and  others  from  reaching  fields  as 
yet  free  from  them,  ditches  prove  of  great  value  since  the  in- 
sects are  gathered  there  and  can  be  destroyed  in  immense 
quantities  in  various  ways. 


133 


Example When  Army-worms  migrate  they  usually 
move  all  in  the  same  direction.  A ditch  of  sufficient  depth 
will  soon  trap  large  numbers,  and  by  means  of  burning 
straw  kerosene  od,  or  by  dragging  a log  along  the  bottom 
of  the  ditch  the  insects  can  be  destroyed. 

ISOLATING  FIELDS  FROM  INSECTS. 

This  can  be  done  in  various  ways,  depending  upon  the 
character  of  the  insects  to  be  kept  away. 

Example To  protect  a corn  field  from  Chinch-bugs  that 
migrate  towards  it  from  fields  already  devastated,  a low 
fence  made  of  a six-inch  board,  fastened  by  pins  with  its 
edge  upon  the  ground,  and  having  the  exposed  edge  covered 
with  a fluid  mixture  of  oil  and  tar,  will  prevent  the  bugs 
from  crossing.  Even  a thick  rope  saturated  from  time  to 
time  with  kerosene  oil  will  prevent  them  from  crossing  this 
slight  obstruction.  The  Chinch-bugs,  crowding  together  in 
ront  of  this  obstacle,  can  be  killed  in  various  ways,  best  by 
making  holes  in  the  ground  with  augurs,  and  to  close  these 
as  soon  as  filled  with  insects,  and  then  to  make  others  to  take 
their  place. 

INUNDATING  FIELDS. 

Wherever  this  can  be  done  farmers  have  almost  com- 
plete control  over  a large  number  of  kinds  of  noxious  insects. 


MOWING  CROPS  EARLY. 


This  remedy  can  be  applied  in  a number  of  cases  and 
with  very  good  effect. 

Example By  mowing  timothy  badly  infested  with  the 
Lesser  Army- worm  at  a time  when  these  caterpillars  are  still 
young  their  food  is  destroyed  and  the  great  majority  starve 
to  death.  Insects  infesting  the  flowers  of  red  clover  can  be 
combatted  m a similar  way. 

Other  remedies  consist  of  various  devices  to  prevent  des- 
tructive insects  from  reaching  their  food. 


Surrounding  stems  of  young  plants  with  paper  or  a piece 
tin  to  keep  away  the  cut- worms ; tacking  a strip  of  tin  or 
aned  paper  around  trees  to  prevent  the  unwinged  females 
o such  moths  as  the  Canker-worm  from  ascending  the  trees 


134 


to  deposit  their  eggs,  and  other  similar  contrivances  belong 
here. 

INTRODUCING  DISEASES 

among  our  injurious  insects  is  receiving  now  a great  deal  of 
attention,  and  many  trials  have  been  more  or  less  successful; 
yet  very  much  remains  to  be  done  in  this  line  of  experiment- 
ation. 

PROTECTING  BENEFICIAL  MAMMALS,  BIRDS  AND  REPTILES 

is  one  of  the  best  natural  remedies  we  have.  It  is  sad  to 
watch  the  gradual  disappearance  of  so  many  of  our  feathered 
friends,  and  the  ignorance  prevailing  in  regard  to  other  ani- 
mals, which  are  hunted  down  and  killed  without  mercy,  al- 
though many  of  them  are  our  friends.  The  relation  between 
our  wild  animals  and  agriculture  has  not  received  that  at- 
tention which  it  well  deserves.  Many  animals  are  considered 
the  greatest  enemies  of  man  while  in  fact  they  are  his  bene- 
factors and  deserve  corresponding  treatment. 

Many  other  methods  might  be  enumerated  by  means  of 
which  we  can  counteract  the  undue  increase  of  noxious  in- 
sects, but  the  above  list  is  sufficient  to  show  that  even  with- 
out the  use  of  poison  and  machinery  much  can  be  done  to 
protect  our  crops.  But  we  must  always  study  the  habits  of 
our  enemies,  and  thus  become  enabled  to  select  just  the  one 
remedy  that  promises  to  be  effectual.  In  the  warfare  against 
noxious  insects  there  is  no  royal  road  which  can  always  be 
followed. 

INTRODUCTION  OF  PARASITES  AND  CANNIBAL  INSECTS 

is  also  a very  promising  remedy^  in  some  few  and  special 
cases.  In  a state  of  nature  the  relationship  between  plants 
and  insects  is  so  nicely  balanced  that  each  species  has  a 
number  of  checks  which  prevent  undue  increase.  But  even 
there  it  sometimes  happens  that  such  checks  become  inef- 
fectual from  disease  or  unfavorable  climatic  conditions,  and 
as  a consequence  devastations  upon  a large  scale  take  place. 
But  as  a very  general  rule  the  disturbed  balance  is  soon  res- 
tored to  its  equilibrium.  When  man  imagines  he  can  im- 
prove upon  nature  by  adding,  purposely  or  otherwise,  a new 
factor,  or  by  removing  one,  most  unexpected  results  may  fol- 


135 


low.  For  instance  the  introduction  of  the  European  rabbit 
into  Australia  was  followed  by  such  deep-rooted  disturb- 
ances between  animals  and  plants  that  the  whole  Australian 
nation  is  now  forced  to  fight  this  animal  to  regain  possession 
of  the  agricultural  products.  The  introduction  of  the  Eng- 
lish sparrow  into  the  United  States  is  another  example,  and 
has  already  been  of  sufficient  influence  to  disturb  the  ancient 
order  of  things.  So  it  is  with  the  accidental  introduction  of 
foreign  noxious  insects,  as  our  farmers  have  learned  to  their 
sorrow.  As  such  recently  introduced  species  are  usually  not 
accompanied  by  their  enemies  these  latter  ought  to  be  intro- 
duced after  careful  consideration  of  the  case  in  all  its  bear- 
ings. 

To  the  natural  methods  to  prevent  the  undue  increase  of 
noxious  insects  might  be  added  proper  laws.  People  unwill- 
ing to  do  their  share  in  preventing  losses  caused  by  insects 
ought  to  be  forced  by  carefully  prepared  laws  to  do  their 
duty,  if  not  to  themselves,  at  least  to  their  neighbors  and  to 
the  community  at  large.  Insects  that  threaten  to  become  a 
serious  danger  to  the  inhabitants  of  a whole  state  should  be 
considered  as  a public  calamity,  like  some  contagious  dis- 
ease, and  should  be  suppressed  by  every  known  means. 

ARTIFICIAL  METHODS, 

based  upon  the  structure  of  insects,  are  now  used  very  exten- 
sively and  in  most  cases  with  good  results.  For  insects  with 
a biting  mouth  arsenical  poisons  are  chiefly  used.  Other 
poisons  are  less  general  in  use,  but  are  of  great  importance 
in  special  cases.  Insects  with  a sucking  mouth  can  not  be 
reached  with  poisons  that  become  active  only  in  their  digest- 
ive tracts,  although  some,  if  applied  to  soft-skinned  species, 
kill  them  by  contact.  Vital  organs  of  sucking  insects  have 
to  be  reached  through  their  skins,  either  with  substan- 
ces that  penetrate  through  it,  or  bo  closing  their  spiracles,  or 
by  otherwise  irritating  them  to  such  an  extent  that  they  be- 
come disabled.  Other  insecticides  combine  these  properties 
and  still  others  become  active  by  generating  injurious  and 
fatal  gases  and  fumes. 

Paris  green,  London  purple  and  white  arsenic  are  miner- 
al compounds  of  arsenous  acid,  and  consequently  very 


136 


poisonous  to  all  organized  matter.  To  use  them  properly 
we  must  recollect  that  plants  can  be  poisoned  by  them  as 
well  as  animals,  and  that  they  have  to  be  diluted  in  certain 
proportions  with  other  substances  to  make  them  harmless 
to  plants  and  yet  keep  them  poisonous  enough  to  kill  such 
insects  that  eat  the  foliage  covered  with  them. 

PARIS  GREEN. 

is  a chemical  combination  of  arsenious  acid  and  copper,  and 
is  called  by  chemists  arsenate  of  copper.  It  contains,  when 
pure,  about  58  per  cent,  of  arsenious  acid.  Pure  it  is  insol- 
uble in  water,  and  can  be  applied  either  as  a dry  powder 
mixed  with  other  substances,  or  suspended  in  water.  As 
plants  are  affected  in  different  degrees  by  this  poison  the  ex- 
act proportions  of  it  and  the  dilutents  can  not  be  given  ex- 
cept in  a general  way.  Some  plants,  as  the  potato,  can  be 
dusted  with  quite  a large  amount  of  it  without  being  greatly 
injured,  while  the  same  amount  would  kill  many  other  plants, 
as  the  plum-trees.  Plants  made  sensative  by  certain  climatic 
conditions,  as  by  continuous  moist  and  warm  weather  with- 
out sunshine,  suffer  at  such  times  much  more  severely  by  an 
application  of  this  and  similar  insecticides  than  at  others. 
Before  applying  any  arsenical  poisons  to  plants  upon  a large 
scale  it  is  always  best  to  try  their  effects  upon  a few,  so  that 
the  mixture  can  be  made  just  strong  enough  to  kill  the  in- 
sects and  not  to  injure  the  plants.  It  has  been  found  that 
milk  of  lime  almost  entirely  prevents  the  injurious  effects  of 
arsenical  poisons  upon  the  foliage.  The  addition  of  a little 
flour  has  also  a similar  benefisial  effect  and  is  also  of  some 
use  in  retaining  the  poison  upon  the  leaves.  Milk  of  lime  can 
be  prepared  by  filling  a barrel  nearly  full  of  air-slacked  lime, 
and  adding  to  it  sufficient  water  to  fill  it  entirely.  After 
standing  undisturbed  for  some  time  the  clear  water  above 
the  lime  is  milk  of  lime.  This  can  be  demonstrated  by  blow- 
ing air  from  our  lungs  through  it  when  it  will  become  milky. 

DRY  APPLICATION. 

As  a general  rule  Paris  green  should  be  mixed  with  one 
hundred  times  its  weight  of  perfectly  dry  flour,  sifted  wood 
ashes  or  road  dust,  land-plaster,  air-slacked  lime  or  similar 
substances.  To  apply  this  dry  mixture  successfully  it  is 


137 


necessary  to  dust  it  over  the  plants  at  a time  when  there  is 
no  wind,  and  when  the  leaves  are  moist,  as  they  usually  are 
very  early  in  the  morning.  In  this  case  most  of  the  dust 
will  adhere  to  the  leaves  and  remain  there  for  a long  time. 
Still  any  dry  application,  except  upon  a small  scale,  is  al- 
ways a very  wasteful  one. 

WET  APPLICATION. 

One  pound  of  Paris  green  to  150  gallons  of  water  is  a 
safe  mixture  with  which  to  kill  nearly  all  insects  that  pos- 
sess a biting  mouth;  it  will  not  kill  the  foliage  of  any  culti- 
vated plants  grown  in  Minnesota.  If  it  should  become 
necessary  to  spray  the  same  plants  repeatedly  later  appli- 
cations maybe  reduced  in  strength.  As  Paris  green  does  not 
readily  mix  with  water  it  should  be  first  made  into  a paste, 
and  this  should  be  mixed  with  the  amount  of  water  required. 
Upon  the  leaves  of  some  plants  this  fluid  will  not  adhere,  as 
upon  the  leaves  of  cabbage.  In  this  case  we  can  overcome 
the  difficulty  by  adding  a little  dissolved  soap  to  the  mixture. 

LONDON  PURPLE. 

This  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  aniline  colors  con- 
tains about  43  per  cent  of  arsenite  of  lime,  the  rest  is  com- 
posed of  Rose  aniline,  lime,  insoluble  residue,  some  little 
oxide  of  iron  and  water.  As  the  material  is  cheap  it  would 
be  used  much  more  frequently  if  it  came  in  convenient  pack- 
ages and  not  in  bulk.  At  all  events  it  is  just  as  good  an  in- 
secticide as  Paris  green,  and  can  be  used  in  the  same  manner, 
dry  and  with  water.  It  is  much  lighter  than  Paris  Green, 
more  finely  divided,  remains  better  in  suspension  in  water, 
and  can  therefore  be  applied  more  evenly,  with  less  stirring, 
adheres  better  to  the  foliage,  and  is  consequently  not  so 
readily  blown  away  by  the  wind  or  washed  down  by  rains. 
As  most  of  the  commercial  London  purple  contains  some  free 
and  soluble  arsenious  acid  we  must  add  some  milk  oflime  to 
prevent  injury  to  the  foliage.  If  this  precaution  is  kept  in 
mind  we  have  in  this  substance  a very  superior  insecticide. 
It  has  this  additional  advantage,  that  it  can  be  used  with 
the  Bordeaux  mixture  and  we  can  add  to  its  effects  as  an  in- 
secticide that  of  a fungicide.  If  Paris  green  is  used  for  a simi- 


138 


lar  purpose  we  are  very  apt  to  increase  its  injury  upon 
foliage. 

A very  good  proportion  in  which  to  apply  London  pur- 
ple is  one  pound  to  200  gallons  of  water,  with  an  addition 
of  about  one  pail  full  of  milk  of  lime.  It  is  always  well  to 
mix  London  purple  with  the  water  just  before  use,  and  not 
to  leave  the  mixture  standing  over  night,  as  may  be  done 
safely  if  Paris  green  is  used.  In  a dry  application  we  can 
dilute  this  insecticide  with  the  same  substance  as  we  used 
with  Paris  green. 

In  certain  cases,  as  against  the  Codling  moth,  both 
Paris  green  and  London  purple  must  be  applied  to  the  trees 
before  the  eggs  have  been  deposited  by  this  insect.  By 
doing  so  the  young  larvae,  before  reaching  the  interior  of  the 
fruits,  have  to  eat  their  way  through  the  skins  and  by  eat- 
ing some  of  the  poisonous  material  coating  the  fruit  are 
killed. 

WHITE  ARSENIC. 

White  arsenic  though  very  cheap,  is  too  dangerous  to  use, 
being  more  readily  mistaken  for  some  edible  substances  on 
account  of  its  white  color,  and  also  because  it  is  more  injur- 
ious to  foliage,  as  it  is  to  some  extent  soluble  in  water.  If 
it  has  to  be  used  it  should  be  very  much  diluted,  and  the 
mixture  should  be  applied  while  quite  freshly  mixed,  and 
only  with  a large  amount  of  milk  of  lime. 

In  using  such  virulent  poisons  as  Paris  green,  London 
purple  and  White  arsenic  it  is  important  to  keep  in  mind  the 
following  rules:  label  the  stored  material  very  plainly 

“ Poison do  not  handle  the  poison  with  your  hands  ; never 
apply  it  against  the  wind ; do  not  use  it  upon  leaves  or  fruit 
soon  to  be  eaten ; and  use  it  of  no  greater  strength  than  is 
absolutely  necessary.  The  following  doses  of  arsenic  are 
dangerous:  two  grains  for  an  adult,  thirty  grains  for  a horse, 
ten  grains  for  a cow,  one-half  to  one  grain  for  a dog.  In 
cases  of  poisoning  treatment  is  never  hopeless.  Forpersons, 
give  hot  milk  and  and  water  and  tickle  the  throat  with  a 
feather  to  induce  free  vomiting.  Sugar  and  magnesia  in 
milk  is  also  a good  antidote.  Another  remedy  is  also 
readily  prepared:  Pour  together  solutions  of  Perchloride  of 


139 


Iron  and  dilute  ammonia;  the  brown  percipitate  that  forms 
should  be  strained  off  and  given  with  water. 

WHITE  HELLEBORE. 

White  hellebore  acts  both  as  a poison  and  as  an  exter- 
nal irritant.  It  is  a vegetable  poison,  being  a powder  made 
from  the  roots  of  an  European  plant,  the  Veratrum  album. 
Though  less  poisonous  to  man  and  animals  it  is  dangerous 
to  them  when  fresh  ; later  it  seems  to  loose  to  a great  extent 
its  poisonous  qualities.  But  it  is  quite  harmless  if  applied  to 
even  tender  foliage,  and  is  the  best  insecticide  we  possess 
against  slugs  and  false  caterpillars,  the  larvae  of  our  noxious 
saw-flies.  It  can  also  be  applied  as  a dry  power  well  mixed 
with  such  substances  as  dry  road-dust  and  air-slaked  lime,  or 
with  water.  The  usual  proportion  of  a liquid  mixture  is  one 
ounce  to  two  gallons  of  water.  The  insects  die  when 
brought  in  contact  with  this  mixture,  or  if  they  eat  it  with 
the  leaves  upon  which  it  is  dusted  or  sprayed. 

PERSIAN  OR  DALMATIAN  INSECT-POWDER,  PYRETHRUM  OR 

BUHACH. 

This  is  also  the  product  of  a number  of  foreign  plants  be- 
longing to  the  genus  Pyrethrum  of  the  composite  plants, 
which  resemble  our  May- weed.  Though  almost  perfectly 
harmless  to  plants  and  to  higher  animals  it  is  fatal  to  in- 
sects, at  least  to  all  not  thoroughly  well  protected  by  a very 
tough  skin.  It  can  also  be  used  in  the  form  of  dry  powder, 
or  suspended  in  water.  It  seems  that  the  dry  application 
has  the  most  market  effect,  and  for  this  purpose  it  should 
be  mixed  with  about  four  times  its  weight  of  some  finely 
sifted  dilutent.  To  obtain  the  best  results  this  mixture 
should  be  kept  for  one  or  more  days  in  an  air-tight  vessel  be- 
fore using  it.  It  seems  to  paralize  many  insects  with  which 
it  comes  in  contact.  If  used  wet  the  best  proportions  are 
one  ounce  to  two  gallons  of  water.  This  insect-powder  is 
now  prepared  to  some  extent  in  California,  where  it  is  called 
Buhach.  Though  an  excellent  insecticide  it  is  very  apt  to 
give  no  satisfaction,  as  in  our  markets  it  is  not  only  very 
much  diluted,  but  is  so  poorly  cared  for  that  even  the  un- 
adulterated material  soon  becomes  almost  worthless.  The 


140 


powder  should  always  be  kept  in  an  air-tight  tin  box,  other- 
wise its  active  principle,  an  essential  oil,  will  soon  escape. 
As  it  is,  some  of  our  retail  druggists  expose  it  in  open  bar- 
rels in  their  show  windows  with  flaming  posters  to  attract 
purchasers.  Of  course  if  kept  in  this  manner  it  looses  all 
virtue  as  an  insecticide.  In  Europe  they  keep  the  dried 
flower-heads  until  the  powder  is  needed,  when  they  are 
ground  fine.  Insect-powder,  when  pure  and  fresh,  if  dusted 
in  a room  or  stable  filled  with  flies  or  mosquitoes,  will  soon 
kill  them.  It  can  also  be  utilized  in  the  form  of  tea,  as  a 
decoction,  as  an  alcoholic  extract,  or  as  a fume,  and  will  be 
found  very  useful  in  certain  cases. 

TOBACCO. 

This  well-known  plant  is  a very  useful  remedy  against 
a number  of  soft-bodied  insects.  In  green-houses  it  is  agreat 
favorite  with  gardeners  against  the  insects  found  there.  A 
decoction,  made  by  boiling  a pound  of  tobacco  stems  in  one 
gallon  of  water  is  a very  effective  remedy  against  such  in- 
sects as  flea-beetles  and  plant-lice.  In  the  form  of  fine  dust 
it  is  also  of  great  value  against  the  more  tender  insects  or 
larvae.  As  tobacco  stems  are  very  cheap,  and  are  also  quite 
valuable  for  fertilizers,  a more  general  use  of  this  insecticide 
is  adviceable.  As  a wash  for  animals  infested  with  vermin 
it  gives  good  results,  but  is  inferior  to  kerosene-emulsion. 

FISH-OIL  SOAP.  WHALE-OIL  SOAP. 

Both  soaps  can  be  bought  very  cheap,  and  as  they  are 
useful  for  many  purposes  ought  to  be  kept  ready  at  hand. 
Suds  made  of  one  pound  of  such  soaps  in  eight  gallons  of 
water  are  very  effective  against  a large  number  of  soft  in- 
sects, but  chiefly  against  leaf-lice  which  succumb  very  readily. 
Soft  soap,  boiled  down  to  the  consistency  of  thick  paint 
forms  a tenacious  coating  for  the  bark  of  trees  and  prevents 
insects,  like  borers,  from  depositing  their  eggs.  If  mixed  with 
a little  Paris  green  or  London  purple  it  becomes  still  more 
effective. 

CARBOLIC  ACID.  COAL  TAR.  AIR-SLAKED  LIME,  PLASTER 
AND  WOOD-ASHES. 

Carbolic  Acid,  and  the  various  mixtures  that  can  be 


141 


made  with  it  have  not  proven  very  good  insecticides,  yet  in 
special  cases  they  may  be  used  with  good  results. 

Coal-tar  is  very  useful  in  some  cases,  not  so  much  as  an 
insecticide  but  as  a repellent  and  as  a means  to  capture  the 
still  unfledged  locusts  in  “hopper-dozers. ” 

Air-slaked  lime,  plaster  and  wood-ashes  have  also  some 
value,  and  by  thoroughly  dusting  plants  infested  with  soft 
or  slimy  bodied  insects,  many  of  the  latter  are  killed.  Be- 
sides, these  substances  are  good  fertilizers. 


KEROSENE-EMULSION. 


Kerosene-oil,  though  used  but  for  a comparatively  short 
time'  as  an  insecticide,  has  a greater  range  of  usefulness  than 
any  other  one.  It  is  not  a poison  but  kills  by  contact.  It 
is  a very  penetrating  fluid  and  causes  almost  instant  death. 
But  since  it  kills  plants  as  well  as  insects  it  can  not  be  used 
alone  but  has  to  be  mixed  with  some  substance  that  dilutes 
it  without  impairing  its  value  as  an  insecticide.  A number 
of  methods  are  known  in  which  this  may  be  done.  One  of 
the  best  is  the  “Hubbard  formula,’ ’ which  is  given  below: 


“Kerosene,  2 gallons 67  per  cent. 

Common  soap,  or  whale-oil  soap,  l^lb...)QQ  + ,, 

Water,  1 gallon per  cent' 

Heat  the  solution  of  soap  and  add  it  boiling  hot  to  the 
kerosene.  Churn  the  mixture  by  means  of  a force  pump  and 
spray  muzzle  for  five  or  ten  minutes.  The  emulsion,  if  per- 
fect, forms  a cream  which  thickens  on  cooling,  and  should 
adhere  without  oiliness  to  the  surface  of  glass.  Dilute  before 
using  one  part  of  the  emulsion  with  nine  parts  of  water. 
The  above  formula  gives  three  gallons  of  emulsion  and 
makes,  when  diluted,  thirty  gallons  of  wash.”  This  emul- 
sion is  an  excellent  one  when  the  water  used  is  soft.  But 
with  hard  water  the  formula  given  by  Cook  is  equally  good, 
and  for  some  parts  of  Minnesota  it  is  better.  It  is  here  re- 
peated: “Dissolve  one  quart  of  sof+  soap  in  two  quarts  of 
boiling  water.  Remove  from  fire,  and  while  still  boiling  hot, 
add  one  pint  of  kerosene  oil,  and  immediately  agitate  with 
the  pump  as  described  above.  In  two  or  three  minutes  the 
emulsion  will  be  perfect.  This  should  be  diluted  by  adding 


142 


an  equal  amount  of  water,  when  it  is  ready  for  use.  This 
always  emulsifies  readily  with  hard  or  soft  water ; always 
remains  permanent,  for  years  even;  and  is  very  easily  di- 
luted, even  in  the  coldest  weather,  and  without  any  heating.” 

All  sucking  insects  that  can  not  be  reached  by  making 
them  eat  poisons  can  be  killed  by  an  application  of  one  of 
the  above  emulsions.  It  is  most  valuable  against  all  kinds 
of  leaf-lice  and  most  scale  insects,  which  latter  can  not  be 
reached  in  any  other  way  since  they  are  so  well  protected  by 
their  scales  or  downy  or  woolly  secretions.  Against  the 
various  insects  infesting  the  skins  of  our  domestic  animals 
nothing  better  has  as  yet  been  found.  Even  the  hidden  scab- 
mites  of  sheep  readily  yield  to  it.  For  forming  a film  upon 
the  surface  of  rain  water  in  barrels  to  prevent  the  breeding 
of  mosquitoes  the  unmixed  oil  is  best,  though  any  oil  will 
suffice. 

BISULPHITE  OF  CARBON. 

There  are  a number  of  insects  that  can  not  be  reached  by 
any  of  the  insecticides  mentioned  thus  far.  Insects,  for  in- 
stance, that  destroy  our  stored  grain,  must  be  fought  by 
another  method,  and  the  above  fluid  has  been  found  very 
effective  for  this  purpose,  and  as  it  is  perfectly  harmless  to 
the  grain  itself  no  injury  can  follow  if  it  is  applied  properly. 
This  fluid  is  a very  volatile  substance  and  its  fumes  penetrate 
everywhere.  By  closing  the  room  containing  the  stored 
grain  as  tight  as  possible,  and  by  filling  this  space  with  the 
deadly  fumes  all  animal  life  will  soon  cease  to  exist.  As  the 
material  is  inflammable  it  should  never  be  used  near  a fire. 
It  is  also  dangerous  to  inhale  much  of  it.  It  is  also  very 
useful  against  other  insects  that  live  in  the  ground,  for  in- 
stance against  ants.  Even  the  pocket-gopher  can  be  killed 
by  filling  its  burrow  with  such  fumes. 

Gasoline,  Benzine , Oil  of  Turpentine  and  similar  volatile 
substances  are  also  effective  if  applied  to  household  pests 
that  hide  in  cracks.  Substances  such  as  Naphthaline , Cam- 
phor, Sublimate  of  Mercury,  Powdered  Borax,  Sulphur  and 
others  might  be  mentioned  as  insecticides  for  special  cases. 


143 


MACHINES  TO  APPLY  INSECTICIDES. 

To  use  any  of  the  insecticides  mentioned  above  three  rules 
should  be  followed: 

1.  Never  apply  more  than  is  absolutely  necessary, 
because  otherwise  expenses  will  be  greatly  increased,  and 
instead  of  protecting  our  plants  we  might  injure  them. 

2.  Never  wait  until  too  late.  Apply  as  soon  as  the  causes 
of  the  injury  are  recognized. 

3.  Always  apply  the  insecticides  as  uniformly  as  possi- 
sible,  cover  all  parts  of  the  plants,  both  the  upper  and  lower 
surfaces  of  the  leaves. 

As  it  is  not  possible  to  reach  all  parts  of  the  plants  ex- 
cept by  means  of  some  specially  devised  machine,  every 
farmer  and  fruit  grower  should  possess  a spraying  machine. 
Many  excellent  kinds  are  now  in  the  market,  and  the.  more 
simple  ones  are  so  cheap  that  the  question  of  expense  is  of 
little  importance.  In  buying,  attention  should  be  paid  to 
the  uses  for  which  the  machine  is  needed,  for  instance, 
whether  trees  or  low-growing  plants  are  to  be  protected. 
At  all  events,  every  machine  should  have,  besides  the  usual 
pipe  leading  to  the  nozzle,  another  return  pipe,  which  carries 
at  every  stroke  of  the  pump  handle  a stream  back  into  the 
tank  holding  the  poison  in  suspension,  otherwise  this  will 
settle  at  the  bottom  and  only  the  clear  and  harmless  fluid  is 
sprayed  over  the  plants.  A second  and  very  important  point 
is  to  select  a good  nozzle,  one  that  will  not  simply  sprinkle 
the  fluid  over  the  plants,  but  that  will  divide  it  into 
such  minute  parts  as  to  form  a genuine  spray.  Bearing 
these  two  necessary  qualities  of  a good  force  pump  and  spray- 
ing machine  in  mind  the  purchaser  will  have  no  great  diffi- 
culty in  selecting  one  that  is  suitable  for  his  purposes. 

In  closing  this  bulletin  I should  like  to  add  that  the 
entomologist  of  this  Experiment  Station  is  not  only  willing 
but  anxious  to  assist  all  farmers  in  their  war  of  extermina- 
tion against  noxious  insects.  In  order  that  he  may  do  so 
effectually  farmers  seeking  advice  should  always  send  speci- 
mens of  the  insects  which  trouble  them,  with  specimens  of 
their  food-plants  and  also  any  observations  they  may  have 
made.  Otherwise  the  entomologist  cannot  be  certain  which 
one  of  the  many  species  of  noxious  insects  is  the  real  culprit. 

OTTO  LUGGER. 


Note. — Most  of  the  illustrations  are  copied  from  the  supe'rb  works  of 
Prof.  Dr.  E.  L.  Taschenberg.  Fig.  45  and  67  were  purchased  from 
C.  V.  Riley.  Fig.  57  was  kindly  loaned  by  H.  Gorman ; and  still  others  are 

original. 


University  of  Minnesota. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  No.  29. 

CHEMICAL  DIVISION. 


IDIECZEIMIBZEIEa,  1893. 


WHEAT. 

I.  Heavy  and  Light  Weight  Seed  Wheat. 

II.  The  Vigor  of  Growth  of  the  Wheat  Plant. 

III.  The  Draft  of  the  Wheat  Plant  Upon  the  Soil  in 
Different  Stages  of  its  Growth. 


t@“'  The  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the 
State  who  make  application  for  them. 


\ 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK,  RAMSEY  CO., 

MINNESOTA. 


EAGLE  JOB  PBINT,  DEI.ANO,  MINN. 


University  of  Minnesota 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis, 1896 

The  HON.  GREENLEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - - 1894. 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - - 1894. 

The  HON.  JOHN  LIND,  New  Ulm,  -------  1896. 

The  HON.  JOEL  P.  HEATWOLE,  Northfield,  - - - - 1 896. 

The  HON.  0.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth,  -------  1896. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson,  -----  1896. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN,  Minneapolis,  ------  1895. 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  B.  A.,  Minneapolis,  - - 1895. 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  St.  Paul,  -----  Ex-Officio. 
The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PENDERGAST,  M.  A.,  Hutchinson,  - - Ex-Officio. 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHROP,  LL.  D.,  Minneapolis,  - Ex-Officio. 

The  President  of  the  University. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  J.  S.  PILLSBURY. 

The  HON.  JOHN  LIND. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION: 


WM.  M.  LIGGETT,  - 
WILLET  M.  HAYS,  B.  S.  A., 
SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S.,  - 
OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  - 
HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S., 

T.  L.  H DECKER,  - 

M.  H.  REYNOLDS,  M.  D.,  V.  M., 
THOS.  SHAW,  ----- 
J.  A.  VYE, 


- Chairman. 
Vice  Chairman  and  Agriculturist. 

- Horticulturist. 
Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

Chemist. 
- Dairy  Husbandry. 

- Veterinarian. 
- Animal  Husbandry. 

- Secretary. 


I.  HEAVY  AND  LIGHT  WEIGHT  SEED  WHEAT. 


BY  HARRY  SNYDER. 

Experiments  conducted  at  this  station  and  elsewhere 
have  shown  that  good,  heavy  weight  wheat  gives  better  re- 
sults for  seed  purposes  than  light  weight  wheat  of  the  same 
variety.  Among  the  more  important  results  that  can  be 
cited  in  this  connection  are  those  obtained  by  Hellriegel,who 
showed  that  the  heavier  the  seed  the  more  vigorous  is  the 
young  plant, and  where  there  was  not  an  over-abundance  of 
plant  food  in  the  soil  the  differences  in  vigor  of  the  plants  are 
traced  even  up  to  the  time  of  harvest. 

In  order  to  determine  in  what  way  the  causes  of  these  dif- 
ferences are  due  to  differences  in  chemical  composition  be- 
tween the  heavy  and  light  weight  wheat, twelve  samples  were 
secured  ranging  in  weight  from  fifty-five  to  sixty-five  pounds 
per  bushel.  These  samples  of  wheat  were  all  grown  from 
one  lot  of  seed,  and  in  different  parts  of  the  state.  They  are 
some  of  the  crops  from  the  seed  wheat  donated  by  Hon.  C.  A. 
Pillsburv  in  1891.  The  differences  in  grade  and  weight  per 
bushel  of  these  wheat  samples  are  due  to  differences  in  soil, 
climate,  and  methods  of  cultivation,  and  not  due  to  seed. 

The  important  differences  that  are  to  be  noted  as  to  the 
amount  of  reserve  plant  food  stored  up  in  each  kind  of  grain, 
are  observed  among  the  separate  mineral  matters  that  are 
found  in  the  ash  and  taken  from  the  soil.  Every  hundred 
pounds  of  wheat,  whether  light  or  heavy  weight  contains 
about  two  pounds  mineral  matter,  but  the  separate  com- 
pounds such  as  potash  and  phosphates  are  present  in  quite 
different  amounts  in  the  two  cases,  as  will  be  seen  from  the 
table  at  the  close  of  this  article.  The  heavy  weight  wheat, 
pound  for  pound,  contains  more  phosphoric  acid  and  potash, 
and  less  of  nearly  all  of  the  other  elements  than  the  light 
weight  seed. 


148 


The  differences  from  one  sample  to  another  are  not  in 
mathematical  order,  but  there  is  the  gradual  tendency  for 
the  low-weight  wheats  to  contain  less  potash  and  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  more  soda,  silica,  chlorine,  and  iron  than 
the  heavy  weight  seed.  When  the  results  of  each  are  calcu- 
lated to  bushels,  it  will  be  found  that  the  heaviest  weight 
wheat  yields  1.30  lbs  of  ash,  containing  .66  lbs  of  phos- 
phates; while  a bushel  of  the  light  weight  wheat  yields  1.15 
lbs  of  ash  containing  .51  lbs  of  phosphates.  There  is  nearly 
thirty  per  cent  more  phosphoric  acid  in  the  heavy  weight 
wheat  than  in  the  light  weight  of  the  same  variety.  The 
heaw  weight  bushel  also  contains  about  a quarter  of  a 
pound  more  nitrogen  than  the  light  weight  bushel. 

Briefly  stated;  the  heavy  weight  wheat  seed  contains 
more  valuable  food  material  for  the  young  plant  in  the  form 
of  nitrogen,  phosphates  and  potash  than  the  light  weight 
wheat.  These  reserve  materials  are  more  abundant  in  the 
heavy  seeds  by  nearly  thirty  per  cent,  and  are  supplied  to 
the  young  plants  as  just  so  much  more  reserve  food,  before 
the  young  plants  are  compelled  to  work  for  themselves,, 
which  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  heavy  weight  seeds  pro- 
duce more  vigorous  plants  than  the  light  weight  seeds.  In- 
dependent of  all  this,  the  additional  fertilizer  material  in  the 
heavy  weight  wheat  is  worth  about  four  cents  per  bushel. 

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TABLE  I— COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ASH  OF  HEAVY  AND  LIGHT  WEIGHT  WHEAT. 


149 


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of  ash  in  every  100  pounds  of  wheat;  the  figures  given  for  the  potash,  lime,  etc.,  are  the  per  cents  of 
potash,  lime,  etc.,  that  was  found  by  analyses  of  each  ash. 


II.  WHEAT  PLANT-VIGOR  OF  GROWTH. 


The  differences  between  the  heavy  and  the  light  weight 
wheat  from  the  same  seed  source  are  so  marked,  that  it  is  of 
great  importance  to  know  whether  these  characteristics  can 
be  traced  to  the  plants,  and  what  the  differences  in  chemical 
composition  are  between  the  healthy  and  vigorous,  and  the 
poor  and  sickly  wheat  plants. 

At  harvest  time  a sample  of  thrifty,  stocky,  vigorous 
plants,  straw  four  feet  long,  heads  well  filled  and  over  four 
inches  in  length,  was  selected,  and  at  the  same  time  another 
sample  of  weak,  sickly  plants,  straw  about  two  feet  long, 
heads  two  inches  long,  was  sorted  out  from  the  same  field. 
A complete  chemical  analysis  was  made  of  each  sample. 

900  thrifty  plants  gave  about  3 pounds  dry  matter. 

900  sickly  plants  gave  about  1.2  pounds  dry  matter. 

In  the  same  weight  of  dry  matter  of  each  lot  there  was 
more  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  in  the  healthy 
and  vigorous  plants  than  in  the  sickly  ones,  which  contained 
more  silica,  soda  and  magnesia.  These  are  the  same  general 
characteristics  that  are  noted  between  the  heavy  and  light 
weight  wheat. 

When  the  results  are  calculated  to  900  entire  plants, 
about  the  average  yield  per  square  yard  of  a good  wheat 
crop,  the  differences  are  even  more  characteristic.  The  weak 
and  sickly  plants  at  maturity  contained  less  total  ash  by 
nearly  one  half,  than  did  the  average  wheat  crop  in  the  first 
fifty  days  of  its  growth.  Some  of  the  individual  compounds 
of  the  ash  show  even  greater  differences. 

In  regard  to  the  form  of  the  nitrogen  in  both  lots  it  is  to 
be  noted  that  in  the  healthy  ones  87  per  cent  is  in  the  form  of 
gluten,  while  only  75  percent  is  in  this  form  in  the  sickly 


151 


ones.  Evidently  the  plants  did  not  possess  enough  vitality 
to  reach  full  maturity  and  change  the  nitrogen  from  the 
amide  to  the  gluten  form. 

In  order  to  compare  these  two  lots  of  wheat,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  note  first  the  percentage  composition,  which  gives 
an  equal  basis  for  comparison,  pound  for  pound  of  the  dry 
matter,  and  then  consider  the  total  amount  that  is  present 
in  an  equal  number  of  each  kind  of  plants. 


TABLE  II. 


Percentage  Composition. 

900  Plants. 

Healthy. 

Sickly. 

Healthy. 

Sickly. 

Total  Dry  Matter 

1311. 

5 40 

Total  Nitrogen^ 

1.40 

1.30 

18.35 

7.02 

Crude  Ash 

7.22 

6.46 

94.65 

34.88 

Albuminoid  Nitrogen 

1.22 

1.02 

15.99 

5.50 

Piher  

25.90 

26.44 

Ptilornphyl  Fat  Pto 

2.55 

2.69 

Silica 

49.38 

59.46 

46.73 

20.74 

Potash 

22.81 

12.72 

21.59 

4.44 

Soda 

1.44 

1.84 

1.38 

64 

Lime 

3.16 

4.28 

2.99 

1.49 

Magnesia 

2.62 

5.11 

2.48 

1.78 

Iron 

.30 

.44 

.28 

.15 

Aluminia 

.05 

.07 

.04 

.02 

Phosphates 

13.46 

12.44 

12.75 

4.33 

Sulphates 

2.28 

2.41 

2.28 

.56 

Chlorides 

.94 

1.04 

.98 

.49 

The  absence  of  a normal  amount  of  the  essential  ash  ele- 
ments in  wheat  is  followed  by  weak,  dwarfed,  and  sickly 
plants;  these  essential  ash  elements  are  furnished  in  greater 
abundance  in  heavy  seeds  than  in  light  weight  seeds. 


III.  THE  DRAFT  OF  THE  WHEAT  PLANT  UPON  THE 
SOIL  IN  THE  DIFFERENT  STAGES  OF  ITS 
GROWTH. 


In  the  growth  of  the  wheat  plant  from  the  seed  to  full 
maturity,  it  is  important  to  know  at  about  what  stages  in 
the  growth  of  the  plant  the  various  elements  are  taken 
from  the  soil  and  the  air  and  put  together  in  the  form  of 
gluten  and  starch,  so  as  to  have  a definite  idea  as  to  what 
the  soil  must  furnish  to  the  crop  at  each  stage  of  its  growth. 
During  the  past  two  years  work  has  been  carried  on  in  the 
chemical  laboratory  in  order  to  obtain  the  necessary  data 
upon  this  question. 

At  various  intervals  during  the  growth  of  the  wheat 
plant,  a given  area  of  ground  was  cut,  and  the  entire  plants, 
excepting  the  roots  were  submitted  to  complete  chemical 
analysis.  The  number  of  plants  per  square  yard  at  each  cut- 
ting was  noted,  and  then  the  results  were  all  calculated  to  a 
uniform  basis  of  900  plants  per  square  yard,  about  the  aver- 
age yield  of  a good  crop.  This  was  found  to  be  quite  neces- 
sary in  order  to  establish  a uniform  basis  for  comparison, 
since  no  two  square  yards  of  wheat  always  contain  the  same 
number  of  plants.  The  main  points  in  the.results  recorded 
have  been  verified  with  two  crops,  that  of  1892  and  1893. 
Taken  as  a whole  the  two  crops  represent  fairly  well  the  ex- 
tremes in  the  conditions  to  which  the  wheat  crop  is  subject- 
ed. Only  those  points  that  are  common  to  both  years  and 
have  a direct  bearing  upon  the  question,  are  discussed. 

The  time  from  seeding  to  maturit}^  is  arbitrarity  divided 
into  four  periods:  fifty,  sixty-five,  eightv-one  and  one-hun- 
dred and  five  days  respectively  from  the  date  of  seeding.  At 
the  close  of  this  article  a table  is  given  in  a condensed  form 
setting  forth  all  the  important  facts  in  regard  to  the  rate  of 
the  growth  ofthe  wheat  plant  and  its  demands  upon  thesoil. 
First  Period, — At  the  end  of  the  first  period  of  fifty  days 


153 


the  plants  had  reached  an  average  height  of  eighteen  inches . 
At  this  time  a little  less  than  one  half  of  the  total  dry  matter 
of  the  plant  had  been  produced,  and  this  dry  matter  contain- 
ed nearly  three-quarters  of  the  total  mineral  matters  that 
were  taken  from  the  soil  during  tlieentire  growth  ofthe  crop. 

Second  Period. — Fifteen  days  later,  sixty-five  days 
from  the  time  of  seeding,  the  plants  were  fully  headed  out 
and  had  made  an  additioual  gain  of  about  fifteen  per  cent 
organic  matter;  the  mineral  matters  were  taken  up  more 
slowhr,  showing  an  additional  gain  of  about  ten  per  cent. 
At  the  close  of  this  period  (July  15.)  the  wheat  plant  had 
taken  up  about  eighty- five  per  cent  of  the  total  materials 
supplied  by  the  soil. 

Third  Period. — At  this  time  the  wheat  had  reached 
that  state  as  commonly  known  as  “in  the  milk/’  During 
this  period  of  fifteen  days,  from  July  15  to  about  August  1, 
the  plants  showed  rapid  and  marked  gains  in  organic  mat- 
ter, over  one  third  of  organic  compounds  of  the  plant  being 
produced  during  these  dates.  Along  with  this  gain  of  or- 
ganic matter,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  practically  all  of  the  re- 
mainder of  the  mineral  matters  were  taken  from  the  soil. 

Fourth  Period. — In  the  last  period  of  some  twenty 
days  prior  to  harvest  there  was  an  additional  gain  of  ten 
per  cent  of  organic  matter,  and  no  material  increase  in  min- 
eral matters.  This  is  more  of  a period  of  rearrangement  of 
the  materials  that  are  already  in  the  plant  rather  than  a 
period  of  increase  in  dry  matter. 

The  important  points  to  be  noted  from  these  various 
periods  are,  that  the  ash  elements  are  assimilated  quite  in 
advance  of  the  formation  of  organic  matter,  in  fact  the  wheat 
plant  makes  its  heaviest  drafts  upon  the  soil  during  the  first 
fifty  days  of  its  growth,  and  takes  but  little  mineral  food 
from  the  soil  during  the  last  stages  of  its  growth.  This 
means  that  the  food  supplied  by  the  soil  to  the  wheat  must 
be  in  such  a condition  so  that  the  plant  can  readily  take  up 
over  three-fourths  of  it  before  the  first  of  July.  Thereinav 
be  an  abundance  of  phosphates,  nitrogen,  and  potash  in  the 
soil,  but  if  by  poor  cultivation,  very  late  plowing,  continued 
cropping  without  rotation,  and  poor  general  management 


154 


all  of  the  available  plant  food  is  used  up,  the  wheat  plant 
cannot  wait  for  more  food  to  become  available. 

The  separate  compounds  of  the  ash  of  the  wheat  plant 
that  require  consideration  are:  Silica  (sand),  potash,  lime, 
magnesia,  iron,  aluminia,  phosphates,  sulphates,  and  chlo- 
rides. These  compounds  together  with  the  nitrogen  con- 
stitute the  materials  that  are  supplied  by  the  soil.  The 
essential  ash  elements  as  they  are  called,  are  not  all  taken 
up  by  the  plant  at  the  same  time,  some  are  taken  up  much 
more  rapidly  and  at  earlier  stages  than  others. 

Phosphates. — Nearly  eighty  per  cent  of  the  phosphates 
were  taken  up  in  the  first  fifty  days.  In  the  second  period,  a 
small  amount,  while  in  the  third  period  nearly  all  of  the  re- 
mainder, about  fifteen  per  cent,  found  its  way  into  the 
plant.  From  eighteen  to  twenty -five  pounds  of  phosphates 
are  removed  per  acre  of  wheat,  and  about  two-thirds  of  this 
amount  is  in  the  grain.  The  loss  of  phosphates  by  continu- 
ous cropping,  becomes  a serious  question  in  time. 

Silica. — In  each  period  a little  over  half  of  the  ash  of  the 
whole  plant  is  silica  (sand).  A large  portion  of  it,  over 
seventy  per  cent,  is  taken  up  in  the  first  period  with  marked 
additional  gains  in  the  second  and  third  periods.  From 
seventy-five  to  one  hundred  pounds  of  silica  are  removed  in 
an  acre  of  wheat,  nearly  all  of  it  isdn  the  straw  and  less  than 
one  per  cent  is  in  the  grain.  There  is  an  abundance  of  silica 
in  our  soils,  in  fact  it  is  the  most  abundant  material  that 
we  have.  Analysis  of  over  one  hundred  typical  wheat  soils 
made  in  the  laboratory  of  this  station  during  the  past  year, 
have  shown  from  five  to  forty  per  cent  of  hydrated  silicates 
in  addition  to  that  which  is  present  in  the  form  of  sand  and 
clay.  The  lack  of  stiffness  of  straw,  reported  in  so  many 
cases,  can  not  be  due  to  a loss  of  silica  from  the  soil,  nor  to 
its  absence  from  the  plant.  Analysis  of  the  straw  from  bad- 
ly lodge  grains  have  always  shown  as  much  silica,  and  in 
some  cases  even  more,  than  in  the  grains  that  have  not 
lodged.  Whether  this  serious  trouble  is  due  to  the  absence 
of  any  material  from  the  plant,  is  now  receiving  its  due  at- 
tention. 

Sodium,  Chlorine,  Iron  and  Aluminia.— These 


155 


compounds  are  taken  up  in  very  small  amounts  and  in  the 
first  period.  Excepting  the  iron,  these  compounds  are  of 
far  less  vital  importance  to  the  plant,  than  the  other  ash 
elements.  These  compounds  are  found  in  the  grain  only  in 
very  small  amounts,  and  there  is  always  sufficient  even  in 
the  poorest  soils  for  all  the  demands  of  the  crop. 

Lime  and  Magnesia. — The  lime  is  taken  up  at  com- 
paratively much  earlier  periods  than  the  magnesia.  The 
magnesia,  it  is  to  be  noted,  is  stored  up  in  the  seed  more 
liberally  by  three  fold  than  the  lime.  From  eight  to  ten 
pounds  of  lime  are  removed  per  acre  and  about  eight-ninths 
of  it  is  removed  in  the  straw  crop.  The  magnesia,  which  is 
found  largely  in  the  seed  is  assimilated  more  slowly  and  at 
later  periods.  The  question  as  to  the  amount  oflime  in  our 
soils  and  the  use  of  lime  fertilizers  is  too  long  to  be  discussed 
in  this  bulletin. 

Potash. — About  three  quarters  of  the  potash  finds  its 
way  in  the  plant  at  the  end  of  the  first  fifty  days.  The  rate 
of  the  assimilation  of  the  potash  is,  to  a great  extent,  a 
measure  of  the  degree  of  vigor  of  the  plant.  The  gains  in 
potash  in  the  second  and  third  periods  are  gradual  and  uni- 
form. It  is  to  be  noted  in  particular  that  there  is  more 
potash  in  the  plant  at  the  end  of  the  third  period  by  six  and 
one  half  per  cent  than  at  harvest  time.  In  the  growing 
plant  potash  is  found  largely  in  the  upper  extremities,  and 
when  the  plant  matures  there  is  a gradual  downward  move- 
ment of  the  potash  from  the  seed  into  the  straw.  More 
potash  is  carried  off  in  the  strawcrop  than  in  the  grain  crop. 
It  appears  that  this  well  established  retrograde  movement 
of  the  potash  is  carried  even  further,  some  of  it  even  to  the 
roots.  In  both  trials  this  point  was  distinctly  marked.  In 
similar  work  on  the  oat  plant  by  Ardent , and  particularly 
in  the  corn  plant  work  by  Schweitzer  these  same  points  are 
observed  in  the  analysis.  This  appears  to  be  a characteris- 
tic of  these  crops  so  as  not  to  exhaust  the  soil  too  rapidly, 
and  means  that  a larger  working  supply  of  potash  must  be 
in  the  soil  than  the  mere  amounts  taken  off  in  the  crop. 

Gluten. — The  most  essential  building  materials  of 
which  the  gluten  is  composed  are  assimilated  in  the  early 


156 


stages  of  growth,  although  they  are  not  put  together  by  the 
plant  in  the  form  of  gluten  until  the  end  of  the  third  period. 
The  nitrogen — the  important  building  material  of  the  gluten 
— is  assimulated  even  more  rapidly  than  the  mineral  matters 
taken  as  a whole;  about  eighty- six  per  cent  of  nitrogen  was 
taken  up  at  the  end  of  the  first  fifty  days.  Next  to  the  nitro- 
gen the  phosphates  were  assimilated  the  most  rapidly.  In 
the  third  period  the  formation  of  the  gluten  is  distinctly 
marked.  At  the  time  the  wheat  was  head-out  about  sixty- 
five  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  was  in  forms  allied  to  gluten, 
about  the  same  amount  as  at  the  end  of  the  first  period,  but 
in  the  third  period  there  is  a change  of  over  twenty  per  cent 
of  the  nitrogen  from  amide  to  gluten  forms. 

Of  all  the  food  that  the  soil  supplies  to  the  wheat  plant 
the  nitrogen  must  be  in  the  most  available  form.  The  chief 
benefits  of  summer  fallow  are  due  to  the  additional  time  and 
more  favorable  conditions  given  for  the  process  of  rendering 
the  nitrogen  available.  In  the  wheat  soils  that  have  been 
under  cultivation  for  ten  years  or  more  there  is  about  a 
quarter  of  one  per  cent  of  nitrogen  present,  but  it  is  not  safe 
to  count  on  more  than  one  per  cent  of  this  as  being  available 
at  any  one  time  for  crop  purposes.  From  thirty-five  to  fifty 
pounds  of  nitrogen  per  acre  are  required  for  an  average  crop 
of  wheat. 

The  opinion  is  held  by  many  that  our  wheat  producing 
soils  are  practically  inexhaustible — that  this  is  not  the  case 
a simple  calculation  will  show.  The  average  prairie  and 
wheat  producing  soils  weigh  about  3,260,000  pounds  per 
acre  to  the  depth  of  one  foot,  and  contains  about  6,500 
pounds  of  nitrogen;  at  least  50  pounds  per  year  of  nitrogen 
is  lost  either  in  the  crop  or  in  various  other  ways.  So  that 
only  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  or  thirty  crops  can  be 
counted  upon  if  all  of  the  nitrogen  in  time  was  to  become 
available  and  none  lost,  which  can  not  be  expected  to  occur 
in  either  case.  Allowing  the  largest  factor  admissable — that 
only  one  per  cent  of  this  nitrogen  can  be  counted  upon  for 
grain  crop  purposes,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  time  when 
the  nitrogen  ceases  to  be  present  in  sufficient  available 
quantities  is  not  such  a great  way  off.  This  question  will 


157 


receive  a more  thorough  discussion  in  the  following  bulletin 
on  the  chemical  composition  of  our  soils. 

Fiber. — The  fiber  (woody  material)  is  formed  largely  in 
the  first  and  second  periods,  and  none  in  the  last  period  ; in 
fact  the  last  period  shows  a slight  loss  which  is  probably 
due  to  the  transformation  of  the  fiber  into  other  allied  forms 
of  carbhydrates,  such  as  starch. 

The  chlorophyl,  fat  and  gums,  designated  as  the  ether 
extract,  forms  such  a hetrogeneous  mixture  that  nothing 
definite  can  be  said  about  them. 

Starch. — The  starch  that  is  stored  up  in  the  seed  is 
formed  mainly  in  the  second  and  third  periods,  a small 
portion  being  formed  well  along  in  the  last  period. 

The  wheat  plant  is  capable  of  doing  a certain  amount  of 
work  and  procuring  its  own  mineral  food,  provided  it  is 
present  in  the  soil ; and  it  is  not  dependent  upon  the  mineral 
food  that  is  simply  offered  to  it  in  solution.  The  wheat 
plant  is  to  be  looked  at  as  a working  organism  and  not  as 
having  its  food  “pumped  into  it.”  One  of  the  best  proofs  that 
we  have  as  to  this  point  is  the  fact  that  the  soil  in  which 
this  wheat  was  grown  contained  more  soluble  lime,  magnesia, 
and  soda,  than  it  did  of  either  potash,  nitrogen  and  phos- 
phates, but  notwithstanding  this  fact  the  wheat  plant  took 
up  much  larger  quantities  of  these  three  elements  than  of  any 
of  the  others  that  were  present  in  the  soil  in  larger  and  more 
soluble  amounts.  In  order  to  accomplish  this,  the  wheat 
plant  must  certainly  have  performed  a certain  amount  of 
work,  not  only  to  procure  the  food  required,  but  also  to  re- 
ject what  was  not  required. 

In  the  following  table  is  given  the  average  draft  of  the 
wheat  crop  upon  the  soil  at  the  rate  of  eighteen  bushels  per 
acre,  and  the  compounds  that  are  removed  separately  in  the 
straw  and  chaff,  and  in  the  grain.  Lessened  yields,  as  during 
the  past  year,  would  of  course  remove  correspondently  less 
amounts. 


158 


TABLE  III. 


Grain. 

Straw. 

Total. 

Total  Mineral  Matters 

22. 

178. 

200. 

Silica  (sand) 

.1 

114. 

114.1 

Potash 

6.5 

26.5 

32. 

Soda 

.1 

3. 

3.1 

Lime 

.7 

6.3 

7. 

Magnesia 

2.8 

2.7 

5.5 

Phosphates 

12.40 

7.6 

20. 

Chlorides 

.1 

1.6 

1.7 

Sulphates 

(2.) 

2.8 

4.8 

Total  Nitrogen 

25. 

10. 

35. 

In  the  table  on  the  following  page  is  given  the  compara- 
tive drafts  of  the  wheat  plant  upon  the  soil  at  each  of  the 
four  periods  of  its  growth.  In  the  first  column  of  figures  for 
each  period  is  given  the  total  weight  in  grams  of  each  of  the 
organic  compounds  and  ash  elements  found  in  nine  hundred 
plants  at  the  end  of  that  period.  In  the  second  column  head- 
ed ‘ 4 Gain”  is  given  the  gain  in  grams  of  weight  for  that  pe- 
riod, and  is  obtained  by  subtracting  the  total  of  the  previous 
period  from  the  total  of  the  period  in  question.  Finally  in 
the  last  column  headed  “Per  cent”,  is  given  the  percentage 
amount  of  the  total,  of  each  element  and  compound,  assimi- 
lated up  to  the  close  of  that  period.  For  comparative  pur- 
poses the  reduction  to  ounces  per  square  rod  is  unnecessary. 
One  ounce  equals  28.3  grams. 


TABLE  IV.—" WHEAT.  ANALRSES  OF  ENTIRE  PLANT. 

Nine  hundred  entire  wheat  plants,  the  average  yield  per  square  yard  of  a good  crop.  All  of  the  weights  in  the  column  headed  “Total’ 


159 


SUMMARY. 


1.  Heavy  weight  seed  wheat  contains  a larger  quantity 
of  more  valuable  food  materials  for  the  young  plant  in  the 
form  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  than  light 
weight  wheat  of  the  same  variety.  This  additional  reserve 
food  is  supplied  to  the  young  plants,  and  produces  a more 
vigorous  growth. 

2.  The  additional  fertilizer  material  that  is  present  in  a 
bushel  of  heavy  weight  wheat  is  worth  from  three  to  five 
cents  more  per  bushel. 

3.  The  same  characteristic  differences  that  are  noted  be- 
tween heavy  and  light  weight  seed  wheat  are  observed  be- 
tween healthy  and  vigorous,  and  poor  and  sickly  wheat 
plants  even  at  the  time  of  harvest. 

4.  The  wheat  plant  takes  up  over  three-fouths  of  its  food 
from  the  soil  before  heading  out. 

5.  The  soil  must  be  cultivated  and  managed  in  such  a way 
so  as  to  supply  the  growing  wheat  crop  with  at  least  three 
fourths  of  its  mineral  food  and  seven-eights  of  its  nitrogen 
before  the  first  of  July. 


University  of  Minnesota. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  No.  30. 

CHEMICAL  DIVISION. 


DECEMBER,  1893. 


SOILS. 

The  Composition  of  Native  and  Cultivated  Soils  and 
the  Effects  of  Continuous  Cultivation  Upon  Their 
Lertility. 


t®“'  The  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the 
State  who  make  application  for  them . 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK , RAMSEY  CO., 

MINNESOTA. 


EAGLE  JOB  PRINT,  DELANO,  MINN. 


University  of  Minnesota 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis,  - - - - - 1896 . 

The  HON.  GREENLEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - - 1894. 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - - 1894 . 

The  HON.  JOHN  LIND,  New  Ulm,  -------  1896. 

The  HON.  JOEL  P.  HEATWOLE,  Northfield,  - - - - 1896 . 

The  HON.  O.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth, - 1896. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson,  -----  1896. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN,  Minneapolis,  ------  1895. 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  B.  A.,  Minneapolis,  - - 1895. 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  St.  Paul, Ex-Officio. 

The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PENDERGAST,  M.  A.,  Hutchinson,  - - Ex-Officio . 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHROP,  LL.  D.,  Minneapolis,  - Ex-Officio . 

The  President  of  the  University. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  J.  S.  PILLSBURY. 

The  HON.  JOHN  LIND. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PENDERGAST. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION: 

WM.  M.  LIGGETT, -----  Chairman. 

WILLET  M.  HAYS,  B.  S.  A.,  - - Vice  Chairman  and  Agriculturist. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S.,  - - - - - - Horticulturist. 

OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  - - - - Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S., Chemist. 

T.  L.  H^ECKER, - Dairy  Husbandry  ► 

M H.  REYNOLDS,  M.  D.,  V.  M.,  -----  - Veterinarian. 

THOS.  SHAW,  - Animal  Husbandry. 

J A.  VYE, Secretary. 


SOILS. 


THE  COMPOSITION  OF  NATIVE  AND  CULTIVATED 
SOILS,  AND  THE  EFFECTS  OF  CONTINUOUS 
CULTIVATION  UPON  THEIR  FERTILITY. 

BY  HARRY  SNYDER. 

Nature  and  Extent  of  the  Work.— During  the  past 
two  years,  1892-1893,  chemical  analyses  have  been  made  of 
many  of  the  cultivated  and  uncultivated  soils  of  the  state. 
Some  of  these  soils  have  been  under  continuous  cultivation 
from  one  to  thirty-five  years,  while  others  from  adjoining 
fields  have  never  been  under  the  plow.  The  conditions  for 
comparison  between  these  cultivated  and  uncultivated  soils 
are  particularly  favorable,  especially  the  prairie  soils  and 
portions  of  the  Red  River  Valley  region,  where  there  are 
townships  in  which  the  soil  is  even  and  uniform,  except  that 
some  sections  and  quarter  sections  have  been  un- 
der cultivation  for  a longer  period  than  others. 
The  differences  in  composition  between  these  cultivated  and 
uncultivated  soils  are  marked,  as  well  as  the  effects  of  differ- 
ent methods  of  treatment;  both  topics  are  discussed  in  this 
hulletin. 

The  soils  that  are  represented  in  this  bulletin  have  been 
sent  in  mainly  by  the  farmers  of  the  state,  some  have  been 
received  from  the  students  of  the  Minnesota  School  of  Agri- 
culture, while  a few  have  been  taken  by  members  of  the  sta- 
tion corps.  In  all  cases  the  soils  have  been  taken  according 
to  uniform  directions  sent  out  from  the  station  laboratory. 
The  farmers  have  taken  much  care  in  the  sampling  of  many 
of  these  soils,  and  to  them  credit  is  due  for  their  share  in  this 
work. 

Along  with  the  samples  of  soil  have  come  a number  of 
important  questions:  “Will this  soil  wear  well?”  “Why  does 
small  grain  lodge  so  badly  on  this  kind  of  soil?”  “Does  this 
soil  contain  enough  of  all  of  the  compounds  essential  for  the 
growth  of  our  farm  crops?”  “Is  there  enough  phosphates 
in  this  soil  for  successful  wheat  growing?”  “Why  do  our 


164 


old  and  cultivated  soils  dry  out  so  much  more  readily  than 
new  soils?’ ’ “What  is  the  alkali  in  this  soil  and  how  can  it 
be  cured?”  “Is  the  lessened  yields  of  wheat  for  the  past  few 
years  due  to  the  giving  out  of  the  soil?”  These,  and  many 
more  of  the  same  nature,  are  the  questions  that  the  farmers 
send  in  with  their  samples  of  soil. 

We  are  well  aware  of  the  various  views  that  are  held  in 
regard  to  the  value  of  soil  analyses,  and  it  is  not  the  inten- 
tion in  this  bulletin  to  enter  into  the  discussion.  The  com- 
plete chemical  and  physical  analyses  of  the  native  and  culti- 
vated soils,  however,  have  given  valuable  information  as  to 
the  effects  of  continuous  cultivation  and  different  methods  of 
rotation  that  will  be  of  benefit  to  the  farmers. 

In  all,  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  samples  have  been 
analyzed,  and  in  this  bulletin  only  a few  typical  cases  are  se- 
lected in  order  to  illustrate  the  various  points  under  discus- 
sion. These  points  have  been  verified  in  a number  of  similar 
cases  so  that  the  reader  in  following  this  work  is  not  consid- 
ering just  one  single  case  as  it  might  appear,  but  the  results 
of  a number  of  similar  cases.  Long  tables  and  pages  of  chem- 
ical analyses,  necessary  as  they  are,  do  not  make  very  good 
general  reading  matter,  and  in  this  report  they  are  embodied 
as  little  as  possible. 

Analyses  have  been  made  of  both  the  top  and  the  sub- 
soil, in  all  cases;  the  top  soil  has  been  taken  down  to  a 
depth  of  about  nine  inches,  or  until  a change  in  color  between 
the  soil  and  sub-soil  was  observed.  The  sub-soils  furnish 
such  a large  amount  of  plant  food  that  their  chemical  and 
physical  properties  are  equally  important  as  in  the  case  of  the 
top  soil. 

At  the  outset,  it  can  be  said  that  our  soils,  with  some  ex- 
ceptions, are  well  supplied  with  all  of  the  necessary  mineral 
food  for  farm  crops,  in  forms  that  can  be  rendered  available 
by  good  cultivation,  provided  that  the  soils  are  kept  in  good 
condition  by  grass  crops  a~d  rotation  so  that  the  plant  food 
is  present  in  available  conditions. 


RED  RIVER  VALLEY  SOILS. 

The  average  top  soil  in  the  Red  River  Valley  ranges  from 
eighteen  to  thirty-six  inches  in  depth,  is  black  in  color,  very 
sticky  when  wet,  and  when  dry  it  crumbles  to  a very  fine 
powder.  The  particles  which  compose  this  soil  are  very  fine; 
all  are  less  than  V^oth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  in  some 
cases  even  less  than  Aiooth  of  an  inch.  There  are  no  coarse 
particles  (skeleton)  in  most  of  these  soils.  The  native  soils 
are  very  rich  in  decaying  vegetable  and  other  organic  mat- 
ters, largely  due  to  the  accumulation  of  the  crop  residues  of 
the  native  grasses.  When  these  vegetable  and  other  organic 
matters  have  reached  an  intermediate  point  in  their  decom- 
position, the}^  form  a class  of  valuable  compounds  known  as 
humus,  and  when  the  virgin  soils  are  cultivated  for  a number 
of  years,  the  humus  is  gradually  consumed  by  being  still  far- 
ther decomposed.  In  the  uncultivated  soils  there  is  usually 
about  five  per  cent  of  humus,  while  in  the  cultivated  soils 
there  is  usually  less  than  three  per  cent.  The  humus  is  very 
rich  in  nitrogen,  the  important  building  material  out  of 
which  the  gluten  in  wheat  and  grains  is  constructed;  and 
when  the  humus  decreases  the  nitrogen  decreases  as  well  and 
is  lost  from  the  soil.  The  native  soils  contain  from  .35  to 
.40  of  a per  cent  of  nitrogen,  while  the  soils  that  have  been 
under  continuous  cultivation  for  twelve  or  fifteen  years,  con- 
tain from  .2  to  .3  of  a per  cent.  This  is  a very  unfortunate 
occurrence  because  nitrogen  is  the  most  expensive  material 
of  all  of  the  elements  necessary  for  plant  food. 

The  effects  of  the  humus  on  the  capacity  of  the  soil  to  re- 
tain its  water  and  withstand  the  evil  effects  of  drought  are 
marked;  the  native  soils  will  retain  about  twenty  per  cent 
more  water  than  the  long  cultivated  soils,  and  will  not  dry 
out  as  readily  during  droughty  seasons  as  the  older  and  long 
cultivated  soils.  Another  important  point:  when  the  humus 
is  taken  out  of  the  native  soils  during  the  process  of  analyses, 
from  .06  to  .08  of  a per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  is  soluble  and 
associated  with  it;  while  only  about  .02  of  a per  cent  is  in 
this  form  with  the  long  cultivated  soils.  Phosphoric  acid  in 
this  form  is  very  valuable  as  plant  food.  There  is  a good 
supply  of  phosphates  in  all  of  these  soils,  but  we  must  keep 


166 


Tip  the  supply  of  humus  in  order  to  keep  the  phosphates 
available. 

In  the  analyses  reported,  the  average  amount  of  potash 
is  given  as  about  one-half  of  one  per  cent, — this  is  not  the 
total  potash  that  is  in  these  soils,  in  fact  there 
is  about  one  and  three-quarters  of  a per  cent  in 
all,  but  one  and  a quarter  per  cent,  or  over  two 
thirds  of  the  total  cannot  be  counted  upon  for  crop  purposes 
because  it  is  combined  with  the  silica  (sand)  in  the  form  of 
minute  stony  particles,  that  require  the  strongest  chemicals 
and  the  highest  heat  that  can  be  procured  in  the  laboratory 
to  decompose  them.  The  tables  only  give  the  amounts  of 
plant  food  that  are  soluble  in  hot  muriatic  acid,  and 
is  just  about  the  amount  that  plants  can  reasonably  be  ex- 
pected to  procure.  Each  sample  has  been  analyzed  twice, 
and  in  some  cases  three  times,  using  solvents  that  possess 
different  degress  of  solvent  power,  in  order  to  determine  the 
forms  in  which  the  mineral  matters  are  present  in  the  soil. 
The  results  given  are  based  on  all  the  analyses  and  not  sim- 
ply on  just  those  that  are  reported. 

There  is  not  a great  deal  of  true  sand  in  these  soils;  in 
some  localities  there  is  more  than  in  others.  None  of  the 
soils  that  are  reported,  except  those  that  are  some  distance 
east  of  the  river,  contain  more  than  two  per  cent  of  true 
sand;  nearly  all  of  the  silica  is  combined  with  the  aluminia 
to  form  clay,  or  with  the  potash,  soda,  and  lime  to  form 
complex  silicates.  The  lime  is  present  mainly  in  the  form  of 
carbonate  of  lime — limestone  particles,  a little  is  in  the  form 
of  gyps  um.  All  of  these  soils  are  well  supplied  with  lime  and 
magnesia,  especially  the  sub-soils  that  have  a greyish  color 
usually  contain  from  20  to  30  per  cent  of  lime  and  magnesi- 
um carbonates.  It  is  partly  due  to  the  abundance  of  lime  in 
these  soils  that  they  owe  their  remarkable  fertility.  The  dry 
soils  range  in  weight  from  62  to  66  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 
The  native  soils  contain  more  of  organic  matter  and  weigh 
less  than  the  well  cultivated  soils.  In  the  native  soils  there 
are  from  8 to  15  pounds  of  organic  matter  in  every  100  pounds 
of  the  air-dry  soil,  while  with  the  long  cultivated  soils  there 
are  from  5 to  8 pounds  of  organic  matter  per  100  of  soil. 
The  85  to  90  pounds  of  mineral  matter  in  the  native  soils 
does  not  always  contain  quite  as  much  mineral  matter  as 
the  95  pounds  in  the  long  cultivated  soils.  The  samples  are 
not  compared  on  quite  equal  bases  to  show  the  full  extent 
of  the  losses  during  cultivation  because  in  the  cultivated 
soils,  the  aluminia,  iron  oxide,  etc.,  appear  to  increase;  this 
is  because  the  humus  is  decomposed  and  decreases  so  rapidly. 
If  the  cultivated  and  uncultivated  soils  were  all  calculated  to 


167 


a uniform  basis  as  to  the  amount  of  humus,  that  would  not 
represent  the  true  conditions  of  the  present  state  of  the  soil, 
and  would  require  a duplication  of  all  of  the  tables  in  this 
work,  which  is  not  necessary;  but  even  allowing  this  factor, 
the  losses  of  the  phosphates,  potash,  and  particularly  the 
nitrogen  are  quite  noticeable.  The  cultivation  of  these  soils 
has  aided  in  the  decomposition  of  the  silicates,  but  the  drafts 
of  the  grain  crops  have  been  greater  than  the  amount  that 
is  annually  liberated. 

The  potash,  soda  and  aluminia  and  a part  of  the  lime, 
are  present  in  the  form  of  double  hydrated  silicates,  called 
zeolites — forms  that  are  available  for  plant  food,  and  yet  in- 
soluble in  water  and  not  easily  lost  from  the  soils. 

The  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  by  Prof.  Hays  in  1890, 
on  these  soils,  did  not  show  any  marked  increase  in  the  3deld 
of  grain,  and  yet  neither  the  fertilized  nor  the  unfertilized 
plots  gave  as  heavy  yields  as  when  the  ground  was  first 
broken.  The  fertilizers  used  did  not  supply  any  humus,  and 
the  mineral  food  that  was  supplied  in  the  fertilizer  did  not 
increase  the  yield  of  grain.  Both  analyses  and  fertilizer  ex- 
periments show  that  these  soils  are  well  supplied  with 
mineral  food,  but  the  analyses  show  that  the  humus  is  de- 
creasing. 

The  continual  cropping  of  these  soils  is  not  telling  so 
heavily  on  the  mineral  matters  as  it  is  on  the  humus  that  is 
in  the  soil,  and  with  the  loss  of  humus  follows  the  decrease 
in  nitrogen,  the  capacity  of  the  soil  to  retain  its  water  and 
withstand  drought,  and  finally  in  the  loss  of  the  phos- 
phoric acid  in  available  forms.  The  crop  residues  from  grain 
crops  is  not  active  enough  in  decomposing  to  serve  as  humus. 
The  supply  of  humus  can  be  kept  up  by  occasional  grass 
crops,  well  prepared  farm  manures,  and  occasional  green 
manuring. 

These  are  points  that  are  to  receive  their  due  attention 
from  the  present  agriculturist  of  the  station. 

Alkali  Soils. — In  this  region  little  patches  of  alkali,  an 
eighth  of  an  acre  or  so  in  size,  are  occasionally  observed. 
These  alkali  patches  are  sources  of  trouble,  because  in  the 
spring  of  the  year  when  the  land  is  wet  these  patches  can 
not  be  observed,  and  consequently  much  labor  and  seed  is 
spent  upon  them  without  any  immediate  returns.  The 
alkali  in  one  of  these  soils  near  Crookston  was  found  to  be 
sodium  carbonate.  The  alkali  was  all  near  the  surface. 
These  plots  should  be  ploughed  very  deep  and  the  land  well 
drained.  Heavy  manuring,  especially  with  horse  manure 
that  is  well  rotted,  gives  good  results.  The  horse  manure 
when  it  decomposes  furnishes  humic  and  other  acids  that 


168 


unite  with  the  alkali.  The  humus  also  prevents  rapid  sur- 
face evaporation,  and  thus  aids  in  preventing  the  alkali  from 
accumulating  near  the  surface.  When  horse  manure  can  not 
be  procured,  green  manuring  will  be  beneficial.  This  method 
of  treatment  has  been  followed  by  a number  of  people  in  this 
region,  and  the  results  have  been  4 ‘large  yields  per  acre  of 
wheat  and  oats.’ ’ When  these  alkali  spots  are  well  cured 
they  are  excellent  soils,  and  will  withstand  drought  even 
better  than  many  other  soils.  The  analyses  of  an  alkali  soil 
is  given  in  the  table. 

Occasionally  the  alkali  consists  of  sodium  sulphate,  com- 
monly known  as  Glauber’s  salt,  and  then  again  of  common 
salt.  These  last  two  substances  are  not  so  difficult  to  con- 
tend with  as  the  sodium  carbonate  (salsoda).  When  these 
patches  are  located  so  that  they  can  be  well  drained  at  com- 
paratively little  expense,  this  should  be  done,  and  it  will  be 
found  to  be  one  of  the  best  and  most  permanent  ways  of  re- 
lief. These  alkaline  compounds  are  all  soluble  in  water,  and 
thus  in  time  will  be  washed  out  of  the  soil,  provided  that  the 
spots  are  well  drained.  Where  the  spots  are  small,  a large 
amount  of  the  alkali  can  be  removed  by  scraping  off  the  top 
in  dry  times  and  carting  the  alkali  scrapings  away.  In  very 
dry  times  the  first  inch  of  the  soil  will  contain  from  20  to  30 
per  cent  of  the  total  alkali  that  is  in  the  soil.  The  deep 
ploughing  affords  relief  by  removing  the  alkali  from  the  sur- 
face where  it  destroys  the  young  and  tender  roots  of  plants. 

These  soils  will  improve  with  every  crop  that  is  removed; 
and  when  cured  will  produce  crops  that  will  repay  all  of  the 
time  and  labor  that  has  been  spent. 

Gumbo  Soils. — This  is  the  popular  term  applied  to  a 
certain  class  of  very  heavy  soils,  that  are  “waxy”  when  wet 
and  through  which  water  percolates  with  much  difficulty. 
The  particles  that  compose  these  soils  are  very  fineness  than 
i/footh  of  an  inch  in  size;  there  is  no  true  sand  present. 
These  soils  are  rich  in  alkaline  compounds,  particularly 
potassium  salts.  It  is  the  alkali  in  these  soils  that  gives 
rise  to  the  soapy  and  waxy  appearance  and  “feel”  when 
wet.  They  fail  to  scour  the  plow  on  account  of  the  absence 
of  true  sand  and  the  fineness  of  division  of  the  soil  particles. 
There  is  too  much  of  the  rich  alkaline  salts  present.  Lime 
fertilizers  and  amendments  are  not  applicable  to  these  soils 
as  they  will  only  make  matters  worse  by  rendering  the  soils 
more  waxy.  As  yet,  no  cheap  chemicals  can  be  suggested 
for  their  improvement.  They  will  improve  with  cultivation, 
the  deeper  the  better,  and  with  the  loss  of  the  alkali  from  the 
soil  that  is  removed  in  the  crops.  They  are  especially 
adapted  for  grass  and  hay  crops. 


169 


Marshy  and  Peaty  Soils.— The  soils  from  the  low 
marshy  places  along  the  water  courses  are  unusually  rich  in 
organic  matter.  They  are  easily  reclaimed  on  account  of  the 
large  amount  of  lime  that  is  present  that  prevents  the  form- 
ation of  “sour  mould. ” One  peaty  soil  contained  over  fifty 
per  cent  of  organic  matter;  it  would  not  require  much  more 
combustible  matter  to  make  a good  fuel  peat.  There  are 
large  tracts  of  this  land  being  opened  up  by  making  large 
drains  through  the  Beltrami  and  other  marshes. 

In  the  table  of  analyses -reported,  the  figures  given  are 
the  number  of  pounds,  or  fractions  thereof,  of  potash,  lime, 
etc.,  that  are  present  in  every  hundred  pounds  of  the  soil,  or 
the  amount  that  is  in  every  one  and  two-thirds  cubic  feet  of 
these  soils.  The  figures  show  that  in  every  hundred  pounds 
of  the  top  soils,  there  is  on  the  average,  a little  over  half  a 
pound  of  potash,  two  and  one  half  pounds  of  lime,  over  a 
third  of  a pound  of  phosphates  and  nitrogen,  together  with 
larger  amounts  of  silica,  aluminia,  etc., as  noted  in  the  table. 
No  exact  figures  can  be  set  down  as  to  just  how  much  or 
how  little  every  soil  should  contain,  suffice  it  to  say,  how- 
ever, that  all  of  the  necessary  mineral  elements  are  present 
in  much  larger  amounts  than  the  limits  usually  allowed  for 
any  one  compound. 

Soil  samples  number  298,  299,  203,  and  204  were  taken 
from  Marshall  county,  about  five  miles  west  from  Warren. 
Sample  203  has  never  been  under  the  plow  while  298  is  from 
an  adjoining  plot  that  has  been  under  cultivation  for  ten 
years.  Analyses  of  the  corresponding  sub-soils  are  given. 

Soil  samples  202,  205,  236  and  237  are  from  Polk 
county,  four  miles  west  from  Crookston  in  the  direction  of 
Fisher;  202  is  a sample  of  native  soil,  while  236,  from  an 
adjoining  plot,  has  raised  ten  crops  of  small  grain.  The 
composition  of  the  corresponding  sub-soils  is  given  ; sample 
201  is  a fair  example  ol  “alkali  soil,”  taken  a short  distance 
east  from  Crookston,  while  272  is  a type  of  “Gumbo,”  taken 
north-west  from  Crookston. 

Prof.  Hays, who  has  had  much  experience  in  the  working 
of  these  soils  from  the  Red  River  Valley  says  “that  they  do 
not  puddle  and  bake  like  many  clay  soils,  that  when  puddled 
and  then  dried,  a little  rain,  or  even  the  moisture  absorbed 
from  the  air  will  cause  the  lumps  to  slake  like  lime.” 


TABLE!.— SOILS  PROM  THE  RED  RIVER  VALLEY. 


170 


171 


In  order  to  complete  the  series,  three  additional  types  of 
soil  are  added.  One  from  Twin  Valley,  Norman  connty,  of  a 
sandy  nature,  which  is  particular^  noticeable  as  regards  the 
combined  silica  This  soil  has  produced  seven  crops  of 
wheat  and  oats  with  one  year  of  fallow.  Samples  308  and 
309  are  from  Gossen,  Polk  Co.;  this  soil  has  raised  eight  crops 
of  grain.  It  is  not  as  sandy  as  the  sample  from  Twin  Valley  ; 
the  sub-soil  is  more  of  a clayey  nature.  The  sample  from 
Moorhead  is  a type  of  the  soils  near  the  river,  it  has  raised 
six  crops  in  all,  and  in  chemical  composition  is  more  like 
the  soils  from  the  places  given'in  the  following  table. 

TABLE  II. 


Where  from 

Twin 

Valley. 

1 

Gossen. 

Moorhead. 

Top  Soil  and  Snb-Soil 

Number  of  Soil  

Top 

306 

1 Sub 
I 307 

To  p 
308 

Sub 

309 

To  p 
275 

Sub 

276 

Weight  per  cubic  foot 

81 . 

87.7 

; 75.8 

85. 

65.2 

65.2 

Fine  Earth 

100. 

100. 

98. 

98. 

100. 

100. 

Skeleton  

.02 

.02 

Humus  

2.12 

3.16 

4.04 

Capacitv  to  retain  water 

48. 

39. 

57. 

43. 

70. 

56. 

Total  Nitrogen 

.14 

.06 

.25 

.09 

.37 

.IT 

Phosphates  associated  with  humus 

.03 

.03 

.05 

Insoluble  sand  and  Silicates 

' 87.74 

90.36 

74.36 

66.53 

59.19 

45.06 

Combined  Silica 

3.41 

3.19 

5.44 

14.11 

12.02 

16.43: 

Potash 

.18 

.17 

.30 

.30 

.73 

.81 

Soda 

.21 

.18 

.18 

.20 

.44 

.27 

Lime ~. 

.48 

.44 

1.20 

1.22 

1.29 

8.84 

Magnesia 

.25 

.24 

.80 

.74 

.39 

3.02 

Iron  Oxide 

1 .41 

1.38 

2.30 

3.52 

4.07 

4.22 

Aluminia 

1.63 

1.67 

4.77 

6.31 

9.33 

10.20- 

Phosphates 

.13 

.20 

.19 

.20 

.20 

.27 

Sulphates 

.13 

.10 

.11 

.06 

.09 

.09' 

Carbonates 

.14 

.11 

.10 

7.22 

Chlorides 

.01 

.01 

.01 

.01 

.01 

.01 

Volatile 

4.50 

1.72 

9.67 

5.30 

12.05 

2.61 

Total 

100.08 

99.66 

99.47 

98.62 

99.91 

99.04 

WESTERN  AND  CENTRAL  PRAIRIE  SOILS. 


The  prairie  soils  of  the  Western  and  Central  portion  of 
the  state  differ  quite  materially  in  the  way  in  which  the 
plant  food  is  stored  up,  as  compared  with  the  soils  from  the 
Red  River  Valley  region.  The  soil  particles  are  a little  larger, 
and  there  is  more  silica  in  the  form  of  sand.  Some  of  the 
soils  are  of  a more  sandy  nature  than  others,  and  in  some 
localities  a number  of  different  types  of  soil  will  be  found  on 
the  same  farm.  In  the  soil  work,  it  has  been  the  aim  to  in- 
clude samples  of  all  of  the  types.  The  most  general  type 
that  we  have  to  deal  with  is  the  black  prairie  soil  ranging 
from  one  to  three  feet  in  depth  resting  upon  a layer  of  yellow 
clay.  The  top  soils  are  lighter  and  weigh  from  70  to  75 
pounds  per  cubic  foot  when  perfectly  dry ; when  of  a sandy 
nature  the  weight  is  greater.  The  yellow  sub-soils  range  in 
weight  from  75  to  85  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  depending  upon 
the  proportion  of  sand  and  clay  that  is  present. 

These  soils  are  quite  well  supplied  with  lime,  although 
not  to  such  a liberal  extent  as  the  soils  already  referred  to; 
there  is  a sufficient  amount,  however,  for  all  ordinary  de- 
mands provided  that  the  soils  are  not  too  severely  taxed  in 
any  one  line  of  crop  raising.  The  sub-soils  are  somewhat 
better  supplied  with  both  potash  and  lime  than  the  topsoils, 
while  the  top  soils  are  more  liberally  supplied  with  phos- 
phates, humus,  and  nitrogen.  In  the  management  of  farm 
crops  this  fact  should  be  kept  well  in  mind,  and  the  crops 
rotated  in  such  a way  that  the  potash  and  lime  in  the  sub- 
soil, and  the  phosphates  and  nitrogen  in  the  top  soil  are  al- 
ternately and  evenly  drawn  upon.  Clover,  provided  its 
growth  is  made  a success,  is  an  excellent  crop  for  this  pur- 
pose, also  field  peas. 

The  continuous  cropping  of  these  soils  is  telling  upon  the 
humus  in  the  same  way  as  with  the  soils  already  referred  to. 
In  some  cases  the  nitrogen  is  less  than  .20  of  a per  cent.  As 
a good  illustration  of  this  point,  take  for  an  example,  the 
sample  of  prairie  soil  (No.  224,  Table  III.)  that  has  never 
been  under  cultivation,  compare  it  with  sample  No.  312 
taken  from  an  adjoining  plot  that  has  raised  ten  successive 
crops  of  wheat  and  note  how  the  humus  and  total  nitrogen 
have  decreased,  a smaller  amount  of  phosphates  associated 


178 


with  the  humus,  and  finally  how  the  soil  has  decreased  in 
ability  to  retain  its  water. 

The  loss  of  the  humus  and  the  other  organic  matters 
from  the  cultivated  soils  will  soon  be  felt  in  another  way. 
When  the  humus  and  other  organic  matters  decompose  they 
furnish  liberal  amounts  of  carbon  dioxide  to  the  air  that  is 
in  the  pores  of  the  soil.  This  carbon  dioxide,  the  same  gas 
that  is  given  off  in  respired  air,  acts  upon  the  complex 
mineral  matters  and  aids  in  rendering  them  available  as 
plant  food.  In  one  sample  of  native  prairie  soil  containing 
four  per  cent  of  humus,  there  was  produced  during  the  six 
months’  trial,  .84  per  cent  of  free  carbon  dioxide,  over  twenty 
times  the  amount  that  is  in  the  air  that  we  breath.  A 
sample  of  long  cultivated  soil  with  1.84  per  cent  humus,  gave 
.21  per  cent  carbon  dioxide,  while  a sample  of  sandy  soil 
with  but  little  organic  matter  gave  only  .09  of  a per  cent  of 
carbon  dioxide.  The  humus  in  the  soil  aids  in  keeping  up 
the  supply  of  carbon  dioxide,  which  is  one  of  the  active 
chemical  agents  that  renders  the  plant  food  available. 

Since  the  nitrogen  decreases  so  rapidly  in  the  cultivated 
soils,  we  naturally  ask — “what  becomes  of  it?’’  One  of  the 
chief  causes  of  the  rapid  decrease  of  the  humus  and  nitrogen 
from  the  new  soil,  is  the  unusual  activity  of  the  micro 
organism  in  these  soils  in  producing  nitrates  and  nitrites. 
This  is  extremely  beneficial  to  the  growing  crop  while  it  lasts, 
but  the  trouble  is,  it  is  too  active  at  first,  producing  too 
rank  a growth  of  straw,  and  then  is  not  active  enough 
when  the  soils  become  older.  These  micro  organisms  which 
take  such  an  important  part  in  rendering  plant  food  avail- 
able, perform  their  work  under  the  most  favorable  con- 
ditions, being  well  supplied  with  phosphates,  nitrogenous 
matter,  lime,  and  other  alkaline  compounds.  The  soil  ex- 
tracts (leachings)  from  ten  samples  of  soil  produced  nitrifi- 
cation in  a sterile  ammonium  chloride  solution  in  from  one 
to  five  days. 

The  indirect  action  of  land  plaster  (gypsum)  on  these 
soils  in  liberating  plant  food,  particularly  potash  and  phos- 
phoric acid,  is  unusually  marked.  Experiments  conducted 
in  the  laboratory  have  shown  that  small  amounts  of  gyp- 
sum are  quite  active  in  rendering  potash,  phosphoric  acid, 
and  even  nitrogen  soluble  in  the  soil  water.  It  is  not  the 
land  plaster,  itself,  that  furnishes  the  food,  but  it  is  the 
power  that  it  possesses  in  making  the  mineral  matters  avail- 
able, that  are  already  in  the  soil.  Land  plaster  acts  more 
as  a stimulant  and  not  as  a direct  fertilizer,  and  if  not  used 
to  excess  it  will  be  a profitable  fertilizer  to  use  on  these  soils 
especially  to  bring  in  grass  and  clover. 


174 


The  association  of  the  phosphates  and  the  humus  in 
these  soils  is  marked.  In  the  native  soils  from  .05  to  .06  of 
a per  cent  of  phosphates  is  associated  with  the  humus,  while 
only  .01  to  .02  of  a per  cent  is  present  in  that  form  in  the 
continuously  grain  cultivated  soils. 

Soil  sample  number  224  is  a good  type  of  the  native 
prairie  soil.  It  is  from  Marshall,  Lyon  county,  and  has 
never  been  under  cultivation,  while  sample  312  has  been 
under  continuous,  cultivation  mainly  to  wheat,  for  ten  years. 
Sample  number  222  is  from  Sleepy  Eye,  Brown  county,  and 
has  raised  five  grain  crops  with  one  year  fallow.  The  soil 
from  Sacred  Heart,  number  259,  has  been  cultivated  for 
twenty-two  years.  Instead  of  continuous  wheat,  oats,  corn, 
and  other  grains  have  been  grown,  with  an  occasional  grass 
crop,  and  frequent  applications  of  farm  manures.  Although 
there  is  no  native  soil  from  the  same  locality  to  compare  it 
with,  yet  the  humus  and  the  nitrogen  in  this  soil  are  as  high 
as  in  most  of  the  soils  that  have  produced  only  half  as  many 
crops.  The  good  treatment  of  this  soil  has  shown  itself  as 
plainly  as  the  good  treatment  of  a farm  animal. 

Soil  number  249  is  a sample  that  has  produced  flax  for 
a number  of  years,  “until  the  flax  won’t  grow  any  more. ,y 
The  total  nitrogen  is  a little  lower  than  in  most  of  the  soils 
of  this  nature,  but  the  amount  that  remains  would  be  called 
very  high  for  some  localities,  and  is  far  from  indicating  an 
exhausted  soil. 

Sample  number  298  is  from  Grafton,  Sibley  county;  it  has 
produced  seven  crops  including  one  crop  of  flax,  and  has 
been  fallow  one  year. 

Another  type  of  soils  frequently  met  with,  is  the  re- 
claimed soils  bordering  on  the  edges  of  the  numerous  lakes 
of  the  central  portion  of  the  state,  and  those  soils  that  are 
commonly  known  as  old  lake  bottoms,  formed  by  the  filling 
up  and  draining  of  old  lakes  and  water  courses.  Two  types 
of  these  soils  are  given.  Number  326  is  reclaimed  land  from 
the  border  of  the  lake  at  Worthington,  Nobles  county,  and 
has  been  under  high  cultivation  for  about  nine  years,  and  in 
addition  to  its  stock  of  native  fertility  has  received  very 
liberal  dressings  of  farm  manure.  Soils  of  this  class  are 
particularly  rich  in  limestone,  the  sub  soil  frequently  con- 
taining from  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent  of  this  material. 


TABLE  III.— WESTERN  AND  CENTRAL  PRAIRIE  SOILS. 


175 


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176 


Sample  number  214  is  from  Benson,  Swift  county,  it  is 
not  one  of  the  typical  prairie  soils,  but  belongs  more  to  that 
class  of  old  “lake  basin”  soils.  Both  the  top  soil  and  the 
sub-soil  are  characteristically  rich  in  limestone.  These  sub- 
soils are  usually  of  a greyish  color,  and  do  not  show  the 
characteristic  yellow  color  of  most  of  the  prairie  sub- 
soils. These  soils  contain  limestone  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  show  a marked  effervescence  when  treated  with  acids, and 
it  can  even  be  observed  when  strong  vinegar  is  poured  on 
them. 

TABLE  IV. 


Where  from 

Top  Soil  and  Sub-Soil 

Number  of  Soil 

Weight  per  cubic  foot 

Fine  Earth 

Skeleton 

Humus 

Capacity  to  retain  water 

Total  Nitrogen 

Phosphates  associated  with  Humus. 

Insoluble  Sand  and  Silicates 

Combined  Silica 

Potash 

Soda 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Iron  (oxide) 

Aluminia 

Phosphates 

Sulphates 

Carbonates 


Total 


Worthington. 

Benson. 

Top 

Sub 

. 1 
Top  | 

Sub 

326 

327 

214  | 
1 

215 

72. 

75. 

70. 

72. 

100. 

100. 

100. 

100. 

4.39 

2.06  ' 

71. 

45. 

56. 

51. 

.37 

.01 

.24 

.07 

.07 

.05 

62.46 

45.84 

54.25 

57.87 

12.22 

15.97 

8.13 

8.04 

.36 

.22 

.46 

.20 

• 

CO 

.44 

.37 

.32 

1.06 

11.33 

13.56 

12.08 

.82 

1.72 

2.57 

.27 

1.86 

3.28 

1.41 

2.24 

6.07 

7.46 

3.34 

4.90 

.65 

.25 

.27 

.26 

.21 

.08 

.04 

.06 

.37 

10.94 

10.40 

9.82 

.01 

.01 

.02 

.02 

. 13.19 

1.56 

4.80 

2.18 

! 99.56 

99.10 

99.62 

98.23 

Chlorides. 

Volatile... 


SOIL  SAMPLES  FROM  NORTHERN  CENTRAL  POINTS. 


Soil  sample  number  208  is  from  Fergus  Falls,  Otter  Tail 
county.  It  has  produced  ten  crops  of  wheat.  The  top  soil 
is  a black  loam,  about  twelve  inches  in  depth,  and  shows 
the  presence  of  a little  sand.  It  has  no  tendency  to  cake  and 
lump  when  dry.  The  top  soil  is  a little  weak  in  potash,  but 
the  sub-soil  is  sufficiently  rich  to  make  up  for  this  want. 
The  high  phosphoric  acid  in  the  top  soil,  and  such  a liberal 
amount  of  it  in  available  forms,  speaks  well  for  the  future 
fertility  of  these  soils.  Soil  sample  number  292  is  from  Hen- 
ning, the  eastern  portion  of  the  same  county.  It  was  origin- 
ally an  oak  and  hard  wood  clearing, and  has  raised  five  crops 
of  wheat.  The  top  soil  averages  about  fourteen  inches  in 
depth  and  then  follows  ayellow  clay  sub-soil  that  is  richer  in 
potash  and  phosphates.  A somewhat  larger  per  cent  of 
lime  is  noted  in  the  top  soil;  this  is  a point  that  appears 
quite  general  with  the  analysis  of  oak  soils.  Timothy  is  re- 
ported as  thriving  well  on  this  soil,  but  quite  frequently 
difficulty  is  reported  in  getting  clover  started.  The  surface 
soil  appears  to  be  the  weakest  in  potash  of  any  of  the  neces- 
sary  minerals,  and  young  clover  requires  a good  supply  of  it 
to  get  started.  Gypsum,  will  no  doubt  aid  the  clover  in 
getting  a start,  and  as  soon  as  the  clover  roots  reach  down 
into  the  sub-soil  then  a liberal  supply  will  be  found. 

Soil  number  210  is  from  Alexandria,  Douglas  county, 
and  has  produced  eight  successive  crops  of  wheat.  This  soil 
sample  is  selected  because  it  is  a good  type  of  the  sandy, 
gravelly  sub-soils;  it  consists  of  about  half  fine  gravel.  Good 
clay  sub-soils  are  equally  as  common  in  this  locality.  The 
top  soil  has  a good  supply  of  humus,  and  shows  a corre- 
spondingly good  capacity  for  retaining  water.  This  land 
was  originally  a lumber  tract,  and  is  a black  loam,  sandy  in 
character  as  is  shown  in  the  analysis. 

Soil  number  245  is  from  Wadena,  Wadena  county;  it  is  a 
black  sandy  loam;  has  produced  five  successive  crops  of 
wheat.  The  soil  particles  are  a little  coarser  than  those 
from  the  south-western  portion  of  the  state.  All  of  the  soil 
particles  are  less  than  %oth  of  an  inch,  and  about  twenty 


178 


per  cent  are  less  than  V^oth  of  an  inch.  Even  in  these  soils  of  a 
slight  sandy  nature  there  is  a good  native  stock  of  lime  and 
phosphates;  more  so  than  is  usually  found  in  sandy  loam 
soils.  The  top  soil  contains  about  three  per  cent  more  of 
organic  matter  in  the  form  of  humus  than  the  sub-soil,  and 
retains  one-fifth  more  water  in  its  pores. 

Soil  sample  number  230  is  from  Park  Rapids,  Hubbard 
county.  It  is  a black  sandy  soil  of  about  two  feet  in  depth, 
— the  sub-soil  is  of  a yellow  sandy  nature.  The  top  soil  con- 
tains about  five  per  cent  of  combustible  matter  and  humus, 
while  the  sub-soil  contains  only  about  a half  of  a per  cent. 
The  top  soil  and  sub-soil  particles  are  of  about  the  same  size. 
The  top  soil,  which  is  about  ten  times  richer  in  decaying 
vegetable  matters,  retains  over  two-thirds  more  water 
than  the  sub-soil.  This  soil  shows  the  good  effects  of  the 
humus  and  vegetable  matters  in  retaining  the  water  in  the 
soil,  as  well  as  any  other  example  that  is  reported  in  this 
work.  This  soil  has  produced  five  consecutive  crops  of  wheat 
and  according  to  some  ideas  and  books,  it  would  not  be  put 
down  as  a wheat  producing  soil;  but  notwithstanding  this 
fact  it  has  produced,  and  still  continues  to  produce,  good 
crops  of  wheat.  The  supply  of  humus  and  vegetable  matter 
must  be  kept  up  in  this  soil. 

Soil  sample  273  is  from  Fair  Haven,  Stearns  county;  it 
was  originally  an  oak  clearing.  The  soil  is  six  years  old  and 
has  been  treated  to  a good  rotation  of  corn,  oats,  millet  and 
wheat.  The  sub-soil  is  a yellow  clay  with  some  disposition 
to  lump ; it  is  not  of  a hard-pan  nature  nor  impervious  to 
water.  The  six  years’  rotation  cultivation  has  left  this  soil 
in  good  condition,  and  as  far  as  humus  and  nitrogen  are 
concerned,  compares  favorably  with  the  various  examples  of 
native  soils  that  are  reported. 


TABLE  V.— SOIL  SAMPLES  FROM  NORTHERN  CENTRAL  POINTS. 


179 


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SOIL  SAMPLES  FROM  NORTH-EASTERN  MINNESOTA. 


Soil  sample  number  216  is  from  Mille  Lacs,  and  is  a fair 
representative  of  the  pine  forest  soils.  This  section  has  been 
occasionally  burned  over  by  forest  fires,  and  hence  the 
analysis  does  not  show  the  full  amount  of  humus  and  nitro- 
gen that  would  otherwise  be  present  in  localities  that  have 
not  been  burned  over,  and  where  the  leaves  and  dead 
branches  have  rotted  and  formed  humus.  Frequent  and  de- 
structive forest  fires  will  seriously  decrease  the  agricultural 
value  of  these  soils.  The  soil  particles  are  extremely  fine. 
There  is  a furrow  slice  of  black  top  soil  overlaying  a yellow- 
ish sandy  sub-soil  that  contain  a very  little  true  clay.  This 
soil  is  atypical  pine  producing  soil,  and  in  appearance  is 
quite  like  some  of  the  pine  soils  from  the  Southern  states. 
For  comparison,  an  analysis  is  given,  number  236,  of  an  old 
pine  soil  from  Tennessee.  At  the  time  this  sample  was 
analyzed  it  was  supposed  to  be  one  from  this  state.  When 
these  two  soils  are  placed  side  by  side,  they  can  not  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  eye  or  by  mechanical  analysis.  The 
Tennessee  pine  soil  has  been  cutivated  about  sixty  years, and 
will  not  produce  any  more  crops  without  fertilizers,  while 
fertilizers  have  not  as  yet,  come  into  general  use  on  our  cul- 
tivated pine  soils.  The  pine  soils  will  require  careful  farm- 
ing, and  the  necessity  of  a good  supply  of  humus  in  these 
soils,  is,  and  will  be,  the  most  important  want.  There  is 
comparatively  more  plant  food  in  these  soils  than  appears 
at  first  glance,  because  a cubic  foot  of  these  soils  weighs 
nearly  ninety  pounds,  as  against  seventy  or  seventy-five 
pounds  for  many  other  soils. 

Soil  sample  number  228  is  from  Hinckley,  Pine  county. 
The  top  soil  is  a light  yellowish  red  clay  from  one  to  two 
feet  in  depth.  The  sub-soil  is  a bright  red  clay,  that  becomes 
quite  hard  when  dried  in  the  air.  The  top  soil  does  not 
lump  so  badly.  These  sub-soils  contain  a high  per  cent  of 
iron  oxide  from  four  to  five  pounds  of  it  in  every  hundred 
pounds  of  the  soil.  There  is  no  iron  present  in  the  ferrous 
forms,  and  hence  this  large  amount  is  in  a perfectly  harmless 
form  and  will  not  injure  the  roots  of  plants.  A very  little 


181 


additional  organic  matter  in  these  soils  improves  them  to  a 
great  extent,  especially  as  regards  the  ease  with  which  they 
are  worked.  The  potash  reported  in  the  tables  for  these 
soils  is  only  the  potash  that  is  present  in  easily  soluble 
forms.  There  is,  all  told,  from  two  and  a half  to  three 
pounds  of  potash  in  cilery  hundred  pounds  of  these  soils, and 
as  yet  we  have  not  sufficient  data  to  determine  how  much 
becomes  available  each  year  by  good  cultivation  for  crop  pur- 
poses. The  evidence  appears  to  be  that  there  is  quite  a large 
amount  because  such  large  yields  of  potatoes  and  root  crops 
are  annually  raised  on  these  soils  without  any  application 
of  potash  fertilizers. 

In  some  small  localities,  the  clay  sub-soil  gives  way  to  a 
layer  of  greyish  deposit.  This  is  found  particularly  in  low 
places.  A number  of  samples  of  this  material  have  been  re- 
ceived at  the  laboratory.  This  material  is  marl  and  is  com- 
posed mainly  of  lime  stone  with  a small  amount  of  clay. 
On  some  soils  this  marl  will  no  doubt  do  some  good  when 
used  as  a fertilizer,  but  it  will  not  pay  to  haul  it  any  great 
distance.  It  will  probably  be  found  to  do  the  most  good  on 
the  soils  of  a sandy  character,  and  will  improve  the  working 
condition  of  some  of  the  heavy  clay  soils.  The  analysis  of 
the  marl  reported  is  from  Rush  City. 

Soil  sample  number  232  is  from  New  Duluth,  St.  Louis 
county.  The  top  soil  is  well  supplied  with  phosphates,  lime 
and  magnesia.  The  sub-soil  is  very  rich  is  potash  but  onlv 
about  a tenth  of  it  is  “unlocked.”  This  soil  has  been  culti- 
vated fifteen  years. 

Soil  number  264  is  from  Duluth.  It  is  bright  red  in  color 
with  quite  a few  small  gravel  stones  mixed  with  it  as  is  in- 
dicated in  the  mechanical  analvis.  This  section  joins  the 
city  limits  on  the  north  side;  it  has  raised  one  crop  of 
potatoes. 

Soil  number  212  is  from  St.  Cloud;  it  is  a fine  black 
sandy  soil,  one  of  the  typical  potato  soils  of  that  region.  It 
has  raised  fifteen  crops  and  has  been  well  manured.  There 
is  an  unsually  high  content  of  potash  present  for  these  soils. 

Sample  288  is  from  Wyanette,  Isanti  county.  It  is  a 
dark  sandy  soil  seven  to  eight  inches  in  depth  overlaying  a 
yellowish  sandy  sub-soil;  it  has  been  cultivated  for  two 
years. 


TABLE  VI.— SOIL  SAMPLES  FROM  NORTH-EASTERN  POINTS. 


182 


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Soil  from  the  Experiment  Station.— In  passing 
from  the  Central  Eastern  points  to  the  soils  of  the  South- 
Eastern  portion  of  the  state,  a few  words  can  be  said  in  re- 
gard to  the  composition  of  the  experiment  station  soil,  and 
particularly  as  to  the  effects  of  heavy  applications  of  well 
prepared  manures  during  dry  seasons.  The  experiment 
station  is  located  between  the  two  sections  noted  above. 

The  effects  of  heavy  manuring  was  clearly  shown  during 
the  season  of  1893.  A pile  of  well  rotted  mixed  manure  was 
drawn  out  in  a field  that  had  raised  a corn  crop  the  previous 
year.  The  well  rotted  manure  was  spread  very  heavy.  A 
prominent  knoll  was  left  with  one-half  heavily  manured, and 
the  other  half  without  any.  About  the  last  of  June  an 
unusually  dry  time  set  in.  Previous  to  this,  the  corn  on  this 
knoll  appeared  to  be  all  about  alike,  the  manure  hardly 
showed  itself,  but  as  soon  as  the  dry  spell  came  the  manured 
part  kept  on  growing  without  showing  the  effects  of  the 
drought  to  any  great  extent  while  the  unmanured  part 
made  very  little  progress.  The  soil  on  this  knoll  was  sandy 
and  porous,  and  on  the  unmanured  half  it  dried  out  badly, 
while  on  the  other  half  a perceptible  amount  of  water  re- 
mained. 

Samples  of  the  soil  from  each  lot  were  taken  to  the 
laboratory  on  June  30,  and  the  amount  of  water  determined. 
There  was  an  average  of  twelve  and  one  half  per  cent  of  water 
in  the  first  six  inches  of  soil  in  the  heavily  manured  plot,  and 
eight  and  nine-tenth  per  cent  in  the  unmanured  plot.  July 
23  there  was  ten  and  one  half  per  cent  in  the  manured  part 
and  eight  and  one-tenth  in  the  unmanured  part.  At  one 
time  after  two  days  of  hot  dry  winds  the  soil  water  in  the 
unmanured  part  reached  as  low  as  seven  per  cent,  while  the 
manured  part  never  reached  below  ten  per  cent.  At  harvest 
time  the  fodder  corn  on  the  manured  part  was  on  an  average 
two  feet  taller  than  the  corn  on  the  unmanured  part.  This 
was  not  due  so  much  to  the  absence  of  fertility  in  the  soil  of 
the  unmanured  part  as  it  was  to  the  want  of  the  proper 
amount  of  moisture.  The  greatest  value  of  well  prepared 
farm  manures  is  in  furnishing  humus  and  keeping  the  soil 
from  drying  out.  In  order  to  be  of  full  benefit  the  manure 
must  be  well  rotted  before  spreading  on  the  land,  otherwise 
in  a dry  season  there  is  not  sufficient  moisture  in  the  soil  to 
rot  the  straw  that  is  in  the  manure, — it  is  then  plowed  under 
and  not  infrequently  lays  in  the  soil  for  two  or  three  years 
before  rotting,  and  causes  the  soil  to  dry  out  more,  by  being 
open  loose  and  porous  than  it  otherwise  would  if  this  coarse 
manure  were  not  present.  Straw  is  not  manure  until  it  i 


184 


well  rotted.  The  beneficial  effects  of  well  rotted  manures  in 
aiding  the  soil  to  retain  its  water,  is  noted  and  discussed  in 
connection  with  some  of  the  soils  from  South  Eastern 
Minnesota. 

A detailed  discussion  of  the  composition  of  the  soils  from 
the  Experiment  Station  farm  is  not  given.  One  analysis  is 
reported,  number  241.  A number  of  analyses  have  been 
made  in  connection  with  plot  experiments  and  the  draft  of 
different  crops  upon  the  soil,  as  well  as  different  methods  of 
rotation.  The  work  has  not,  as  yet,  been  carried  on  a suf- 
ficient length  of  time  to  obtain  definite  results,  but  sufficient- 
ly encouraging  results  have  already  been  obtained  to 
warrant  a continuation  of  the  work. 

There  are  some  points  as  to  the  general  composition  of 
the  sample  soil  (No.  241)  that  can  be  noted.  The  topsoil 
is  a black  loam,  with  a sandy  nature  in  some  portions  of  the 
farm,  and  clayey  in  other  portions.  The  sub  soil  is  a yellow 
clay  ; the  top  soil,  when  perfectly  dry,  weighs  about  seventy- 
three  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  and  has  a fair  content  of  potash, 
lime  and  phosphates.  The  nitrogen  is  not  as  high  as  in  the 
virgin  soils,  yet  nitrogen  fertilizers  do  not  appear  to  be 
particularly  beneficial,  nor  do  potassium  preparations 
show  any  good  results.  The  top  soil  vvill  retain  more  water 
and  for  a longer  time  than  the  sub-soil.  The  presence  of 
only  a very  little  sand  will  cause  it  to  dry  out  until  the  first 
three  or  four  inches  is  in  nearly  an  air  dry  condition. 


SOILS  FROM  SOUTH-EASTERN  MINNESOTA. 


Samples  number  277  and  279  are  from  Farmington,  Da- 
kota county.  Both  were  originally  native  prairie  soils  and 
have  been  under  cultivation  lor  thirty-five  years.  Number 
277has  been  under  high  cultivation,  received  regular  and  lib- 
eral dressings  of  manure,  and  raised  good  crops  of  corn, 
oats,  wheat  and  grass. 

In  another  and  an  adjoining  field,  that  originally  raised 
as  heavy  crops,  sample  number  279  was  taken.  This  field 
has  been  under  cultivation  for  the  same  length  of  time,  thir- 
ty-five years,  has  never  received  any  manure,  nor  been  sum- 
mer fallowed.  It  has  always  produced  a grain  crop,  but  for 
the  past  few  years  the  yield  has  been  unusually  low, and  dur- 
ing droughty  seasons  it  suffers  much  more  than  the  adjoin- 
ing field  that  has  been  rotated  and  well  manured. 

From  the  analysis  it  will  be  observed  that  the  main  dif- 
ferences are  in  the  amounts  of  humus,  sand  and  nitrogen 
that  are  present.  The  well  manured  and  more  productive 
soil  yielded  3.32  per  cent  humus  and  .30  per  cent  nitrogen, 
against  1.80  per  cent  humus  and  .16  per  cent  nitrogen  in  the 
poorer  soil.  There  is  the  same  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  in 
each  soil,  .20  of  a per  cent,  which  would  ordinary  be  consid- 
ered a very  large  amount,  but  in  the  poorer  soil  there  is  only 
.01  of  a per  cent  that  is  associated  with  humus  in  available 
forms,  while  in  the  well  manured  soil  there  is  .04  of  a per 
cent  available.  The  amount  of  potash  as  given  in  the  analy- 
sis is  practically  the  same  for  each  with  a shade  of  advan- 
tage in  favor  of  the  better  soil,  and  yet  larger  quantities  of 
potash  have  been  annual^  removed  in  the  more  productive 
soil.  The  total  amount  in  each  soil  is  1.42  per  cent  for  the 
manured  soil  and  1.50  per  cent  for  the  poorer  soil. 
There  is  evidence  that  the  thorough  cultivation  of  the  one 
soil  has  materially  aided  in  rendering  a portion  of  this  insol- 
uble potash  available  as  plant  food.  The  total  insoluble 
matters  (sand,  silicates,  and  combined  silicates)  are  about 
the  same  in  each,  when  they  are  compared  on  an  equal  foot- 
ing as  to  humus.  In  the  case  of  the  better  soil,  however, 
there  is  nearly  seven  per  cent  of  silica  that  is  combined  with 


186 


the  potash,  soda,  aluminia  and  lime,  while  in  the  poorer  soil 
there  is  only  four  per  cent  in  this  form.  The  thorough  culti- 
vation of  the  one  soil  has  without  doubt  been  the  chief  cause 
of  the  decomposition,  and  breaking  up,  of  this  three  per  cent 
of  stony  particles.  Plant  food  can  be  cultivated  into  avail- 
able forms  cheaper  than  it  can  be  purchased. 

The  history  of  these  two  fields,  as  to  their  former  similari- 
ty in  every  way,  their  original  alike  productiveness  compared 
with  their  present  dissimilarity  and  unlike  productiveness, 
together  with  the  different  methods  of  cultivation  that  have 
been  the  cause  of  the  decline  in  fertility,  and  finally  their 
present  comparative  composition  after  thirty-five  years  un- 
like treatment,  are  facts  that  should  be  carefully  considered 
because  they  emphatically  suggest  the  necessity  of  keeping 
up  the  organic  matter  in  the  soil,  coupled  with  a judicious 
system  of  rotating  crops. 

Sample  number  239  is  from  Rolling  Stone,  Winona  coun- 
ty. It  has  been  under  cultivation  forforty  years  and  has  pro- 
duced good  crops  of  wheat,  corn,  barley  and  oats.  For  the 
last  twelve  years  a rotation  of  corn,  barley  and  oats  has 
been  practiced.  It  is  bottom  land  and  has  been  well  kept  up 
by  manure;  the  nitrogen,  humus  and  other  points  speak 
well  for  the  land  as  not  suffering  from  cropping.  There  is  a 
good  content  of  phosphoric  acid  present,  and  a good  work- 
ing supply  of  potash.  The  silicates  and  stony  particles  ap- 
pear to  be  easily  decomposed. 

Sample  number  281  is  from  Faribault,  Rice  county.  It 
has  been  under  cultivation  for  thirty -eight  years;  the  first 
fourteen  years  it  always  produced  a grain  crop  of  some  kind. 
It  produced  hay  for  two  years,  was  pastured  one  year,  and 
for  the  past  ten  years  has  produced  corn,  oats  and  wheat  in 
rotation.  It  has  occasionally  received  a dressing  of  manure, 
and  has  never  been  summer  fallowed.  The  land  is  in  good 
condition,  and  the  analysis  does  not  indicate  any  weak 
points;  however,  it  will  not  do  to  allow  the  humus  to  reach 
much  below  the  present  point. 

Sample  number  283  is  from  0 watonna,  Steel  county.  It 
was  originally  a timber  tract  and  has  been  cultivated  for 
thirty-five  years.  The  land  has  been  well  cultivated  and 
occasionally  manured,  and  for  the  past  seven  years  has  pro- 
duced three  crops  of  corn,  three  of  clover,  and  one  of  oats. 
The  soil  is  in  good  condition  with  reasonable  working 
amounts  of  all  of  the  necessary  plant  food  compounds.  The 
clover  appears  to  have  left  its  mark  in  a good  nitrogen 
content. 


TABLE  VII.— SOILS  FROM  SOUTH-EASTERN  MINNESOTA. 


187 


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188 


Sample  number  218  is  from  Austin,  Mower  county.  It 
is  a typical  example  of  a new  soil;  it  is  a “Jack  oak  deal- 
ing and  has  raised  three  crops  of  corn  and  two  of  wheat. 
This  soil  has  a good  stock  of  native  fertility  and  will  wear 
well.  It  is  particularly  rich  in  phosphoric  acid,  and  a fair 
portion  of  it  is  in  soluble  forms. 

The  sample  from  Wells,  Faribault  county,  number  220, 
is  one  of  the  same  class  of  soils,  an  oak  clearing,  three  years 
old;  corn  was  grown  the  first  year,  and  wheat  during  the 
two  following  years.  The  soil  is  liberally  supplied  with 
plant  food;  the  high  per  cent  of  humus  4.17,  is  noticeable 
and  is  a characteristic  of  the  new  soils,  but  unfortunately  it 
does  not  last  very  long. 

An  analysis  is  given,  number  294,  of  a soil  that  has  been 
a permanent  meadow  for  about  thirty-five  years,  and  pro- 
duced large  crops  of  native  hay;  but  “during  the  past  ten 
years  bare  spots  have  appeared  that  have  refused  to  grow 
any  kind  of  grass;  timothy,  clover  and  red  top  have  been 
tried  on  these  spots  but  without  success  and  the  spots  are 
yearly  increasing  in  size.“  The  soil  consists  largely  (over 
seventy  per  cent)  of  decaying  vegetable  and  other  organic 
matters.  Itcontains  a very  small  amount  of  mineral  matter, • 
less  than  seven  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  while  many  soils  con- 
tain  as  high  as  seventy  pounds  of  mineral  matter  per  cubic 
foot.  There  are  no  other  forms  of  potash  present  except  the 
19  of  a per  cent  reported,  and  the  large  drafts  of  the  grass 
crops  have  told  the  heaviest  on  this  material.  A good  ap- 
plication of  unleached  wood  ashes  will  do  the  most  good 
for  these  spots.  This  tract  was  originally  a marshy  place, 
but  by  draining  it  was  made  to  produce  good  crops  of  grass, 
and  it  is,  like  many  other  reclaimed  places,  the  mam  source  of 
supply  of  the  hay  crop.  The  sub-soil  is  quite  rich  in  lime  and 
gvpsum  which  prevents  the  formation  of  sour  mould.  1 he 
sub-soil  is  very  rich  in  phosphates,  and  altogether  it  is  too 
valuable  to  be  used  only  as  a meadow.  There  is  an  unusual 
amount  of  fertility  in  many  of  these  low  and  marshy  places, 
which,  if  reclaimed,  will  prove  to  be  very  fertile  soils. 


189 


TABLE  VIII. 


Where  from 

I Al 

— - 

== 

Kind  ol  Soil 

IStlH , 

Wells. 

Mankato. 

Permanent 



..  v-'w.n.  Clearing. 

Oak  Clearing. 

Top  Soil  and  Sub-Soil 

Number  of  Soil 

• To  p 

i Sub 

To  p 

Sub 

To  p 
294 

Sub 

295 

1 219 

220 

221 

Weight  per  cubic  foot 

Fine  Earth 

. 68. 

' 76. 

75. 

79. 

25. 

42. 

99. 

97. 

98. 

Skeleton 

3. 

J 1 . 

2. 

Humus 

3.73 

Capacity  to  retain  water. 

• 57. 

QA 

A *7 

4.17 

68. 

49. 

.24 

.14 

Total  Nitrogen.... 

! ^ ( . 

| -15j 

125. 

68. 

Phosphates  associated  with  humus 

. oU 

' j .04 

.37 

.04 

.20 

1.29 

04 

15.81 

! .14 

Insoluble  Silicates  and  Sand 
Combined  Silica... 

71.19 

1 1 AO 

75.05 

66.15 

68.79 

31.63 

Potash 

j-i.uy 

9.17 

.08 

11.49 

12.81 

2.66 

6.58 

Soda 

.32 

.36 

.30 

.19 

.17 

Lime 

.34 

.31 

.41 

.35 

.18 

.20 

Magnesia 

.48 

.21 

1.10 

.80 

.53 

4.16 

Iron  (oxide).... 

.45 

.61 

.99  1 

.68  1 

.11 

.20 

Aluminia... 

2.81 

3.26 

2.40 

2.68  J 

2.62 

5.99 

Phosphates 

4.77 

4.44 

3.61 

5.92 

1.38 

4.48 

Sulphates 

.38 

.30 

.25 

.24 

.30 

.60 

Carbonates 

.15 

.10 

1.43 

.16 

.16 

1.66 

2.09 

Chlorides . 

1.40 

.56 

.75, 

1.67 

3.19 

Volatile 

.01 

.01 

.01 

.01 

.01 

.01 

Total 

6.56 
99.95  1 

5.00 

99.97 

12.40 
99.89  j 

6.50 
99.99  j 

72.80 

99.92 

39.92 

99.22 

SUMMARY. 


1.  The  continued  cropping  of  soils  to  grain  crops  only 
without  any  system  of  rotation,  or  other  treatment  is  tell- 
ing severely  upon  the  original  stock  of  half  decomposed 
animal  and  vegetable  matters,  and  nitrogen.  Soils  which 
have  produced  grain  crops,  exclusively,  for  ten  or  fifteen 
years  contain  from  a third  to  a half  less  humus  and  nitrogen 
than  adjoining  soils  that  have  never  been  plowed. 

2.  Soils  which  have  been  cropped  until  the  organic  matters 
and  humus  have  been  materially  decreased,  retain  less  water 
and  dry  out  more  readily  than  when  there  is  a larger 
amount  of  organic  matter  present  in  the  soil. 

3.  Soils  which  are  rich  in  humus  contain  a larger  amount  of 
phosphates  associated  with  them  in  available  forms  than  the 
soils  that  are  poor  in  humus. 

4.  Soils  which  are  rich  in  humus  and  organic  matters 
produce  a larger  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  that  acts  as  a 
solvent  upon  the  soil  particles  and  aids  the  roots  in  procur- 
ing food. 

5.  One  half  of  a sandy  knoll,  heavily  manured  with  well 
rotted  manure,  contained  nearly  a quarter  more  water  dur- 
ing a six  week’s  drought,  than  the  other  half  that  received 
no  manure. 

6.  The  supply  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil  must  be  kept 
np  because  it  takes  such  an  important  part,  indirectly,  in 
keeping  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  A good  system  of  rota- 
tion, including  sod  crops,  and  well  prepared  farm  manures 
will  do  this,  and  will  avoid  the  introduction  and  use  of  com- 
mercial fertilizers  which  are  now  costing  the  farmers  of  the 
United  States  over  thirt3r-five  million  dollars  annually.  It 
will  not  do  to  wait  until  this  question  forces  itself  upon  us. 

7.  A rotation  of  crops  will  soon  be  necessary  on  account 
of  the  peculiar  composition  of  some  of  the  soils  and  the  cor- 
responding subsoils,  especially  those  in  which  the  surface 
soils  are  richer  in  phosphates  and  nitrogen  while  the  sub- 
soils are  richer  in  potash  and  lime.  By  means  of  rotation 
the  full  benefits  of  the  strong  points  of  both  the  top  soils  and 
the  subsoil  will  be  secured. 


NOTE  IN  REGARD  TO  SOIL  ANALYSIS  AND  SENDING  SAMPLES. 


The  original  act  that  created  experiment  stations  designated  soil  analysis 
and  soil  work  as  one  of  the  important  lines  of  investigations  to  he  under- 
taken by  the  stations.  This  work  has  not  been  pushed  by  most  of  the  sta- 
tions as  vigorously  as  many  other  lines;  this  has  not  been  on  account  of  any 
desire  not  to  do  a full  amount  of  soil  work,  but  many  have  questioned 
whether  a soil  analysis  is  justifiable  because  of  its  not  telling  more,  and  on 
account  of  the  various  difficulties  that  arc  connected  with  soil  analysis;  but 
this  is  no  excuse  for  not  attempting  to  find  out  more.  A knowledge  of  the 
chemistry  and  the  related  physics  of  our  soils  will  indicate  the  ways  to  bet- 
ter methods  of  rotations,  the  production  and  application  of  manures,  and 
in  an  intelligent  application  of  fertilizers  when  that  time  comes.  Such 
knowledge,  it  is  hoped,  will  throw  light  on  many  related  questions  as  to 
methods  of  cultivation,  depth  and  time  for  plowing,  the  use  of  green 
manures,  etc.,  so  as  to  retain  the  present  fertility  of  our  soils. 

Before  sending  samples  for  analysis,  you  are  requested  to  first  write  to 
the  Experiment  Station  for  directions  for  taking  the  samples  of  soil.  It  will 
not  do  to  go  out  into  a field  and  take  a small  sample  at  random.  A blank 
will  be  sent  with  the  directions  asking  the  exact  location  of  the  plot,  section 
township,  range,  etc.,  and  the  previous  history  of  the  cultivation  of  the  soil, 
crops  produced,  etc.  All  this  is  necessary,  not  so  much  for  present  purposes 
as  for  future  use, — incase  anyone  desires  to  go  to  these  same  places  again 
after  a number  of  years  farther  cultivation,  and  obtain  a sample  in  order  to 
see  just  what  the  changes  have  been. 

All  express  charges  on  the  soil  sample  must  be  prepaid;  this  is  to  insure 
protection  against  generous  sized  unpaid  packages  of  soil.  The  analysis 
will  be  made  free  of  charge.  Only  a limited  number  of  analyses  can  be  made 
and  it  is  the  aim,  that  these  should  represent  as  many  soils,  sections,  and 
conditions  as  possible.  Some  idea  of  the  labor  involved  will  be  gained  from 
the  fact  that  the  first  operation  in  soil  analysis  requires  five  days  in  order  to 
get  the  different  materials  dissolved,  while  as  many  more  days  are  required 
for  their  separate  determination.  The  analyses  are  made  in  sets  of  six  or 
eight.  When  the  sample  is  received  at  the  laboratory  it  will  be  acknow- 
ledged. Do  not  expect  a report  in  too  short  a time,  because  there  are  al- 
ways soil  samples  waiting  to  be  analyzed,  as  well  as  other  work  waiting  to 
be  done,  but  as  soon  as  the  analysis  is  completed  a report  will  be  sent  to 
jou. 


University  of  Minnesota. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  No.  31. 


AGRICULTURAL  DIVISION. 


Decembei1,  1898. 


Lambs  Practical  Rations  for — Also  Lambs  vs.  Weth- 
ers, for  Fattening— Valuation  of  Wheat  Screen- 
ings— Field  Experiments — Varieties  of  Wheat,  Oats 
and  Corn — Methods  of  Planting  Oats,  Wheat  and 
Potatoes — Depth  to  Sow  Oats  and  Wheat,  and  Time 
to  Sow— Heavy  vs.  Light  Oats  for  Seed— Methods 
of  Preparing  Land  for  Oats. 


^iP^The  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the  State 
who  make  application  for  them. 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK , RAMSEY  COUNTY , 
MINNESOTA. 


Minneapolis: 

Harrison  & Smith,  Printers. 


University  of  Minnesota. 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS, 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis,  - - 1896 . 

The  HON.  GREENLEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - 1894: 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - 1894. 

The  HON.  JOHN  LIND,  New  Ulm, 1896 . 

The  HON.  JOEL  P.  HEATWOLE,  Northfield,  - - 1896 . 

The  HON.  O.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth, 1896. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson,  - - - 1896. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN,  Minneapolis, 1895. 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  B.  A.,  Minneapolis,  - 1895. 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  St.  Paul,  - Ex  Officio. 

The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PENDERGAST,  M.  A.,  Hutchinson,  Ex-Officio. 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHORP,  LL.  D.,  Minneapolis,  - - Ex-Officio . 

The  President bf  the  University. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  J.  S.  PILLSBURY. 

The  HON.  JOHN  LIND. 

The  HON  S.  M.  OWEN. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PENDERGAST. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION: 

WM.  M.  LIGGETT, Chairman. 

WILLET  M.  HAYS,  B.  S.  A.,  - Vice-Chairman  and  Agriculturist. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S., Horticulturist. 

OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  - - - Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S., Chemist. 

T.  L.  HiECKER  - - - - - - - Dairy  Husbandry. 

M.  H.  REYNOLDS,  M.  D.,  V.  M.,  - - - Veterinarian. 

THOS.  SHAW, - Animal  Husbandry. 

J.  A.  VYE,  ----------  Secretary. 

ANDREW  BOSS,  ------  Farm  Foreman. 


LAMBS— PRACTICAL  RATIONS  FOR; 

ALSO 

LAMBS  VS.  WETHERS,  FOR  FATTENING-. 

W.  M.  HAYS. 

During  the  winter  of  1891-2  an  experiment  was  conducted 
in  feeding  sheep  under  the  supervision  of  the  present  writer. 
As  he  was  absent  from  the  Station  during  the  latter  half  of 
the  feeding,  the  last  part  of  the  work  was  superintended  by 
Mr.  Andrew  Boss,  foreman  of  the  farm,  while  the  feeding 
was  done  by  herdsman  Wm.  Gibbs.  Eighty  Shropshire 
grade  half-blood  lambs  were  purchased  in  December  of  Mr. 
E.  M.  Prouty,  of  Grand  Forks,  N.  D.,  at  5 cents  per  pound. 
These  were  divided  into  eight  groups  of  ten,  each  very  uni- 
form in  weight,  averaging  about  735  pounds.  Ten  fair  aver- 
age Montana  wethers  were  also  purchased  at  the  same  time 
at  $4.20  per  100  pounds;  these  averaged  107  pounds  each. 
The  object  of  the  experiment  was  to  compare  several  of  our 
most  practical  grains,  when  fed  with  timothy  hay,  in  fatten- 
ing lambs;  also  to  get  at  the  comparative  profit  of  feeding 
grade  lambs  and  western  wethers.  The  rations  were  so 
constructed  that  we  might  determine  the  value  of  the  addi- 
tion of  a limited  amount  of  oil  cake  to  a grain  ration  of  corn 
or  of  barley  (see  pens  2 and  4 in  comparison  with  pens  1 and 
3 in  table  VII.)  These  grains  were  compared  with  wheat 
screenings  (see  pen  8.)  By  securing  screenings  composed 
mainly  of  small  wheat,  pen  5;  another  lot  of  nearly  pure 
wild  buckwheat,  pen  6,  and  another  of  nearly  pure  pigeon 
grass  seed,  pen  7,  the  value  of  these  three  most  prominent 
ingredients  of  screenings  were  compared  with  the  ordinary 
screenings  composed  of  a mixture  of  these  three  ingredients 
together  with  minor  amounts  of  other  weed  seeds,  chaff,  etc. 
The  screenings  fed  (pen  8)  were  selected  as  an  average  of 
the  screenings  offered  in  the  Minneapolis  market.  (See 


194 


analyses  in  table  I. ) The  analyses  of  the  other  grains  are 
also  given  in  table  I.  The  wethers  (pen  9)  were  fed  screen- 
ings and  hay  in  the  same  manner  as  the  lambs  in  pen  8 were 
fed  these  two  foods. 

The  plan  of  the  experiment  was  to  give  timothy  hay  ad- 
libitum  in  self  feeding  racks  and  allow  the  sheep  access  to 
the  self -feeding  grain  boxes  two  hours  in  the  morning  and 
two  hours  in  the  evening  during  the  first  period.  The  sec- 
ond period  they  were  to  be  allowed  to  run  to  the  open  self- 
feeding grain  boxes  or  troughs  all  the  time  and  all  pens  were 
to  have  the  same  limited  amount  of  hay,  that  the  effect  of  the 
grain  rations  mignt  be  compared  in  the  different  groups. 
This  plan  for  the  second  period  was  slightly  modified  by 
allowing  all  the  groups  access  to  the  hay  the  same  limited 
time  each  day — two  hours  at  midday.  This  makes  the  com- 
parison of  the  grain  rations  a little  more  difficult,  but  was 
the  more  practical  way  to  feed,  and  the  comparison  of  ration 
with  ration  as  to  net  profit  is  all  the  more  practical. 

The  sheep  were  placed  under  the  Station  barn  in  a shed 
which  was  open  on  one  entire  side  into  a large  alley,  which 
in  turn  was  open  to  the  free  entrance  of  outside  air,  thus 
making  uniform  conditions  for  all  pens.  The  groups  were 
separated  by  hurdle-like  fences,  each  group  having  a pen 
about  10  by  16  feet,  and  were  all  very  similarly  situated  and 
fed  and  watered  and  salted  alike.  The  lambs  were,  withal, 
a very  even,  thrifty  lot  of  sheep,  as  shown  by  their  appear- 
ance and  by  their  profitable  gains. 

The  groups  of  lambs  in  pens  5,  6 and  7 were  fed  with  a 
view  to  gaining  a knowledge  of  how  to  estimate  the  value  of 
any  given  sample  of  wheat  screening  by  getting  at  the  com- 
parative value  of  the  several  most  prominent  ingredients. 
These  pens  were  accordingly  given  respectively  screenings 
composed  almost  entirely  of  small  wheat,  wild  buckwheat  seed 
and  pigeon  grass  seed.  As  the  results  indicate  these  three  main 
constituents  of  screenings  to  be  of  about  equal  value,  and 
nearly  equal  to  corn  for  feeding  sheep,  it  is  easy  to  estimate 
the  value  of  any  sample  of  screenings  by  determining  the  per- 
centage of  solid  grains  and  of  ground  particles  of  grains 
contained.  As  straw  and  other  coarse  roughage  on  the  farm  is 


195 


very  cheap  not  much  value  is  attached  to  the  chaff,  pieces  of 
straw  and  similar  parts  of  the  screenings.  Where  feeders 
must  purchase  straw  and  hay  they  can  count  these  ‘ ‘light 
parts”  of  the  screenings  as  of  equal  value  to  straw  or  coarse 
hay  of  rather  poor  quality.  Where  a sample  contains  mus- 
tard, pig  weed  seeds  or  other  bitter  weed  seeds  which  are 
not  relished  by  the  animals,  something  must  be  subtracted 
from  the  estimated  value.  The  presence  of  weed  seeds 
which  might  gain  an  entrance  to  the  farm  is  a great  objec- 
tion to  the  use  of  many  samples  of  screenings,  as  some 
uneaten  seeds  will  be  scattered  in  the  manure.  Where  it  can 
be  done  all  screenings  fed  to  cattle,  hogs  or  horses  should 
first  be  run  through  a roller  mill,  with  rollers  kept  sharp, 
that  as  many  as  possible  of  the  weed  seeds  may  be  broken  so 
that  the  digestive  juices  can  get  through  the  hard  seed  coat- 
ings, both  to  enable  the  animal  to  get  the  nourishment  and 
to  kill  the  weed  seeds  which  might  otherwise  grow  after 
passing  through  the  animal.  It  is  often  wise  or  necessary  to 
systematically  compost  all  manure  from  animals  fed  screen- 
ings that  the  weed  seeds  may  all  be  germinated  and  thus 
destroyed.  Since  screenings  are  such  valuable  foods  and 
contain  also  such  a large  manurial  value  it  is  to  be  regretted 
that  our  system  of  marketing  grains  does  not  encourage  or 
even  make  it  necessary  for  farmers  to  keep  all  the  screen- 
ings at  home  for  feed  and  manure  and  take  to  market  only 
grain  entirely  cleaned  of  weed  seeds.  A change  in  our 
manner  of  grading  or  inspecting  grain  throughout  the  entire 
country  should  be  so  made  as  to  encourage  marketing  only 
well  cleaned  grain. 

Screenings  from  the  large  mills  are  each  year  becoming 
poorer  in  quality  as  the  manufacturers  of  flour  constantly 
improve  their  means  of  separating  out  and  utilizing  the 
small  kernels  and  pieces  of  wheat.  Some  of  the  machinery 
used  in  this  separation  of  the  small  wheat  crushes  or  grinds 
part  of  the  weed  seeds,  and  the  screenings  appear  to  be  made 
up  in  part  of  floury  particles. 

No  credit  is  given  in  this  report  for  the  value  of  the 
manure  made  of  the  several  grain  feeds  consumed.  Allow- 
ance for  the  manurial  value  would  show  the  feeding  even 
more  profitable  than  the  tables  now  represent. 


196 


TABLE  I.— Analysis  of  Grains  Fed. 


Total  dry 
matter. 

Ash. 

Total  nitro- 
gen compd. 

True  albu- 
minoids. 

Fat. 

Crude  fiber. 

Nitrogen 
free  extract 

^Prices  per 
ton. 

Corn 

89.27 

1.46 

10  25 

9.60 

3.88 

2.25 

70.40 

$13.04 

Barley 

88.22 

3.32 

11.57 

10.92 

2.70 

3.00 

67.63 

17.50 

*Oil  meal,  O.  P 

90.80 

5.70 

32  90 

7.90 

2.90 

8.90 

4.25 

35  40 

27.87 

10.56 

Screenings  composed  of  small  wheat. 

90.05 

2.24 

13.81 

66.85 

Screenings  composea  of  wild  buck- 
wheat   

88.08 

2.65 

10.82 

8.42 

3.25 

10.77 

60.81 

10.56 

Screenings  composed  of  pigeon  grass 
seed 

89.35 

5.18 

9 48 

5.50 

3.10 

15.15 

4.76 

54  52 

10  56 

tScreenings 

87.50 

2.69 

11.84 

65.09 

10  56 

^Timothy  hay 

7.13 

The  corn,  barley,  wild  buckwheat  and  pigeon  grass  seeds  were  anylyzed  by  Prof. 
Harry  Snyder. 

^Average  from  Hand  Book  of  Experiment  Station  Work. 

•f-Average  from  Bulletin  No.  8,  Minnesota  Experiment  Station. 

$The  prices  given  here  per  ton  are  averages  of  reports  made  by  many  farmers 
during  the  winter  of  1891-2. 


TABLE  II.— Food  Eaten  and  Gains  in  First  Period  of  Eight  Weeks. 


| No.  of  pen.  [ 

Kind 

of 

Sheep, 

Kind  of  grain  fed. 

Weight 
of  sheep 
at  be- 
ginning. 

Weight 

at 

ending. 

Gain 

in 

weight. 

Hay 

eaten. 

Grain 

eaten. 

1 

Lambs .. . . 

Cracked  corn 

710 

875 

165 

657 

740 

2 

U 

j 9-10  cracked  corn. . . ) 

I 1-10  oil  meal f 

722 

945 

223 

485 

984 

3 

“ 

Barley 

733 

902 

169 

485 

864 

4 

U 

J 9-10  barley ( 

1 1-10  oil  meal \ 

757 

946 

189 

449 

1,088 

5 

fcC 

Small  wheat 

737 

905 

168 

560 

1,043 

6 

<< 

Wild  buckwheat 

754 

909 

155 

441 

1.121 

7 

Pigeon  grass 

741 

864 

123 

344 

1,244 

8 

44 

Screenings  of  wheat. . . 

736 

862 

126 

498 

1.138 

9 

Wethers . . 

Screenings  of  wheat. . . 

1,068 

1,173 

105 

447 

1,404 

TABLE  III.— Food  Eaten  and  Gains  in  Second  Period  of  Four  Weeks. 


Kind 

Weight 

Weight 

Gain 

Hay 

Grain 

of 

Kind  of  grain  fed. 

of  sheep 

at 

in 

at  be- 

eaten. 

eaten. 

Sheep. 

ginning. 

ending. 

weight. 

Lambs. . . . 

Cracked  corn 

875 

921 

46 

192 

363 

j 9-10  cracked  corn ...  { 
\ 1-10  oil  meal j 

945 

1,011 

66 

149 

443 

Barley 

902 

932 

30 

145 

404 

“ 

1 9-10 barley.  ) 

1 1-10  oil  meal... ) 

946 

1.031 

85 

154 

503 

a 

Small  wheat 

905 

939 

34 

182 

462 

t« 

Wild  buckwheat 

909 

991 

82 

150 

813 

t< 

Pigeon  grass  seed 

864 

967 

103 

83 

731 

“ 

Screenings  of  wheat. . . 

862 

980 

118 

111 

638 

Wethers . . 

Screenings  of  wheat. . . 

1,173 

1,240 

67 

95 

706 

197 


TABLE  IV.—  Food  Eaten  and  Gains  During  Entire  Twelve  Weeks. 


fl 

<D 

ft 

Kind 

Weight 

Weight 

Gain 

Hay 

Grain 

of 

Kind  of  grain  fed. 

of  sheep 

at 

in 

at  be- 

eaten. 

eaten. 

6 

Sheep. 

ginning. 

ending. 

weight. 

1 

Lambs 

Cracked  corn 

710 

921 

211 

849 

1,103 

1,427 

2 

j 9-10  cracked  corn 1 

1 1-10  oil  meal  f 

722 

1,011 

289 

631 

3 

** 

Bariev 

733 

932 

199 

630 

1,268 

1,591 

4 

j 9-10  barley ) 

) 1-10  oil  meal ) 

757 

1,031 

274 

603 

5 

a 

Small  wheat 

737 

939 

202 

742 

1,505 

6 

Wild  buckwheat 

754 

991 

237 

591 

1,934 

7 

Pigeon  grass  seed 

741 

967 

226 

427 

1,975 

8 

66 

Screenings  of  wheat. . . 

736 

980 

244 

609 

1.776 

9 

Wethers . . 

Screenings  of  wheat. . . 

1,068 

1,240 

172 

542 

2,110 

TABLE  V.— Value  of  Foods  and  of  Gains  and  Profits  in  Period  I. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 
9 

Kind  of 
Sheep. 

Grain  fed  with 
hay. 

Value  of 
hay  fed. 

Value 
of  grain 
fed. 

Total 
cost  of 
food. 

Value  of 
Increase 
in 

weight. 

Profit  or 
loss  on 
gain  in 
weight 
alone. 

Lambs 

66 

66 

6k 

66 

66 

66 

Wethers... 

Cracked  corn  

J 9-10  cracked  corn 

1 1-10  oil  meal 

Barley 

j 9-10  barley 

| 1-10  oil  meal 

Small  wheat 

Wild  buckwheat 

Pigeon  grass 

Screenings  of  wheat 

Screenings  of  wheat 

$2.22 

1.64 

1.64 

1.52 

1.89 

1.49 

1.16 

1.68 

1.51 

$1.82 

7.14 

6.39 

8.76 

5.51 

5.92 

6.56 

6.00 

7.41 

$ 7.04 
8.78 
8.03 
10.28 

7.40 

7.41 
7.72 
7.68 
8.92 

$9.90 
13  38 
10.14 
11.34 
10.08 
9.30 
7.38 
7.56 
5.25 

+$2.86 

+4.60 

+2.11 

+1.06 

+2.63 

+1.89 

— .34 

— 12 
—3.04 

TABLE  VI.— Value  of  Foods  and  of  Gains  and  Profits  in  Period  II. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 
9 

Kind  of 
sheep. 

Grain  fed  with 
hay. 

Value  of 
hay  fed. 

Value 
of  grain 
fed. 

Total 
cost  of 
food. 

Value  of 
Increase 
in 

weight. 

Profit  or 
loss  on 
gain  in 
weight 
alone. 

Lambs 

»6 

66 

6k 

6k 

66 

Wethers... 

Cracked  corn 

j 9-10  cracked  corn 

| 1-10  oil  meal 

Rarley 

J 9-10  barley 

1 1-10  oil  meal 

Small  wheat 

Wild  buckwheat 

Pigeon  grass 

Screenings  of  wheat 

Screenings  of  wheat 

$.65 

.50 

.49 

.52 

.62 

.51 

.28 

.38 

.32 

$2.37 

3.20 

2.99 

3.98 

2.44 

4.29 

3.86 

3.37 

3.72 

$3.02 

3.70 

3.48 

4.50 

3.06 

4.80 

4.14 

3.75 

4.04 

$2.76 
3.96 
1 80 
5.10 
2.04 
4.92 
6.18 
7.08 
3.35 

$-  .26 
+ .26 
—1.68 
+ .50 
-1.02 
+ .12 
+2.04 
+4.33 
- .69 

198 


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SUMMARY 

(1.)  Corn  fed  with  hay  produced  20  cents  profit  per 
lamb  more  than  barley  fed  with  hay,  when  corn  was  valued 
at  $13.04,  barley  $14.52  and  hay  $7  per  ton,  average  prices 
throughout  the  State  at  that  time. 

(2. ) When  one-tenth  oil  meal,  costing  $27.87  per  ton,  was 
added  to  the  grain,  the  lambs  fed  corn  with  hay  produced  27 
cents  profit  more  each  than  those  fed  barley,  oil  meal  and 
hay. 

(3.)  Rating  the  profits  proportionately  on  grain  and  hay 
according  to  the  cost  of  the  amounts  of  each  fed,  the  corn 
fed  with  hay  produced  80  cents  per  ton  more  than  the 
barley  when  fed  to  lambs. 

(4.)  When  both  were  thus  fed  and  with  an  addition  of  one- 
tenth  oil  meal,  about  two  dollars  more  per  ton  was  received 
for  the  corn  than  for  the  barley. 

(5.)  With  the  corn  worth  $13  per  ton,  or  36^  cents  per 
bushel,  the  barley  was  worth,  as  shown  by  the  lambs,  $12.30 
per  ton  or  29|  cents  ber  bushel;  the  “screenings”  (90  per 
cent,  small  wheat  grains  and  edible  weed  seeds,)  about  $10.35 
per  ten;  the  small  wheat  (90  per  cent  small,  shrunken 
wheat,)  $10  per  ton;  the  wild  buckwheat  (90  per  cent,  wild 
buckwheat,)  $9.56  per  ton;  and  the  pigeon  grass  seed  (90 
per  cent,  pigeon  grass  seed)  $9.40  per  ton. 

(6.)  The  feeding  value  per  ton  for  sheep  maybe  calculated 
with  fair  accuracy  by  first  determining  the  total  percentage 
of  grains  of  wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  edible  weed  seeds,  and 
floury  particles  of  such  grains  and  seeds,  and  give  this 
three-fourths  the  value  of  corn  or  barley  at  ruling  prices. 
If  there  are  present  enough  mustard,  pig-weed  or  other 
bitter  weed  seeds  to  make  the  flavor  decidedly  bad  a less 
valuation  must  be  made  on  account  of  less  feeding  value. 
Seeds  of  noxious  weeds  also  count  against  the  value  of  the 
sample  as  the  manure  will  scatter  them  on  the  farm  unless 
especial  care  be  used.  The  straw,  chaff,  pieces  of  weeds  and 
other  similar  materials  forming  a larger  or  smaller  part  of 
the  screenings  have  little  value  on  the  farm  where  rough- 
age  is  very  cheap  and  hardly  need  be  taken  into  account. 


200 


(7.)  It  paid  well  to  feed  one-tenth  oil  meal  in  the  grain 
ration,  both  when  feeding  corn  and  when  feeding  barley. 

( 8. ) The  pens  of  lambs  which  made  the  most  clear  profits 
in  increased  value  above  cost  of  grain  and  hay  at  prices 
named  in  table,  were  those  fed  cracked  corn  with  one-tenth 
oil  meal  and  those  given  a fairly  good  sample  of  wheat 
screenings.  The  pen- fed  barley  gave  the  least  profits  per 
head. 

(9.)  While  grade  Shropshire  lambs  purchased  at  five  cents 
per  pound  in  the  fall,  and  fed  hay  and  screenings,  and  sold 
at  six  cents  in  the  spring — made  a profit  of  $1.05  each, 
western  two  years  old  wethers  (evidently  grade  merinos) 
bought  at  $4.20  per  hundred,  and  sold  in  the  spring  at  five 
cents  per  pound,  gave  a profit  of  only  40  cents  each.  The 
lambs  got  a half  more  of  value  per  ton  out  of  the  food  they 
consumed  than  the  wethers. 


201 


FIELD  EXPERIMENTS  IN  1893. 


ANDREW  BOSS. 


The  reports  herewith  of  varieties  of  field  crops,  of  tests  of 
machinery  and  methods  of  cultivation,  of  depths  of  planting 
crops,  time  of  seeding,  and  of  heavy  vs.  light  seed  grain, 
are  of  work  done  during  1893  by  the  writer.  Prof.  C.  D. 
Smith,  then  the  director  of  the  station,  assisted  in  planning 
the  most  of  these  experiments.  Much  of  the  work  of  the 
season  is  reserved  for  duplication  and  further  study. 

VARIETIES  OF  WHEAT. 

The  following  varieties  of  wheat  were  raised  on  the  Uni- 
versity Farm  during  the  season  of  1893  on  a mixed  clay  and 
loam  soil  that  had  been  plowed  the  previous  fall.  The  plats 
were  laid  out  as  evenly  as  possible  in  regard  to  physical 
conditions  of  the  soil  and  all  varieties  were  sown  at  the 
rate  of  one  and  one-fourth  bushel  per  acre: 


TABLE  I.— Trial  of  Varieties  of  Wheat. 


| No.  of  plat.  | 

Variety. 

Source  Obtained. 

| Days  to 

mature. 

Yield,  straw 
per  acre. 

Weight, 

per  bushel. 

Yield,  grain 
per  acre,  bu. 

1 

Red  fife 

Station 

88 

1,344 

1,741 

1,659 

1,323 

1,290 

1,856 

1,653 

54 

13.3 

2 

Saskatchewan 

L.  L.  May,  St.  Paul 

88 

55 

15.8 

3 

Bernard’s  hard  red  fife 

J.  J.  Bernard, Pipestone 
Station 

88 

56 

14 

4 

Wellman  fife  

88 

54 

11.7 

5 

Ladoga 

Station 

82 

2.8 

6 

Houston’s  blue  stem 

89 

*53  * 

18.4 

7 

Haynes’  pedigree  blue  stem 

Haynes,  Fargo,  N D 

89 

53 

16.4 

Average — Fife,  three/  plots,  1,  2,  3 

1,517 

1,759 

54% 

53 

14.4 

Average — Blue  stem,  two  nlots.  6 anrl  7 

17.4 

The  light  yield  of  plot  No.  4 was  partly  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  seed  was  poor  and  did  not  germinate  well  and  it  is 
left  out  of  the  average  at  the  bottom  of  the  table.  Each  plat 
contained  .476  of  an  acre.  The  result  of  the  test  of  Ladoga 
is  but  another  of  many  failures  of  this  wheat  to  do  as  well 
as  Red  fife  and  Blue-stem. 


202 


OATS— VARIETIES. 

During  the  season  of  1893  seven  varieties  of  oats  were 
grown  on  rich  clay  soil  under  seemingly  uniform  conditions. 
All  varieties  were  sown  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels  per  acre 
and  the  comparison  was  as  good  as  can  ordinarily  be  made. 


TABLE  II.— Oats— Variety  Tests. 


Plat  No.  | 

Variety. 

Source  Obtained. 

Date 

Sown. 

Days  to 
Mature. 

Yl’d  of 
Straw 
per 
Acre, 
lbs. 

W’ght 

Grain 

per 

Bush. 

Yl’d  of 
Grain 
per 
Acre. 
Bush. 

1 

North  Star. ...... 

L.  L.  May,St.Paul 

May  11, 

79 

3,389 

26.5 

42.71 

2 

Great  Northern.. 

Salzer,  La  Crosse. 

May  11. 

88 

3,M6 

29 

54.87 

3 

Lincoln  

N.  B.  & G.  C.o... 

May  11 . 

83 

2,780 

28.5 

55.15 

4 

Am.WhiteBanner 

May  11. 

83 

2,614 

29.5 

63.15 

5 

E’y  WhiteRussian 

Station 

May  11. 

88 

3,100 

31.5 

60.78 

6 

New  York 

May  11 . 

79 

4,489 

29.5 

54.50 

7 

Early  Gothland. . 

L.  L.  May 

May  11 . 

83 

3,510 

31.5 

63.15 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  above  table  that  two  varieties, 
American  White  Banner  and  Early  Gothland,  did  a little  bet- 
ter this  year  than  our  standard,  White  Russian,  which  is  the 
most  popular  oat  in  Minnesota. 


BARLEY— VARIETY  TESTS. 

Pour  varieties  of  barley  were  sown  in  the  spring  of  1893 
on  land  in  fairly  good  heart  that  had  been  spring  plowed. 
The  barley  was  sown  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels  per  acre. 

TABLE  III.— Variety  Tests  of  Barley. 


Plat  No. 

Variety. 

Date  Sown. 

Days  to 
Mature. 

Yield  per 
Acre. 

Straw,  lbs. 

Yield  per 
Acre. 

Grain,  Bu. 

1 

Black  

May  19 

68 

1,507 

24.16 

2 

Success;  

May  19 

65 

1,016 

24.58 

3 

Bernard’s 

May  19 

75 

1,242 

20.73 

4 

Highland  Chief. . 

May  19 

78 

1,305 

17.77 

203 


CORN— VARIETY  TESTS,  1893. 

In  1893  twenty-four  varieties  of  corn  were  planted  in  hills 
three  feet  four  inches  apart  each  way,  four  kernels  in  a hill. 
The  soil  was  a black  loam,  fall  plowed  and  in  fairly  good 
heart.  The  yields  are  in  case  of  a number  of  varieties  most 
excellent.  The  Station  now  has  several  varieties  of  corn 
which  should  be  propagated  for  general  distribution.  We 
have  been  making  a success  of  corn  crops  for  a number  of 
years  on  the  University  Farm.  The  effort  has  been  to  find 
the  best  class  of  corn  for  each  part-  of  the  State.  We  are 
now  warrantedin  growing  for  distribution,  or  having  grown, 
quantities  of  some  of  the  best  yielding  early  dents  for  the 
southern  half  of  the  State,  that  varieties  thus  tested  and  dis- 
tributed may  take  the  place  of  the  low-yielding  “scrub” 
kinds  now  to  be  found  in  the  cribs  of  a very  large  per  cent, 
of  those  who  grow  corn.  Such  dent  varieties  as  that  ob- 
tained some  years  since  from  M.  H.  Lamb,  of  Waseca,  No. 
3 in  the  table,  with  good  height  of  stalk,  ear  well  up  from 
ground,  few  stools,  uniform,  so  that  nearly  all  ears  are  mer- 
chantable, early,  and  withal,  large  yielders,  are  what  we 
want  to  grow  in  hills  for  ear  and  stover,  for  silage,  and  to 
clean  our  lands  of  weeds. 


TABLE  IV.— Varieties  of  Corn. 


204 


Shell’d 

corn 

per 

acre 

bu. 

OXIOlO  QONCO  MWiflMJCWlMH  CO  CO  CO  QO 

Stover 

per 

acre. 

I fts. 

3,000 

3.800 
3.400 

2.900 

3.800 
3,000 

3.400 
3,200 

3.100 

3.900 

2.900 

3,300 

5.600 

1.800 

4.400 

3.400 

2.600 

4.400 

7.100 
2,600 
2,800 
2,700 
2,900 
5,800 

Per 

cent. 

m’rk’t- 

able 

corn. 

Per 

cent. 

stools. 

8 :888888888  : 

Dis- 
tance 
of  ear 
from 
ground 

Inch’s. | 

Height 

stalk. 

ft.  in. 

to  ^tO^iCO'*"*  GO  CO  COCO  iO^QHCOOitO 

Date 

ripe. 

Sept. 

Per 

cent. 

ger- 

mi- 

ated. 

S8886i2SS83S 

Days 
to  ma- 
ture. 

Isllgllsl^l  oo88ooo2So8o j 

Source  Obtained. 

DeCou  & Co  , St.  Paul,  Minn 

NorthropB.&G.  Co.  Minneapolis, Minn 

M.  H.  Lamb,  Waseca,  Minn 

Northrop  B.&G.Co,  Minneapolis. Minn 
L.  P.  Smith,  Trumansburg.  N.  Y 

L.  L.  May.  St.  Paul,  Minn 

Joshua  Allyn,  Hastings,  Minn 

Salzer,  LaCrosse,  Wis 

NorthropB.&G.  Co.Minneapolis,  Minn 
Salzer,  La  Crosse,  Wis 

L.  P.  Smith.  Trumansburg, N.  Y 

•T.  A.  Bull,  Edina  Mills,  Minn 

DeCow  & Co..  St.  Paul.  Minn 

L.  P.  Smith,  Trumansburg,  N.  Y 

Station,  St.  Anthony  Park 

Lippett 

Twombley,  Wyoming,  Minn 

Salzer,  La  Crosse.  Wis 

J.  A.  Bull  Edina  Mills.  Minn  

NorthropB.&G.Co,  Minneapolis, Minn 

Description. 

+=  "S  +=  +3  ‘ 

° £ * EQ  : 

1 S o : 

i 2:  s Si  : j j j * 

>i  £ h ££  : 

Variety. 

North  Star 

Dakota 

Lamb’s 

Dakota  Queen  ... 

New  York 

Queen  of  North. . . 

Gold  Coin 

King  of  the  Earl’t 

AUyn’s 

Earl’est  Canadian 

Boyd’s 

Minnesota  King 
(horse  tooth)  . .. 
North  Dakota  ... 

Fosston 

New  York 

Bull’s 

Mercer 

New  York 

Longfellow 

Lippet’s 

Minnesota  Flint.. 

Squaw  Corn 

Bull’s 

Elephant  Fodder. 

•ONE  Teid 

„«n«^®OS-S  S;?;2St:ooS05;SSS; 

205 


WHEAT— IMPLEMENTS  FOR  SEEDING. 

During  the  winter  of  1892  and  1893  an  extensive  experi- 
ment was  planned  for  the  trial  of  a number  of  different 
wheat  seeding  machines,  but  owing  to  our  inability  to  get 
the  implements  wanted,  the  experiment  was  confined  to 
trials  of  a Hoe  drill,  Broadcast  seeder  and  a machine  in- 
vented by  W.  H.  Campbell,  of  Putney,  S.  D.  This  latter 
consists  of  two  sets  of  narrow-tired  wheels,  one  set  of  which 
runs  two  feet  ahead  of  and  alternates  with  the  other,  the 
whole  following  a seeding  box  and  set  of  cultivators,  the 
same  as  is  on  the  ordinary  broadcast  seeder.  The  wheels, 
following  the  broadcast  seeder,  thus  serve  the  double  pur- 
pose of  firming  the  under  soil  and  forming  a fine  “dust 
blanket”  on  the  surface,  taking  the  place  of  the  harrow^. 


TABLE  V.— Implements  for  Seeding  Wheat. 


Plat 

No. 

Machine  Used. 

Am’t  Seed 
Per  Acre. 

Days  to 
Mature. 

Straw  Per 
Acre  K>s. 

lbs.  Grain 
PerflbSeed. 

Yield  Per 
Acre,  bu. 

1 

Hoe  drill 

84  lbs. 

88 

1,362 

9.53 

13.35 

2 

Campbell’s  seeder 

87  lbs. 

87 

1,542 

10.59 

15.36 

3 

Broadcast  seeder. 

92  lbs. 

88 

1,575 

10.27 

15.56 

While  the  yield  per  acre,  as  shown  above,  was  a little 
smaller  with  Campbell’s  machine  than  with  the  Broadcast 
seeder,  the  conditions  favorable  to  the  largest  yield  with 
the  former  machine  were  lacking,  and  I am  well  satisfied 
that  the  machine  is  of  merit  on  dry,  loose  soil,  where  the 
lower  part  of  the  furrow  slice  needs  compacting. 


OATS.— IMPLEMENTS  FOR  SEEDING. 

In  conjunction  with  the  tests  of  implements  for  seeding 
wheat  three  plats  were  similarly  seeded  with  oats  in  the 
same  field  where  varieties  of  oats  were  grown. 


TABLE  VI.— Implements  for  Seeding  Oats. 


No. 

Machine  used. 

Date 

sown. 

Amount 
of  seed 
per  acre. 

Days  to 
mature. 

Straw 
per  acre  lb 

Grain  per 
acre.  Bu. 

1 

Hoe  Drill 

May  11. 

89  lbs. 

83 

3085 

57.46 

2 

Campbell’s  Seeder 

“ 11. 

102  lbs. 

83 

3278 

61.03 

3 

Broadcast  Seeder 

“ 11. 

100  lbs. 

83 

322  L 

61.25 

206 


In  the  trial  of  seeding  oats,  as  in  the  trial  of  these 
three  implements  for  seeding  wheat,  Campbell’s  seed- 
er, “The  North  Star  Roller  and  Seeder”  gave  the 
same  yield  as  did  the  Broadcast  seeder  followed  twice 
with  the  harrow.  The  land  used  was  compact  fall  plow- 
ing on  which  broadcasted  grain  could  do  well,  and  here 
it  seems  that  Campbell’s  seeder  had  no  especial  merit.  Its 
utility  will  doubtless  be  found  where  spring  grain  is  sowed 
on  very  loose  fall-plowing  or  on  spring-plowing  in  dry  sec- 
tions of  country  or  in  dry  spring  seasons. 

OATS— METHODS  OP  PREPARING  LAND  FOR. 

An  experiment  to  test  methods  of  preparing  land 
for  oats  and  the  effect  of  cultivation  on  the  amount 
of  water  in  the  soil  was  undertaken  on  a field  that  had 
been  pastured  several  years  but  had  been  broken  up  in  the 
fall  of  1891  and  raised  a crop  of  corn  in  1892.  The  soil  was  a 
light  sandy  loam  with  a gravelly  subsoil.  The  plats  contain- 
ed nearly  one  and  one  half  acres  each,  were  nearly  even  in 
general  characteristics  and  were  all  sown  at  the  rate  of  two 
bushels  of  oats  per  acre.  All  plats  were  seeded  with  a hoe- 
drill  after  preparing  the  corn  ground  as  described  in  the 
table.  In  our  dry  climate  methods  of  cultivation  designed  to 
conserve  moisture  in  the  furrow  slice,  so  that  plants  can 
have  food  elaborated  and  furnished  to  them  by  this  richest 
part  of  the  soil  where  they  best  like  to  feed,  are  worthy  of 
critical  study.  In  this  experiment  where  oats  were  sown  on 
corn  stubble  which  was  simply  disked;  on  corn  stubble 
plowed  shallow;  on  corn  stubble  plowed  deep;  and  on  corn 
stubble  plowed  deep  and  then  rolled  down  solid,  we  had  a 
good  opportunity  to  study  the  water  held  in  the  upper  and 
lower  soil  at  different  seasons  during  the  growth  of  the  crop. 


207 


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The  samples  for  determination  of  water  in  the  soil  were 
taken  on  top  of  a hill  running  at  a slight  angle  with  the  plats 
but  as  they  were  all  taken  on  the  same  line,  they  may  be 
considered  as  fairly  representative  of  each  plat  although  all 
would  have  shown  a large  amount  of  moisture  if  taken  on 
lower  land. 

The  samples  of  top  soil  were  taken  by  boring  down  to  a 
depth  of  three  inches  with  a common  post-hole  auger,  after 
first  carefully  removing  all  stubble  on  the  surface.  The 
samples  of  lower  soil  were  taken  from  these  same  holes  by 
boring  down  six  inches  further,  using  all  the  soil  from  three 
to  nine  inches  deep  from  which  to  take  the  samples.  All 
samples  were  taken  and  determinations  made  by  the  Chemi- 
cal Division  of  the  Experiment  Station. 

An  acre  of  soil  in  the  table  means  a layer  of  soil  three 
inches  deep,  covering  the  surface  of  one  acre.  An  acre  of 
lower  soil  means  the  layer  of  soil  between  three  and  nine 
inches  in  depth,  covering  an  area  of  one  acre.  The  deter- 
minations made  August  5th  were  from  samples  taken  after 
the  grain  was  cut.  It  will  be  seen  by  table  No.  XIII  that 
plats  Nos.  1 and  5,  corn  stubble  disked,  contained  the  lowest 
average  amount  of  water  in  both  surface  and  lower  soil  and 
gave  the  smallest  yield  of  grain  and  straw.  Flats  Nos.  1 and 
5 contained  the  least  moisture  in  the  early  part  of  the  season 
when  plant  growth  was  starting,  but  contained  as  much 
water  in  the  lower  soil  at  the  end  of  the  season  as  plats  2 
and  6,  plowed  shallow;  more  than  3 and  7,  plowed  deep;  and 
nearly  as  much  as  plat  No.  4,  plowed  deep  and  rolled  hard. 
At  the  time  of  seeding  the  already  dry  surface  soil  of  the 
disked  plats,  1 and  5,  was  thoroughly  stirred  up  and  dried 
out  to  a depth  of  three  inches  by  the  frequent  discing  and 
did  not  contain  the  necessary  amount  of  moisture  to  germi- 
nate the  seed  placed  in  this  loose  dust  blanket  and  to  start  a 
full  growth  of  grain.  On  account  of  the  lighter  crop  grow 
ing  on  these  disked  plots  there  was  apparently  not  so  much 
water  pumped  up  from  the  lower  soil  by  the  plants  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  season  as  in  the  rest  of  the  field.  This  allow- 
ed the  accumulation  of  as  much  water  in  this  lower  soil  as  in 
the  lower  soil  of  the  other  while  the  surface  soil  remained 


209 


driest  through  the  entire  season,  probably  because  of  the 
thorough  loosening  in  the  preparation.  The  corn -stubble 
land  by  deeper  plowing  produced  more  grain  and  straw 
than  that  plowed  shallow  or  that  simply  disked. 

In  plats  2 and  6,  plowed  shallow,  and  in  3 and  7,  plowed 
deep,  the  seed  was  deposited  in  soil  freshly  turned  up  by  the 
plow,  and  the  shallow  cultivation  given  by  the  harrow  and 
drill  did  not  seem  to  allow  it  to  dry  out  so  much  as  in  the 
plats  heretofore  mentioned.  They  had  moisture  enough  left 
to  start  a fair  growth,  though  not  so  large  as  in  plat  No.  4, 
which  was  rolled  down  hard  after  deep  plowing.  Nor  did 
they  require  so  much  water  to  support  their  less  growth  of 
grain  as  did  the  heavier  yielding  plat  No.  4,  thus  leaving 
more  moisture  in  the  entire  soil  at  the  end  of  the  season. 

In  plat  No.  4,  which  gave  the  largest  yield  of  grain  and 
straw,  the  moisture  was  more  nearly  all  retained  by  the  pro- 
cess of  rolling,  and  then  harrowing  lightly  to  form  a “dust 
blanket”.  The  water  thus  conserved  started  a strong  growth 
of  grain,  which  later  in  the  season  required  a much  larger 
amount  of  water  than  the  lighter  growth  on  the  other  plats, 
and  brought  the  average  amount  of  water  down  practically 
to  that  of  the  rest  of  the  field. 

The  lessons  to  be  drawn  from  this  experiment,  so  far  as  a 
single  trial  can  be  relied  upon,  are  that  the  more  compact  we 
make  our  seed  bed  and  lower  part  of  the  furrow  slice,  and 
the  more  perfect  the  shallow  “dust  blanket,”  the  better  we 
can  save  what  moisture  is  in  the  soil  and  apply  it  to  the  use 
of  the  growing  crop  at  the  time  of  germination  and  stooling 
when  it  needs  most  water.  By  the  time  the  grain  has  got- 
ten past  the  germinating  and  stooling  period  the  capillary 
action  which  was  interrupted  by  the  plow  has  practically  re- 
sumed operation  and  is  ready  to  supply  moisture  from  below. 
While  a shallow  “dust  blanket”  is  evidently  a benefit  to  dry 
soils,  it  can  readily  be  seen  that  a ‘ ‘blanket”  three  inches  deep 
in  which  to  deposit  seed  may  be  a detriment. 


210 


POTATOES— METHOD  OF  PLANTING. 

Potatoes  planted  so  as  to  test  several  methods  were 
planted  in  clover  sod  broken  the  fall  previous.  The  rows 
were  forty  inches  apart  and  seed  pieces  cut  to  one  or  two 
eyes  were  planted,  as  shown  in  tables  XVI  and  XVII.  The 
results  illustrate  the  generally  accepted  fact  that  in  our  cli- 
mate, subject  to  drouth,  potatoes  should  not  be  planted 
shallow.  The  potatoes  planted  shallow  not  only  yielded  less 
but  they  were  not  of  such  good  quality,  having  more 
branches  or  “fingers  and  toes.”  The  potatoes  planted 
deeper  were  comparatively  free  from  these  wart  like 
growths,  which  sometimes  are  produced  by  the  tubers  taking 
on  a second  growth  when  a period  of  drouth  is  succeeded  by 
a period  when  the  soil  is  again  moist. 


TABLE  XIV.— Methods  of  Planting  Potatoes. 


r | Plat  No. 

METHOD  OF  PLANTING. 

Amount  seed  per  acre. 
Bushels. 

Days  to  mature. 

Bushels  per  acre  not 
salable. 

Bushels  per  acre  sal- 
able. 

Bushels  harvest’d,  per 
bushel  planted. 

Total  yield  per  acre. 
Bushels. 

Land  plowed  five  inches  deep,  harrowed, 
marked  three  inches  deep,  hills  thirty-two 
inches  apart  in  the  row,  two  seed  pieces  in 
each  hill  covered  three  inches  deep  with 
hoe 

8.9 

122 

35.8 

120.7 

17.6 

156.5 

! 

2 

Furrows  drawn  six  inches  deep,  potatoes  plan- 
ted in  furrows,  one  seed  piece  every  fifteen 
inches.  Furrow  turned  back  to  cover  seed  — 

11.4 

10.1 

1 

322 

1 

17.2 

190.3 

18.2 

207.5 

3... 

Potatoes  dropped  in  every  third  furrow  as  the 
piece  was  plowed.  Furrows  six  inches  deep, 
one  seed  piece  every  fifteen  inches 

122 

20. 

180. 

19.8 

200 

211 


TABLE  XV.— Potatoes;  Depth  of  Planting. 


Plot  No. 

DEPTH  PLANTED. 

Amount  of  seed 
per  acre. 

Bu.  per  acre  not 
saleable. 

Bu. saleable  per 
acre. 

Bu.  harvested, 
per  bushels 
planted. 

Total  bushels 
per  acre. 

1 

Plowed  under  two  inches  deep  and  harrowed  as 
the  potatoes  came  up 

9.8 

28.9 

184.5 

21.7 

213.1 

2 

Plowed  under  four  inches  deep  and  harrowed  as 
the  potatoes  came  up 

8.9 

22. 

171.1 

22 

196.1 

3 

Plowed  under  six  inches  deep  and  harrowed  as 
the  potatoes  came  up 

7.7 

32.9 

179.7 

27.6 

212.6 

4 

Plowed  under  eight  inches  deep  and  harrowed  as 
the  potatoes  came  up 

9.3 

29.4 

162.3 

20.6 

191.7 

5 

Dropped  in  furrows  eight  inches  deep  and  cov- 
ered lightly,  leaving  soil  to  pull  down  as  pota- 
toes came  up 

10.1 

20.8 

175.4 

19.4 

196.2 

6 

Plowed  under  eight  inches  deep  and  harrowed  as 
the  potatoes  came  up.  

9.2 

15.4 

188.6 

22.2 

204. 

7 

Dropped  in  furrows  eight  inches  deep,  covered 
one  inch  deep  with  straw  and  furrow  turned 
harrowed  as  the  potatoes  came  up 

8.6 

12.1 

142.5 

18. 

154.6 

OATS. 

STUDY  OF  PER  CENT.  OF  GERMINATION  AND  STOOLING  OF 
OATS  AT  DIFFERENT  DEPTHS  OF  PLANTING. 


TABLE  VII.— Germination  of  Oats  at  Different  Depths. 


Hill  No. 

Depth  sown. 

Date  sown. 

Per  cent 
Seeds  grown 

No.  of  heads 
on  plat  when 
matured. 

1 

i inch 
i inch 
t inch 

May  6 
May  6 
May  6 
May  6 
May  6 
May  6 
May  6 
May  6 
May  6 
May  6 
May  6 
May  6 

86 

Ill 

2 

81 

127 

3 

90 

103 

4 

1 inch 

85 

119 

5 

li  inches 
1£  inches 
If  inches 
2 inches 

76 

112 

6 

79 

113 

7 , 

82 

112 

8 

59 

125 

9 

2i inches 
2i  inches 
2f  inches 
3 inches 

60 

102 

10 

72 

11 

60 

12 

30 

17 

One  hundred  kernels  were  planted  in  each  hill  of  one 
square  foot. 

The  oats  were  able  to  come  up  nearly  equally  well  at  all 
depths  from  If  inch  to  If  inches  deep,  and  the  production 
of  strong  culms  was  quite  as  good  with  the  deeper  of  these 
plantings.  Oats  planted  If  to  2 inches  deep  germinated  well. 


212 


BARLEY. 

STUDY  OP  PER  CENT.  OP  GERMINATION  AND  STOOLING  OF 
BARLEY  PLANTED  AT  DIFFERENT  DEPTHS. 

As  in  the  case  of  oats,  each  hill  was  one  foot  square  and 
was  planted  in  depths  running  from  J to  3 inches.  One  hun 
dred  kernels  were  planted  in  each  hill. 


TABLE  VIII.— Germination  of  Barley  at  Different  Depths. 


Hill  No. 

Depth  sown. 

Date  sown. 

Seeds  ger- 
minated. 

Heads  on 
plot  when 
matured 

1 

i inch 
i inch 
t inch 

May  19 
May  19 
May  19 
May  19 
May  19 
May  19 
May  19 
May  19 
May  19 
May  19 
May  19 
May  19 

79 

112 

2 

92 

117 

3 

84 

105 

4 

1 inch 

79 

104 

5 

li inch 

63 

79 

6 

H inch 
It  inch 
2 inches 

62 

57 

7 

27 

23 

8 

33 

44 

9 

2i  inches 
2i  inches 
2t  inches 
3 inches 

28 

30 

10 

30 

14 

11 

12 

0 

12 

19 

1 

The  barley  planted  only  one  inch  and  less  in  depth  ger- 
minated better  and  produced  more  culms  than  that  planted 
deeper. 


OATS. 

YIELD  OF  OATS  SOWN  AT  DIFFERENT  DEPTHS. 

This  experiment  was  to  ascertain  the  yield  per  acre  of  oats 
sown  at  different  depths.  The  plats  were  one  rod  square 
and  the  oats  were  sown  by  hand  in  drills  six  inches  apart, 
varying  in  depths  from  one -half  to  three  inches.  Two 
bushels  of  seed  per  acre  were  used. 


TABLE  IX.— Oats  Sown  at  Different  Depths. 


Plot 

No. 

Depth  sown. 

Date  Sown. 

Days  to 
mature. 

Yield  of 
straw 

per  acre,  lbs. 

Yield  of 
grain 

per  acre,  bu. 

1 

£ inch 

May  16 

76 

3,200 

26 

2 

1 inch 

May  17 

75 

3,296 

27 

3 

H inches 

May  17 

75 

3,424 

28 

4 

2 inches 

May  17 

75 

3,424 

28 

5 

21  inches 

May  17 

77 

3,120 

32  5 

6 

3 inches 

May  17 

77 

3,248 

32 

213 


This  date  of  seeding  was  medium  as  to  earliness  in  the 
progress  of  the  season.  The  oats  sown  two  and  one-half  and 
three  inches  deep  yielded  the  most  grain  and  that  seeded 
one-half  and  one  inch  yielded  least,  while  that  one  and  one 
half  and  two  inches  deep  produced  the  most  straw. 


BARLEY. 

YIELD  WHEN  SOWN  AT  DIFFERENT  DEPTHS. 
TABLE  X.— Yield  of  Barley  at  Different  Depths. 


Plot  No. 

Depth  sown. 

Date  sown. 

Days  to 
mature. 

Yield  of 
straw  per 
acre,  lbs. 

Yield  of 
grain  per 
acre,  hu. 

1 

i inch 

May  18 

68 

2,720 

20.7 

2 

1 inch 

May  18 

68 

2,880 

26.7 

3 

H inches 

May  18 

68 

2,918 

28. 

4 

2 inches 

May  18 

68 

2,848 

26. 

5 

2£  inches 

May  18 

69 

2,800 

24. 

6 

3 inches 

May  18 

69 

2,784 

22.6 

From  the  above  table  it  will  be  seen  that  barley  did  best 
when  planted  one  to  two  inches  deep. 


OATS-HEAVY  VS.  LIGHT  FOR  SEED. 

The  practice  of  many  of  the  farmers  of  Minnesota  in  using 
their  light  grain  for  seed  led  to  a comparison  of  heavy  and 
light  oats  for  seed.  To  obtain  the  heavy  seed,  oats  of  good 
weight  were  run  through  the  fanning  mill  using  all  the 
wind  possible  to  blow  out  the  light  oats  and  chaff.  For 
light  seed  the  oats  thus  blown  out  were  recleaned  using  only 
enough  wind  to  blow  out  the  chaff  and  very  lightest  kernels. 


TABLE  XI.— Heavy  vs.  Light  Oats  for  Seed. 


6 

Weight  of 

Pounds 
seed  on 
plot. 

Kernels 

Yield  of 

Yield  of 

+3 

Seed 

Rate  per 

seed  per 

per  bush. 

Kernels 

straw 

grain  per 

o 

£ 

used. 

acre. 

measured 

bushel. 

of  32 
pounds. 

on  plot. 

per 

acre,  lbs. 

acre. 

Bushels. 

1 

Heavy 

2 bush. 

37  lbs. 

31 

567,296 

549,568 

3,389 

64.09 

2 

Light 

2 bush. 

21  lbs. 

14 

911,872 

398,944 

2,492 

54.59 

This  experiment  does  not  show  as  radical  a difference  in 
the  product  of  light  and  heavy  seed  as  is  usual,  though  the 
heavier  seed  produced  9%  bushels  more  of  oats  than  the  light 
seed.  When  the  season  and  soil  furnish  poor  seeds  of  good 
parentage,  with  the  best  of  conditions,  the  young  plants  are 
enabled  very  soon  to  get  nourishment  from  the  soil  in  ample 
quantities  and  do  not  need  a large  supply  stored  up  in  the 
seeds  for  their  use.  But  heavy  seed  will  pay  as  a rule,  and 
pay  well. 


ih  cq  co 


214 


OATS— EARLY  VS.  LATE  SEEDING. 

To  determine  the  relative  value  of  early  and  late  seeding 
of  oats,  three  plats  of  equal  size  were  laid  out  in  the  same 
field  with  the  experiment  on  “Methods  of  Preparing  Lands 
for  Oats.”  Three  plots  of  oats  were  sown  at  intervals  of 
about  ten  days,  at  the  rate  of  about  two  bushels  per  acre. 

TABLE  XII. -Early  vs.  Late  Seeding  of  Oats. 


Date  sown. 

Days  to 
mature. 

Yield  of  straw 
per  acre, 
pounds. 

Yield  of  grain 
per  acre. 
Bushels. 

April  18 

99 

1,926 

47.59 

April  29 

88 

1,486 

37.61 

M ay  1 1 

83 

1,199 

25.37 

On  the  night  of  April  18th  six  inches  of  snow  fell  and  re- 
mained until  April  28.  This  retarded  the  germination  of 
the  grain  sown  on  the  18th  and  partially  accounts  for  the 
greater  length  of  time  taken  to  mature,  while  the  amount  of 
moisture  stored  up  at  that  time  doubtless  had  some  influence 
in  the  increased  yield. 

This  experiment  suggests  that  in  our  extensive  system  of 
farming  a great  loss  is  sustained  annually  by  leaving  the 
seeding  of  oats  until  all  other  grain  is  seeded.  It  has  been 
our  experience  that  the  sooner  most  of  the  small  grains  are 
put  in  the  ground  after  the  frost  is  out  the  better. 


University  of  Minnesota. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  No.  32. 


HORTICULTURAL  DIVISION. 


December,  1893. 


Late  Blight  and  Rot  of  the  Potato — Potato  Scab — 
Cross  Fertilization  of  Grapes — Conservation  of 
Moisture  in  the  Soil — Fruits:  Notes  on  Varieties. 


^“The  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the  State 
who  make  application  for  them. 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK,  RAMSEY  COUNTY 
MINNESOTA. 


Minneapolis  : 

Harrison  & Smith,  Printers. 


University  of  Minnesota 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS, 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLS  BURY,  Minneapolis,  - - 1896. 

The  HON.  GREENLEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - 1894. 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - 1894.  % 

The  HON.  JOHN  LIND,  New  Ulm, 1896. 

The  HON.  JOEL  P.  HEATWOLE,  Northfield,  - - 1896. 

The  HON.  O.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth, 1896. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson,  - - - 1896. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN,  Minneapolis, 1895. 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  B.  A.,  Minneapolis,  - 1895. 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  St.  Paul,  - - - Ex-Officio. 

The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PENDERGAST,  M.  A.,  Hutchinson,  Ex-Officio. 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHORP,  LL.  D.,  Minneapolis,  - - Ex-Officio . 

The  President  of  the  University. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  J.  S.  PILLSBURY. 

The  HON.  JOHN  LIND. 

The  HON  S.  M.  OWEN. 

The  HON.  W~.  W.  PENDERGAST. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION: 

WM.  M.  LIGGETT,  --------  Chairman. 

WILLET  M.  HAYS,  B.  S.  A.,  - Vice-Chairman  and  Agriculturist. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S., Horticulturist. 

OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S., - Chemist. 

T.  L.  HiECKER Dairy  Husbandry. 

M.  H.  REYNOLDS,  M.  D.,  V.  M.,  - Veterinarian. 

THOS.  SHAW, - Animal  Husbandry. 

J.  A.  VYE,  - Secretary. 

ANDREW  BOSS,  - - Farm  Foreman. 


LATE  BLIGHT  AND  HOT  OF  THE  POTATO. 


SAMUEL  B.  GREEN. 


In  this  State  we  are  as  yet  comparatively  free  from  serious 
loss  from  late  blight  and  rot  of  potato,  yet  in  the  older  sec- 
tions of  the  State,  considerable  loss  annually  occurs  to  the 
potato  crop  from  one  or  both  of  these  troubles,  and  in  oc- 
casional years  very  serious  damage  results  from  them.  It 
is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  loss  from  this  cause  is  very  gen- 
erally underestimated  or  not  considered  at  all.  It  is  the 
object  of  this  article  to  discuss  this  subject  briefly  and  to 
give  the  best  known  methods  of  combating  the  disease. 

Late  blight  of  the  potato  (Phyopthora  infestans)  and  potato 
rot  are  the  result  of  the  development  in  the  leaves  or  tubers 
of  a fungus  plant  or  mildew  which  by  its  growth  robs  the  plant 
on  which  it  grows,  and  prevents  the  natural  use  of  the  food 
formed  in  the  plant,  and  even  going  so  far  as  to  break  down 
the  tissues  in  which  it  grows  causing  their  premature  decay 
and  death.  It  has  been  known  for  fifty  years.  It  attacks 
medium  or  late  potatoes  and  seldom  if  ever  injures  early  pota- 
toes. It  generally  makes  its  appearance  in  July  or  August 
causing  the  leaves  to  die  before  the  potatoes  are  more  than  one 
half  or  two-thirds  grown.  It  is  most  prevalent  during  moist 
warm  weather  when  the  fungus  may  often  be  seen  as  a deli- 
cate frost  like  mildew  on  the  stems  or  leaves  of  the  potato 
vines.  In  seasons  favorable  to  it  the  tops  of  the  entire  field 
may  be  killed  in  a very  few  days  from  the  time  the  disease 
is  first  noticed.  In  seasons  not  very  favorable  to  it  the  tops 
may'  die  prematurely  but  so  gradually  as  to  be  mistaken  for 
the  natural  maturing  of  the  plant.  I think  it  most  often  acts 
in  the  latter  way  in  this  State.  From  the  tops  the  spores  may 
pass  to  the  tubers  where  they  cause  them  to  rot.  This  dis- 
ease may  be  lessened  by  the  use  of  Bordeaux  Mixture  to 


216 


which  reference  will  be  made  further  on.  Figure  1 shows 
the  way  in  which  the  disease  often  commences.  It  frequent- 


Fig.  1.  Late  blight  of  potatoes  in  the  early  stages.  Phytophthora  infestans. 

ly  starts  at  some  spot  on  the  leaf  which  has  been  injured  and 
from  there  spreads  in  every  direction.  This  will  many  times 
be  noticed  around  holes  made  by  beetles. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

This  subject  has  attracted  much  attention  from  experi- 
menters in  the  older  states,  where  the  use  of  Bordeaux  Mix- 
ture, as  a preventative,  has  been  so  successful  that  it  is 
becoming  very  generally  adopted  by  the  most  progressive 
planters.  The  results  are  not  always  uniform,  as  there  are 


217 


occasional  years  when  the  disease  does  not  seem  to  be  very 
destructive,  but  the  increased  assurance  of  a crop  warrants 
its  use  in  those  sections. 

At  the  Vermont  Experiment  Station,  in  1893,  the  crop  of 
potatoes  was  increased  from  a total  of  169  bushels  of  White 
Star  potatoes,  where  the  tops  were  not  sprayed,  to  a total  of 
400  bushels,  where  the  tops  were  sprayed.  This  seems  to 
many  almost  incredible,  but  when  it  is  understood  that  the 
tops  of  one  plat  were  completely  dried  up  when  the  sprayed 
plats  were  fresh  and  green,  some  idea  may  be  had  of  the  way 
the  treatment  works.  It  certainly  is  an  extraordinary  increase, 
even  for  this  treatment.  This  condition  is  nicely  illustrated 
in  Figure  2,  which  has  been  kindly  loaned  us  by  that  Station. 


Sprayed  with  Bordeaux  Mixture.  Not  sprayed. 

Fig.  2.  View  of  sprayed  and  untreated  plats  of  potatoes. 

The  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station  increased  the  po- 
tato crop  there,  in  1890,  48  per  cent,  by  spraying  the  foliage. 
Several  other  experiment  stations  have  received  very  satis- 
factory results. 


218 


Two  experiments  in  this  line  have  been  carried  on  at  this 
Station,  and  they  have  shown  a considerable  increase  in  the 
crop  as  the  result  of  the  application  of  Bordeaux  Mixture. 
In  1888,  parallel  rows  of  potatoes,  each  100  feet  long,  were 
treated  with  Bordeax  mixture,  and  a yield  of  186  pounds  per 
row  was  noted.  The  untreated  rows  yielded  143  pounds, 
showing  an  increase  of  45  pounds  per  100  feet.  This  is 
equal  to  104  bushels  per  acre,  or  an  increase  of  about  30  per 
cent,  as  the  result  of  the  treatment.  In  this  case  the  tops  of 
the  treated  row  was  stronger  and  more  vigorous  every  way, 
and  they  remained  fresh  and  green  for  two  weeks  after  the 
tops  of  the  other  varieties  were  dead. 

In  the  summer  of  1893,  on  the  farm  of  Mr.  Herman  Schmeltz, 
which  adjoins  the  University  Farm,  four  rows  in  a piece  of 
Late  Burbank  potatoes, growing  on  very  even  land,  were  treat- 
ed with  Bordeaux  Mixture.  Shortly  after  the  first  application 
the  tops  of  the  treated  rows  were  easily  distinguished  from 
those  of  the  rest  of  the  field  by  their  fresher,  dark  green 
color.  This  difference  continued  to  be  a very  prominent 
distinguishing  mark  until  the  tops  were  cut  by  frost.  How- 
ever, the  tops  of  the  whole  patch  continued  to  grow  until 
frozen,  and  there  was,  apparently,  little  or  no  blight 
present,  yet  at  the  harvest  the  four  treated  rows  yielded  10J- 
bushels  of  merchantable  potatoes,  and  the  untreated  rows 
adjoining  yielded  eight  bushels  of  merchantable  potatoes. 
This  is  equivalent  to  a yield  of  210  bushels  from  the  treated 
rows  and  160  bushels  from  the  four  rows  not  treated,  which 
is  equal  to  an  increase  of  50  bushels  per  acre.  This  increase 
seemed  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  tubers  from  the  treated 
rows  were  of  a larger  size  than  the  others.  In  the  treated 
rows  the  potatoes  were  all  merchantable,  while  in  the  un- 
treated rows  there  was  one-half  bushel  of  small  potatoes; 
an  amount  equal  to  ten  bushels  of  small  potatoes  per  acre. 

This  line  of  work  has  not  been  carried  sufficiently  far  or 
exact  enough  in  this  State  to  warrant  the  statement  that  it 
will  pay  to  use  fungicides,  but  it  is  certainly  evident  that 
every  potato  grower,  at  least  in  the  older  portions  of  the 
State,  should  try  this  experiment  in  a small  way  the  coming 
year. 


219 


BORDEAUX  MIXTURE. 

Bordeaux  Mixture,  the  fungicide  recommended,  is  made  by 
dissolving  6 pounds  sulphate  of  copper  (blue  vitrol)  in  16 
gallons  of  water  in  a wooden  vessel.  A barrel  is  good  for 
this  purpose.  In  another  vessel  slake  4 pounds  of  fresh 
lime  in  six  gallons  of  water.  When  this  has  cooled,  it  is 
slowly  poured  into  the  sulphate  of  copper  through  a burlap 
cloth  which  will  take  out  all  the  lumps  of  lime.  The  liquids 
are  thoroughly  mixed  by  stirring  when  the  whole  should  be 
of  a sky  blue  color.  It  should  be  prepared  a few  days  be- 
fore using.  When  used  it  should  be  diluted  by  adding  to  it 
about  the  same  bulk  of  water.  It  is  sometimes  used  at  its 
full  strength  but  it  is  more  difficult  to  apply  wThen  so  strong, 
is  twice  as  expensive,  and  gives  but  little,  if  any,  better  re- 
sults than  wThen  diluted  as  recommended.  Three  sprayings 
are  generally  sufficient  though  in  wet  seasons  at  least  four 
should  be  applied,  commencing  when  the  tops  are  about  half 
grown  in  ordinary  years,  and  somewhat  earlier  if  any  signs  of 
blight  are  noticed  on  the  plants.  Generally  an  application 
should  be  made  about  once  in  two  weeks  after  the  wTork 
is  commenced. 


EXPENSE  OF  THE  WORK. 

The  amount  used  at  each  application  will  depend  on  the 
size  of  the  tops.  For  the  first  about  100  gallons  to  the  acre 
will  be  necessary  and  for  the  last  two  applications  about  150 
gallons  each  time  making  in  all  400  gallons  of  Bordeaux  Mix- 
ture. The  cost  of  materials  for  the  above  formula  will  be: 


6 lbs  blue  vitrol  (sulphate  copper)  at  6c  per  lb 36c 

4 lbs  lime  at  ic  per  lb lie 

Cost  of  44  gallons 37ic 


From  the  above  it  would  appear  that  the  cost  would  not 
exceed  one  cent  per  gallon  of  the  mixture  but,  as  the  blue 
vitrol  may  not  always  be  obtainable  at  seven  cents  perhaps 
the  cost  might  be  a trifle  more.  At  this  price  the  cost  of  the 
material  to  spray  one  acre  will  be  about  $4.  The  labor  in- 
volved will  depend  on  the  way  in  which  the  work  is  done, 
and  for  each  application  it  may  be  considered  about  the  same 


220 


as  that  necessary  to  apply  Paris  Green.  When  it  is  neces  • 
sary  to  spray  for  the  potato  beetle,  the  Paris  Green  may  be 
applied  in  the  Bordeaux  Mixture  at  the  rate  of  one  pound 
to  100  gallons  of  the  mixture. 

MANNER  OF  APPLYING  BORDEAUX  MIXTURE. 

In  a small  way  Bordeaux  Mixture  may  be  applied  with  a 
brush,  broom  or  by  any  of  the  means  used  for  applying  Paris 
green  and  water  but  when  the  work  is  undertaken  on  a large 
scale,  it  should  be  put  on  with  a force  pump  and  a spray 
nozzle,  and  as  the  spray  nozzle  divides  the  liquid  up  into  a 
very  light  spray  the  material  goes  much  farther  than 
if  put  on  with  a watering  pot  or  brush  broom.  This  can  be 
done  very  cheaply  and  conveniently  by  rigging  a barrel  with 
a force  pump  and  ten  feet  of  hose  with  a spray  nozzle.  The 
barrel  can  be  easily  carried  through  the  rows  in  a wagon. 
With  such  an  arrangement  from  two  to  five  acres  may  be 
sprayed  in  one  day.  The  amount  depending  on  the  size  of 
the  tops.  A spray  nozzle  is  very  important.  At  the  Ex- 
periment Station  we  use  one  that  is  called  a Nixon  nozzle,  but 
there  are  several  other  kinds  which  are  just  as  good. 

SUMMARY. 

(1.)  Late  blight  of  potatoes  is  probably  quite  a serious 
source  of  loss  to  the  farmers  of  the  older  sections  of  Min- 
nesota. 

(2.)  Late  blight  of  potatoes  is  caused  by  the  same  fungus 
that  produces  potato  rot. 

(3.)  Late  blight  and  rot  of  potatoes  may  be  prevented  by 
the  application  of  Bordeaux  Mixture  to  the  tops  of  the  pota- 
toes after  the  vines  are  half  grown . 

(4.)  It  is  well  worth  while  for  growers  of  potatoes  to  ex- 
periment in  the  use  of  Bordeaux  Mixture  for  the  prevention 
of  blight  and  rot,  although  it  is  not  recommended  to  treat 
the  whole  crop  with  it. 

( 5. ) The  cost  of  material  for  Bordeaux  Mixture  should 
not  exceed  $4  per  acre  and  under  favorable  circumstances 
it  may  come  much  below  this  figure. 


221 


(6.)  The  increase  in  the  crop  from  the  treatment  re- 
commended may  often  be  as  much  as  fifty  bushels  per  acre, 
and  frequently  much  more.  This  increase  will  pay  for  the 
expense  of  the  operation  and  as  the  potatoes  are  generally 
larger  and  smoother  as  the  result  of  the  treatment  it  is  prob- 
able the  work  will  pay  well.  In  some  seasons  little  or  no 
results  have  come  from  the  practice  but  such  negative 
results  are  very  exceptional. 

(7.)  The  Paris  green  or  London  purple  which  is  ordin- 
arily applied  for  the  potato  beetle  may  be  mixed  into  and 
applied  with  the  Bordeaux  Mixture  with  as  good  results  as 
if  applied  alone.  It  is  safer  to  use  it  thus  mixed. 


POTATO  SCAB. 


SAMUEL  B.  GREEN. 


The  losses  from  pototo  scab  ( Oospora  scabies)  are  so  well 
known  that  no  description  nor  statement  of  the  loss  it 
occasions  is  necessary.  It  attacks  any  and  all  varieties  of  po- 
tatoes. The  cause  of  this  trouble  has  been  variously  attributed 
to  wood  ashes,  to  insects,  to  stable  manure,  to  heavy  and  light 
soil,  to  too  much  and  too  little  water  in  the  soil  and  to 
many  other  causes.  It  has  been  conclusively  demon- 
strated that  while  some  of  these  conditions  may  increase  the 
amount  and  the  rapidity  of  its  development,  yet  no  one  of 
them  nor  any  of  them  combined  are  the  first  causes  in  pro- 
ducing the  disease.  The  real  cause  of  the  disease  is  a 
minute  parasitic  fungus  plant  that  lives  in  the  skin  of  the 
potato  tuber.  The  growth  of  it  there  produces  an  irritation 
which  induces  the  healthy  cells  to  start  an  extra  growth 
to  repair  the  injury  done  by  the  fungus.  This  growth, 
which  takes  place  under  the  diseased  surface  skin,  pushes 
it  up,  thus  rupturing  the  cells  and  forming  the  rough 
surface,  which  we  call  “scab.”  In  the  same  manner, 
any  growing,  healthy  plant  overgrows  injuries  which 
it  may  receive.  That  this  is  so  is  well  demonstrated  by  the 


following  experiments 
made  by  Dr.  R.  Thax- 
ter.  A smooth-  potato 
was  marked  with  ma- 


Fig.  3.  Potato  scab  induced  by  inoculation  in  form 
of  monogram  “R.  T.”  After  Thaxter. 


i ' : 1« 

k v,:f  terial  containing  the 
iv « > | pure  potato-scab 
* W germs,  in  the  form  of 
^ a monogram  of  the  let- 
gi|fep  ters  “R.  T.,”  with  re- 
sult shown  in  figure  3. 
In  another  experiment, 

n in  form  _ ,,  « , . 


the  result  of  which  is  il- 
lustrated in  figure  4,  one 


223 


potato  was  marked  with  the  pure  scab  fungus  in  the  form  of 
the  letter  “L.”  In  the  case  of  the  small  potato  in  figure  5, 
the  end  of  it  was  just  touched  with  water  containing  germs 
of  the  scab  fungus.  In  each  of  these  cases  the  fungus  pro- 
duced the  roughened  sur- 
face on  the  skin  of  the 
potato  characteristic  of 
scab,  and  that  in  a form 
to  prove  it  the  result  of 
the  inoculation,  thus  show- 
ing satisfactorily  that 
scab  is  the  result  of  the 
growth  of  germs  in  the 
skin  of  the  potato.  In 
this  connection  perhaps 
it  should  be  stated  that 
the  scab  fungus  will  grow 
on  the  surface  of  a potato 
if  given  warmth  and  mois- 
ture, whether  the  tuber  is 
growing  or  not.  In  con- 
sequence of  this,  scabby  potatoes  should  be  dug  at  once 
when  matured,  since  otherwise  the  scab  will  continue  to 
grow  and  to  cause  an  increase  of  the  injury. 

Another  instance  showing  the  germ  character  of  the  po- 
tato scab,  and  that  it  will  live  over  winter  in  the  soil  and  may 
be  distributed  in  drainage  water,  came  under  my  notice  near 
Edina  Mills,  Hennepin  county.  A gentleman  there  has  a 
piece  of  land  on  a hillside,  through  which  is  a slight  depres- 
sion extending  down  the  hill.  The  land  above  his  had  be- 
come infected  with  potato  scab.  He  broke  up  a piece  of  new 
land  adjoining  and  planted  it  with  clean  seed  potatoes.  At 
harvest  he  found  that  extending  down  the  hill  in  the  form  of 
the  ietter  V,  where  the  drainage  from  the  land  above  would 
naturally  flow,  that  the  potatoes  were  scabby,  while  on  the 
rest  of  the  piece  the  tubers  were  clean  and  smooth.  This  is 
illustrated  in  figure  5,  in  which  the  part  shaded  with  lines 
represents  the  land  that  produced  scabby  potatoes.  The 
new  land  that  was  newly  broken  up  is  shown  to  the  left, 


Fig.  5.  Sketch  of  two  potatoes  showing  the 
effects  of  artificial  application  of  the  germs  of 
“deep  scab.”  In  the  case  of  the  large  tuber 
the  germs  were  taken  from  a culture  similar 
to  that  shown  in  fig.  1 and  applied  in  the  form 
of  an  L.  The  apex  of  the  small  tuber  was 
merely  brushed  with  water  containing  germs. 
Natural  size.  After  Bolley. 


224 


and  the'portion  of  it  which  received  the  wash  from  the  land 
above  and  was  consequently  infested  with  scab  is  shown  by 
the  V shaped  darker  part  extending  into  the  new  field. 


Fig.  5.  Showing  distribution  of  potato  scab  by  drainage.  The  enclosure  to  the 
right  and  above,  is  land  infested  with  potato  scab.  The  enclosure  to  the  left  and  be- 
low, the  newly  broken  land  which  was  planted  with  clean  seed  potatoes.  The  V 
shaped  part  below  the  fence  represents  the  part  of  the  new  land  infected  with  scab 
from  the  field  above  by  drainage. 

Our  largest  and  most  experienced  potato  growers  take 
great  pains  to  obtain  and  plant  only  such  seed  potatoes  as  are 
free  from  scab  and  not  to  plant  on  land  that  has  produced  a 
crop  of  rough  potatoes.  These  considerations  are  the  result 
of  constant  observations  of  the  evil  attendant  on  such  prac- 
tices. 

Extensive  experiments  made  at  this  Experiment  Station 
and  in  many  places  elsewhere  show  plainly:  (1),  That  scab- 

by seed  potatoes  almost  uniformly  produce  a scabby  crop  of 
tubers  even  if  planted  on  new  land.  There  are  occasional 
exceptions  to  this  rule  but  they  do  not  occur  very  often. 
(2),  That  in  old  potato  land,  i.  e.,  where  the  scab  has  been 
harmful,  the  crop  is  almost  certain  to  be  scabby  even  though 
only  perfectly  healthy  seed  is  planted. 

The  length  of  time  the  germs  of  scab  will  live  in  the 
soil  is  not  known,  but  the  experience  of  various  growers 
would  seem  to  show  that  they  may  live  at  least  three  or  four 
years,  and  Prof.  Bolley  states  it  has  been  known  to  have 
seriously  injured  a crop  of  beets  after  an  interval  of  five 
years  from  the  time  when  a crop  of  scabby  potatoes  was 
harvested.  In  this  connection  it  is  of  interest  to  know  that 


225 


the  disease  called  scab  on  beets  is  the  same  as  scab  on  pota- 
toes, and  consequently  potatoes  should  never  follow  a crop  of 
scabby  beets  without  an  interval  of  at  least  six  years,  which 
is  perhaps  long  enough  to  permit  the  germs  to  die  out  in  the 
soil,  but  as  this  time  may  not  be  long  enough  to  thoroughly 
cleanse  the  land  from  the  germs  of  the  scab  fungus,  a longer 
period  should  intervene  whenever  it  is  practicable. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  CLEAN  SEED. 

The  importance  of  having  seed  potatoes  perfectly  smooth 
and  free  from  scab  or  from  contamination  by  coming  in  contact 
with  diseased  potatoes,  cannot  be  too  firmly  insisted  on.  It 
is  not  enough  to  have  the  seed  smooth  and  clean,  but  if 
the  clean  seed  potatoes  have  been  in  contact  with  those  that 
are  scabby,  the  chances  are  that  some  germs  of  the  disease 
will  adhere  to  them  and  be  ready  to  grow  as  soon  as  a favor- 
able opportunity  offers.  Where  there  is  the  least  suspicion 
that  clean  seed  potatoes  are  infected,  or  when  one  is  using 
seed  the  history  of  which  is  not  known,  the  chances  of  in- 
jury from  this  source  will  be  greatly  lessened,  if  not  entirely 
eliminated,  by  thoroughly  washing  the  tubers  in  running 
w^ter  before  planting.  This  may  be  done  by  placing  a 
trough  where  water  will  run  through  it;  into  this  pour  one 
layer  of  potatoes  at  a time  and  rub  them  with  a broom  or 
brush  until  they  appear  clean  and  bright,  even  in  the  eyes 
This  will  probably  remove  the  germs  that  adhere  to  the 
skins.  If  such  potatoes  are  planted  on  perfectly  clean  land, 
the  crop  from  them  will  generally  be  smooth,  although,  even 
if  grown  from  such  seed  potatoes,  some  germs  may  remain 
after  the  cleaning  process,  and  the  little  scab  thus  spread 
may  gradually  increase  until  it  becomes  a source  of  trouble, 
so  that,  even  where  this  method  is  adopted,  it  will  be  found 
a good  plan  to  occasionally  change  the  land  used.  A better 
plan  would  be  to  disinfect  with  corrosive  sublimate,  as  re- 
commended for  scabby  seed  below. 

SCABBY  SEED  POTATOES. 

Scabby  seed  potatoes  may  be  safely  planted,  provided  that 
they  are  first  treated  with  some  material  that  will  kill  the 
germs  of  the  scab  fungus  on  the  skin.  Many  experiments 


226 


have  been  made  in  this  line  with  various  fungicides.  The 
most  uniformly  successful  results  have  come  from  soaking 
the  seed  potatoes  before  planting  in  a solution  of  mercuric 
chloride.  Prof.  Bolley,  of  North  Dakota,  who  has  experi- 
mented very  largely  with  this  treatment,  and  been  very  suc- 
cessful in  its  use,  recommends  the  following  method:  “Pro- 
cure an  ordinary  barrel  and  fit  into  the  base  a common 
wooden  faucet;  purchase  of  a druggist  two  ounces  of  finely 
pulverized  corrosive  sublimate  (mercuric  bichloride);  empty 
all  of  this  into  two  gallons  of  hot  water  and  allow  it  to  stand 
over  night  or  until  apparently  dissolved;  place  in  the  barrel 
thirteen  gallons  of  water,  then  pour  in  the  two-gallon  solu- 
tion; allow  this  solution  to  stand  in  the  barrel  four  or  five 
hours,  during  which  time  it  is  several  times  thoroughly  agi- 
tated, to  insure  equality  of  the  solution  before  using;  select 
as  fair  seed  potatoes  as  possible,  wash  off  all  the  old  dirt 
and  immerse  as  many  as  you  can  or  wish  to  treat  at  one  time 
in  the  solution  one  hour  and  thirty  minutes ; at  the  end  of 
this  time  turn  off  the  solution  into  another  vessel;  the  same 
solution  may  thus  be  used  a number  of  times  if  wished. 
After  drying,  the  potatoes  may  be  cut  and  planted  as  usual. 
Plant  upon  ground  that  has  not  previously  borne  the  dis- 
ease. The  potatoes  may  be  cut  before  treatment  if  wished.  ” 

Another  and  perhaps  more  practical  way  is  to  fill  a large 
hogshead  with  a solution  of  the  strength  recommended  and 
into  this  dip  the  potatoes  in  coarse  sacks.  Allowing  them 
to  remain  for  one  and  one-half  hours. 

This  treatment  has  been  productive  of  excellent  results  at 
this  experiment  station. 

CAUTION. 

The  corrosive  sublimate  is  a strong  poison  and  great 
care  should  be  exercised  in  its  use.  The  strength  of 
the  solution  as  here  recommended  is  one  part  in  one  thou- 
sand ; the  same  as  that  used  in  surgery  and  is  not  such  as 
to  work  injury  unless  taken  into  the  stomach.  Great  care 
should  be  taken  in  handling  the  pure  substance,  and  all 
treated  potatoes  should  be  planted.  The  solution  should  not 
be  placed  in  metallic  vessels.  It  is  a good  plan  to  buy  no 
more  of  this  material  than  will  be  used  at  once. 


227 


Prof.  W.  J.  Green,  of  the  Ohio  experiment  station,  states 
that  potato  scab  at  that  station  has  been  almost  wholly  pre- 
vented by  soaking  the  seed  before  planting  for  one  hour  in 
Bordeaux  Mixture*.  There  is  much  other  evidence  to  show 
the  benefits  of  using  this  fungicide  for  this  purpose  and  as 
it  is  quite  harmless  it  is  well  worthy  of  trial.  At  this  ex- 
periment station  its  use  has  been  attended  with  fair  results, 
but  they  were  not  equal  to  those  obtained  where  the  corro- 
sive sublimate  was  used. 

BARNYARD  MANURE  THE  CAUSE  OF  SCAB. 

It  has  been  generally  observed  that  where  stable  manure 
is  used  on  potato  land  scab  is  often  most  abundant;  its 
presence  seemed  to  be  favorable  to  the  development  of  the 
disease.  Dr.  Thaxter  savs  that  he  is  convinced  ‘‘that  the 
practice  of  feeding  scabby  potatoes  to  stock  is  one  of  the 
most  important  measures  by  which  the  disease  is  spread  on 
farms.”  It  is  well  known  that  the  spores  of  a great  number 
of  fungus  diseases  pass  readily  through  the  stomach  and  in- 
testines of  animals  without  injury.  It  is  also  known  that  the 
scab  fungus  grows  readily  in  manure,  and  it  is  altogether 
probable  that  these  spores  pass  unharmed  through  the 
animals  fed  on  scabby  potatoes  or  scabby  beets.  The  man- 
ure that  is  free  from  these  germs  will  not  necessarily  in- 
crease the  injury  from  scab  fungus. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

(1).  Scab  of  potatoes  is  caused  by  a fungus  plant  work- 
ing in  the  surface  of  the  potato.  The  germs  of  it  are  very 
abundant  and  live  for  many  years  in  the  soil  and  also  over 
winter  on  the  potatoes.  If  these  germs  are  fed  to  stock,  they 
undoubtedly  grow  in  the  manure  and  the  use  of  such  manure 
may  often  be  a cause  of  infection.  Also  they  may  be  spread 
in  the  soil  by  the  natural  drainage,  and  land  receiving  the 
drainage  from  infested  fields  may  become  infested  even 
without  ever  having  potatoes  on  them. 

*The  recipe  for  Bordeaux  Mixture  is  given  in  this  bulletin  in  the  article  on  Late 

Blight  of  Potatoes. 


228 


(2).  Scabby  seed  when  planted  on  new  or  old  potato  land 
will  generally  produce  a scabby  crop,  but  the  amount  of  the 
disease  will  generally  be  much  more  on  the  old  than  on  the 
new  land. 

(8).  Perfectly  clean,  seed  planted  on  land  which  is  free 
from  the  scab  fungus  will  always  and  in  any  season  pro- 
duce a crop  of  smooth  clean  potatoes,  no  matter  what  the 
character  of  the  land.  But  apparently  clean  seed  potatoes 
may  have  the  germs  of  the  scab  fungus  on  their  surface. 
This  is  often  the  case  where  they  have  been  sorted  out  from 
a lot  that  is  somewhat  infected  with  scab.  In  this  latter  case 
the  tubers  should  at  least  be  thoroughly  washed  in  running 
water  to  remove  any  germs  that  may  be  present,  or  what  is 
better  yet  be  treated  with  corrosive  sublimate  (mercuric  bi- 
chloride, ) as  recommended. 

(4) .  Land  infected  by  the  germs  of  this  disease  will 
produce  a more  or  less  scabby  crop,  no  matter  how  clean 
and  smooth  the  seed  used. 

(5) .  Scabby  potatoes  should  be  dug  as  soon  as  mature, 
since  the  scab  fungus  continues  to  grow  on  the  potatoes  so 
long  as  they  are  in  the  ground. 

(6) .  Scabby  potatoes  may  safely  be  used  for  seed  pro- 
viding they  are  first  treated  with  corrosive  sublimate  as 
recommended.  The  cost  of  this  treatment  is  a mere  trifle, 
not  exceeding  one  cent  a gallon  for  the  solution  used. 


CROSS  FERTILIZATION  OF  GRAPES. 


SAMUEL  B.  GRREN. 


The  State  Horticultural  Society  at  its  last  annual  meet- 
ing requested  me  to  undertake  some  experiments  with 
Moore’s  Early  grape  to  determine,  if  possible,  why  it  was 
generally  such  a shy  bearer  and  especially  to  study  its  flow- 
ers and  the  necessity  for  cross-fertilizating  them;  it  being 
believed  by  many  that  this  variety  was  more  fruitful  when 
furnished  with  foreign  pollen  than  when  entirely  dependent 
on  its  own.  In  working  out  this  special  line,  it  was  decided 
to  experiment  with  the  cross  and  self-fertilization  of  other 
varieties  as  well  as  the  Moore’s  Early.  The  experiments 
made  were  as  follows: 

On  June  16,  the  flowers  of  the  grapes  being  then  not 
opened,  six  bunches  each  of  Moore’s  Early,  Lady,  Agawam, 
Ives  Seedling,  Lindley  and  Brighton  were  covered  with 
paper  bags  which  were  pinned  carefully  over  the  branch 
above  the  bunch.  By  this  means  the  enclosed  clusters  were 
protected  from  pollen  of  other  kinds  which  would  naturally 
be  conveyed  to  them  by  insects  and  perhaps  by  the  wind. 
When  the  flowers  of  the  different  varieties  had  opened  and  the 
stigmas  were  in  proper  condition,  three  of  the  bags  of  each 
kind  were  opened  and  a cluster  of  the  opened  flowers  of  the 
Delaware  grape  inserted  in  them.  Thus  there  were  of  each 
variety  three  bunches  of  flowers  that  were  cross-fertilized 
and  three  that  were  self- fertilized.  These  were  allowed  to 
grow  without  being  disturbed  until  the  largest  berries  were 
about  one-half  inch  in  diameter  when  examination  showed 
that  Moore’s  Early,  Ives  Seedling,  Lady  and  Agawam  had 
set  fruit  perfectly  whether  dependent  on  their  own  pollen  or 
cross-fertilized.  Lindley  and  Brighton,  however,  while  set- 
ting fruit  perfectly  when  cross  fertilized,  did  not  produce 
any  fruit  whatever  when  dependent  on  their  own  pollen,  but 


230 


the  whole  cluster  withered  away.  This  is  very  clearly 
shown  in  the  plate  herewith,  in  which  the  clusters  repre- 
sented in  the  upper  row  are  from  bags  in  which  foreign 
pollen  was  introduced  while  the  lower  row  shows  the  clust- 
ers from  bags  which  had  no  foreign  pollen. 

The  results  show  plainly  that  the  Moore’s  Early  produces  . 
an  abundance  of  pollen  for  its  own  use  under  the  conditions 


imposed  in  this  experiment.  An  examination  of  its  blossoms 
and  fruit  indicates  that  there  is  an  abundance  of  pollen  to 
fertilize  the  stigmas  under  any  ordinary  conditions.  This  is 
probably  the  case  with  all  the  varieties  of  grapes,  in  which 
the  Vitis  labrusca  enters  largely  into  the  parentage.  That 
this  is  so  with  the  Moore’s  Early  is  shown  from  the  perfect 
form  of  its  fruit  clusters  in  which  scarcely  a flower  fails  to 
produce  a well  developed  berry. 

The  lack  of  fruit  on  the 
Moore’s  Early  grape  seems 
to  be  due  (1st)  to  the  frequent 
lack  of  developement  of 
those  prominent  buds,  often 
called  fruit  buds,  from  which 
the  fruiting  canes  grow  each 
year;  (2nd)  as  the  fruit  buds 
are  not  so  abundant  on  this 
variety  as  on  some  others  it 
is  the  general  opinion  of 


many  growers  whom  I have 
consulted  and  in  accord  with 
our  experience  at  the  Exper- 
iment Station,  that  more 


Fig.  6.  Showing  diffenence  between  cross 
and  self  fertelized  grapes.  Upper  row  cross 
fertellzed.  Lower  dependent  on  there  own 
pollen.  The  two  bunches  under  the  differ- 
ent numbers  are:  Under  1,  Moore’s  Early; 
2,  Worden;  3,  Lady;  4,  Agawam;  5.  Lindley; 
6,  Brighton. 


wood  should  be  left  on  it  in  pruning  it  than  on  most  of  the 
kinds  commonly  grown.  Under  close  pruning  it  is  gener- 
ally a light  cropper  while  under  long  pruning  it  is  quite 
uniformly  fairly  productive. 


231 


SUMMARY. 

(1.)  It  is  shown  that  the  Moore’s  Early  grape  is  not  de- 
pendent on  foreign  pollen  for  fertilization. 

(2.)  The  Lady,  Agawam  and  Ives  Seedling,  are  evidently 
independent  of  foreign  pollen  for  the  production  of  fruit,  but 
this  matter  should  be  repeated  in  the  case  of  the  Agawam. 

(3.)  The  Lindley  and  Brighton  grape  must  be  fertilized 
with  foreign  pollen  in  order  to  be  productive,  and  con- 
sequently wherever  planted  should  be  near  some  of  the 
strongly  staminate  kinds  and  should  never  be  planted  alone. 


CONSERVATION  OF  MOISTURE  INI  THE  SOIL. 


SAMUEL  B.  GREEN. 


The  dry  weather  of  the  past  season  has  brought  this  sub- 
ject before  the  agriculturist  as  never  before  and  all  growers 
of  crops  have  become  impressed  with  its  importance.  The 
question  of  irrigation  would  be  an  important  one  for  us  if 
there  was  any  large  portion  of  this  State  that  was  situated  so 
as  to  permit  of  artificial  application  of  water.  There  are 
favored  sections  where  artesian  or  other  water  may  be  used 
for  irrigation  to  advantage,  but  generally  the  planter  must 
depend  on  the  annual  rainfall.  The  importance  then  of 
husbanding  this  water  is  evident. 

The  water  which  reaches  the  soil  is  dissipated,  (1)  by  run- 
ning off  the  surface  of  the  land  into  the  streams;  (2)  by  per- 
colating through  the  surface  soil  to  the  underground  water 
system;  (8)  by  evaporating  from  the  surface  of  the  land. 
The  loss  of  water  by  transpiration  through  the  leaves  of 
growing  crops  is  necessary  to  success,  over  it  we  have  no 
control  and  it  is  therefore  not  discussed  here. 

( 1.)  The  loss  of  water  from  its  running  off  into  streams  is 
quite  serious  on  hillsides  and  where  the  land  is  impermeable. 
The  methods  of  preventing  this  are  numerous  and  must  be 
modified  according  to  the  crops  grown  on  the  land,  and  its 
contour.  Where  practicable,  as  for  instance,  where  the  land 
is  devoted  to  small  fruits,  surface  washing  may  largely  be 
controlled  by  covering  the  surface  of  the  land  with  some 
kind  of  mulch  which,  by  impeding  the  flow  of  the  water  allows 
it  to  soak  into  the  ground.  The  necessity  for  this  in  the  case 
of  clayey  hillsides  is  evident.  There  the  surface  of  the  soil 
when  exposed  becomes  so  hardened  that  the  rain  falling  in 


233 


summer  penetrates  the  land  to  so  slight  a depth  that  it 
is  all  evaporated  after  a very  few  hours  of  sunshine,  per- 
haps leaving  the  land  harder  and  more  impermeable  than 
before. 

(2.)  The  loss  of  water  by  its  passing  through  the  soil  to 
the  underground  water  system  may  be  considerable,  but  over 
this  factor  we  have  little  control.  The  water  holding 
capacity  of  soils  varies  very  much  and  success  depends 
largely  on  the  proper  selection  of  soils  for  different  crops. 
This  quality  may  often  be  increased  by  the  addition  of  or- 
ganic matter  to  the  soil.  In  some  parts  of  Europe  even  the 
prunings  of  grape  vines  and  willow  twigs  are  often  used  to 
mix  with  the  land  to  increase  its  humus,  but  the  plowing  in 
of  green  crops  and  the  use  of  stable  manures  are  probably 
the  most  practical  means  for  improving  the  water  holding 
capacity  of  the  soil  in  this  section. 

(3).  The  loss  of  water  by  evaporation  from  the  surface  of 
the  land  must  be  regarded  the  prime  factor  in  the  dissipation 
of  the  water  in  the  soil.  This  may  be  lessened  (a)  by  wind- 
breaks, (&)  by  mulching  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  (c)  by  cul- 
tivation of  the  surface  soil.  This  latter  method  of  preven- 
tion is  not  discussed  here. 

WIND-BREAKS. 

It  is  necessary  to  allow  a circulation  of  air  among 
cultivated  crops  in  order  to  prevent  serious  losses  from 
fungus  diseases.  Where  the  air  is  very  much  confined  and  cir- 
culates but  slowly,  as  in  fields  closely  shut  in  by  wind-breaks, 
there  is  liable  to  be  serious  losses  from  rusts,  blights,  mildews 
and  the  many  diseases  to  which  plants  are  subject,  but  never- 
theless we  can  secure  sufficient  circulation  of  the  atmosphere 
to  get  its  beneficial  action  in  preventing  diseases  and  yet 
avoid  the  greatly  increased  rate  of  evaporation  due  to  its 
very  rapid  circulation.  How  much  the  rate  of  evaporation  is 
increased  by  exposure  to  the  winds  was  clearly  shown  by 
experiments  of  Professor  T.  Russell,  Jr.,  of  the  Signal 
Service,  in  1887.  The  result  of  these  experiments  show  that 
with  the  temperature  of  the  air  at  84°  and  a relative  humidi- 
ty of  50  per  cent. , evaporation  with  the  wind  blowing  at  five 


234 


miles  an  hour  was  2.2  times  greater  than  in  the  calm;  at  ten 
miles  3.8;  at  15  miles  4.9;  at  20  miles  5.7;  at  25  miles  6.1,  and 
at  30  miles  per  hour  the.  wind  would  evaporate  6.3  times  as 
much  water  as  a calm  atmosphere  of  the  same  temperature 
and  humidity.  Now  if  it  is  considered  that  the  winds  which 
sweep  our  prairies  average  a velocity  of  ten  or  more  miles 
per  hour,  and  not  unfrequently  thirty  miles  per  hour,  the. 
losses  which  may  be  prevented  by  the  judicious  use  of  wind- 
breaks can  to  some  extent  be  appreciated.  Then,  too,  it  is 
probable  that  the  excessive  dryness  of  some  of  the  winds 
which  occasionally  sweep  over  the  prairies  is  not  considered 
in  the  above  figures,  nor  is  the  loss  considered  which  would 
come  from  excessive  transpiration  from  the  foliage  due  to 
this  cause,  and  which  is,  very  likely,  no  inconsiderable 
item.  It  will  be  understood  from  these  facts  that  the  wind 
is  an  important  factor  in  the  dissipation  of  the  water  from 
soil  and  that  its  injurious  action  may  be  prevented  to  a con- 
siderable extent  by  the  judicious  use  of  wind-breaks. 

MULCHING. 

Evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  soil  may  be 
largely  prevented  by  the  use  of  mulch,  and  to  some  ex- 
tent by  the  cultivation  of  the  surface  of  the  land.  The  use 
of  a mulch  is  quite  generally  accepted  as  being  desirable 
around  trees,  shrubs  and  small  fruit  plants,  but  its  exact 
value  is  seldom  expressed  in  figures.  At  the  University 
Farm,  the  past  season,  the  value  of  a mulch  was  clearly 
shown  in  many  cases.  In  one  case  a strawberry  bed,  grow- 
ing on  open,  clayey  loam,  which  was  heavily  mulched  with 
oat  straw,  produced  a fine  crop  of  strawberries,  while  straw- 
berry beds  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  not  so  treated,  were 
nearly  or  quite  a failure.  In  fact,  this  crop  was  generally 
a failure  in  Eastern  Minnesota  the  past  season,  with  rare 
exceptions.  The  success  at  the  University  Farm  could 
not  be  ascribed  to  the  use  of  any  particular  variety,  since 
all  the  well-known  kinds  were  productive.  It  would  seem 
to  be  due  partially  to  high  cultivation,  but  chiefly  to  the  use 
between  the  rows  of  a heavy  mulch,  which  had  become  very 
compact  from  being  under  the  snows  all  winter.  Some 


285 


analyses  made  by  Prof.  Snyder,  the  Station  chemist,  gave 
the  results  set  forth  in  the  following  table,  in  which  the 
term  mulched  bed  is  used  to  signify  the  rows  of  the  straw- 
berries which  at  the  time  of  the  trial  were  covered  with 
about  three  inches  of  broken  compacted  oat  straw;  culti- 
vated soil  means  the  land  in  an  adjoining  row  wdiich  was 
kept  stirred  by  a horse  cultivator.  Uncultivated  soil  refers 
to  parts  of  the  strawberry  beds  where  the  plants  had  failed, 
and  consequently  no  cultivation  whatever  was  given  the 
land,  neither  was  it  mulched.  The  data  under  the  heads  of 
cultivated  and  uncultivated  land  was  probably  much  in- 
fluenced by  the  proximity  of  the  mulched  rows,  which  un- 
doubtedly greatly  increased  the  amount  of  water  which  they 
contained,  so  that  the  results  in  the  table  are  much  modified 
by  it  and  do  not  appear  as  evident  as  they  would  otherwise. 
Great  care  was  taken  in  selecting  the  samples  to  have  them 
from  soil  of  similar  appearance,  and  the  soil  of  the  whole 
bed  was  very  uniform: 


TABLE  I.— Water  in  Mulched,  Tilled  and  Uncultivated  Soil. 


Date. 

Depth  of 
sample. 

Mulched 
beds.  Per 
cent  water. 

Cultivated 
soil.  Per 
cent  water. 

Uncultiv’d 
soil.  Per 
cent  water. 

June  29 

Sub-soil 

Sub-soil 

Surface-soil 

Sub-soil 

4 inches 

24.30 

25.93 

20.63 

21.07 

19.2 

19.93 

15.48 

16.20 

18.01 

20.01 

June  29 

June  30 

June  30 



From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  use  of  a mulch  on 
the  surface  soil  increased  the  amount  of  water  it  held  about 
five  per  cent,  as  compared  with  soil  which  was  cultivated. 
Calling  the  weight  of  a cubic  foot  of  dry  soil  seventy  pounds, 
which  is  approximately  correct,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  use 
of  a mulch  resulted  in  making  each  cubic  foot  of  the  surface 
soil  retain  about  three  and  one-half  pints  of  water  more  than 
it  otherwise  would.  This  is  equivalent  to  increasing  the 
amount  of  water  in  the  upper  one  foot  of  surface  soil  of  .one 
acre  by  605  barrels.  Of  course  these  figures  are  only  ap- 
proximate and  there  are  many  possible  sources  of  error,  yet 
it  would  seem  that  enough  was  shown  to  demonstrate  that 
the  use  of  a mulch  might  easily  make  the  difference  between 
success  and  failure  in  maturing  a crop  of  this  nature. 


236 


Physicists  estimate  that  in  order  to  be  in  the  best  condi- 
tion for  the  roots  of  the  cultivated  plants  to  act,  the  soil 
should  contain  from,  one- third  to  one-half  the  weight  of 
water  it  would  contain  if  saturated.  In  this  case  it  was 
found  that  soil  when  saturated  would  hold  55  per  cent,  of 
water,  and  as  the  mulched  land  contained  about  24  per  cent, 
it  was  in  excellent  condition  for  root  action,  even  in  a 
period  of  severe  drouth. 

USE  OF  MULCH  ON  A GRAVELLY  KNOLL. 

At  the  University  Farm  is  a vineyard  located  on  a very  dry, 
gravelly  knoll,  The  vines  on  this  part  suffered  severely 
about  five  years  ago  from  drouth.  The  following  sea- 
son, they  were  heavily  mulched  with  stable  litter  and 
trash  of  various  sorts  such  as  is  common  about  most 
farms,  and  it  has  been  kept  mulched  since  that  time. 
This  mulch  had  rotted  a good  deal  and  consequently 
added  considerable  organic  matter  to  the  soil.  As  the 
result  of  this  treatment,  the  vines  recovered  and  have 
since  yielded  good  crops  of  fruit,  and  even  in  the  past  very 
dry  season  gave  a bountiful  harvest,  not  being  seriously  af- 
fected by  the  dry  weather.  On  July  25th  tests  were  made 
for  moisture  in  the  soil  under  the  mulch  in  the  dryer  part  of 
this  vineyard  and  as  a result  the  top  soil  was  found  to  con- 
tain 18.3  per  cent  of  moisture  and  the  subsoil  21  per  cent  of 
moisture.  There  was  no  land  close  by  with  which  to  com- 
pare this  but  on  the  same  date  the  soil  in  an  oat  field  at  the 
station,  which  was  apparently  and  without  doubt  much  bet- 
ter adapted  to  holding  water  than  that  in  the  vineyard,  con- 
tained but  3.8  per  cent  of  moisture,  an  amount  so  small  that 
plants  would  probably  be  powerless  to  take  up  any  water 
from  it.  This  would  indicate  an  increase  of  14.5  per  cent  of 
water  which  is  equivelent  to  an  increase  of  about  ten  barrels 
in  the  upper  foot  of  each  square  rod,  or  1600  barrels  per 
acre  due  to  the  use  of  mulch  on  the  soil,  and  this  conclusion 
seemed  to  be  borne  out  by  the  appearance  of  the  vines.  It  is 
my  opinion  that  without  the  mulch  the  fruit  would  have 
all  dropped  from  the  vines  in  the  vineyard.  On  August 
4th,  the  top  soil  in  the  vineyard  contained  16.3  per  cent  and 
the  subsoil  17.5  per  cent  of  water,  thus  showing  that,  while  it 


237 


had  lost  some  water  it  still  contained  a sufficient  amount  of 
water  to  enable  the  roots  to  work  satisfactorily. 

MULCHED  BLACKBERRIES  ON  NORTH  SLOPE. 

* In  the  following  table  is  shown  the  amount  of  soil  moisture 
under  a heavy  mulch  on  several  dates  during  the  most  severe 
portions  of  the  drouth  of  the  past  summer.  The  land 
where  these  observations  were  made  is  on  the  north  slope 
of  a hill.  The  east  end  of  it  is  a little  heavy,  while  the 
west  is  loose  and  gravelly.  The  land  was  used  for  growing 
blackberries  and  the  mulch  consisted  of  six  inches  of  old  hay 
put  on  in  the  spring. 

TABLE  II.— Showing  Water  in  Soil  Under  a Heavy  Mulch  on  North  Slope. 


July  22. 

A.  M. 

East  end 

Top-soil. . 

24.1  per  cent 

July  22. 

A.  M. 

a u 

Sub-soil. . 

23.9  “ 

July  22. 

P.  M. 

( < u 

Top-soil.. 

22.1  “ 

July  22. 

P.  M. 

t < (( 

Sub-soil. . 

19.1  “ 

July  25. 

A.  M. 

u a 

Top-soil. . 

23.8  “ 

West  end 

21.9  per  cent 

July  25. 

A.  M. 

a a 

Sub-soil.. 

20.5  “ 

bC  ii 

23.5  *■ 

July  25. 

P.  M. 

<t  << 

Top-soil. . 

20.7  “ 

ii  ( ( 

15.5  “ 

July  25. 

P.  M. 

u u 

Sub-soil. . 

20.2  “ 

ii  ii 

19.5  “ 

Aug.  4. 

A.  M. 

U i ( 

Top-soil. . 

17.5  “ 

a a 

16.4  “ 

Aug.  4. 

A.  M. 

u u 

Sub-soil. . 

18.2  “ 

a a 

17.3  “ 

On  July  27th  the  soil  in  the  oat  field  where  the  land  would 
compare  favorably  with  the  west  end  of  the  plat  referred  to 
in  the  preceding  table,  except  in  the  matter  of  exposure, 
contained  only  4. 2 per  cent,  of  water,  an  amount  so  small  as 
to  be  unavailable  to  the  roots  of  plants. 

It  will  be  noticed  from  the  above  table  that  in  the  thirteen 
days  intervening  between  July  22d  and  Aug.  4th,  there  was 
a loss  of  seven  per  cent,  of  water,  yet  the  soil  still  contained 
17.5  per  cent.,  an  amount  sufficient  to  enable  the  roots  to 
work  to  advantage. 

On  July  22nd  the  soil  in  a plat  of  raspberries,  which  was 
near  to  and  on  land  having  about  the  same  properties  as 
that  referred  to  in  Table  I,  on  which  the  strawberries  were 
grown,  was  tested  for  its  water  content.  The  rows  were 
seven  feet  apart  and  mulched  to  a distance  of  two  and  one- 
half  feet  on  each  side.  The  trials  of  water  were  made  under 
the  mulch,  and  in  the  strip  of  soil  two  feet  wide  between  the 
mulch  of  adjoining  rows,  and  where  the  constantly  cultivated 


288 


soil  would  probably  be  much  influenced  by  the  proximity  of 
the  mulched  land  near  it.  The  next  table  shows  the  result 
of  these  trials. 


TABLE  III.— Showing  the  per  cent,  of  Water  in  Cultivated  and  Mulched  Land  in 

Adjoining  Rows. 


Date. 

Mulched. 

Cultived  Soil. 

July  27 

Top  soil. 
Sub  soil. 

17.6  per  cent. 
19.3  per  cent. 

12.5  per  cent. 

14.5  percent. 

July  27 

On  the  same  day  the  soil  in  the  oat  field  somewhat  more 
sandy  than  the  above  contained  3 percent  of  moisture. 

. It  will  be  seen  from  the  table  that  even  in  the  case  of  plats 
in  close  proximity,  where  they  must  influence  one  another, 
there  is  a considerable  difference  between  cultivated  and 
mulched  land  in  favor  of  the  latter.  This  difference  would 
undoubtedly  be  much  larger  than  is  shown  by  the  table  if 
the  plats  treated  had  been  isolated  from  one  another. 

SUMMARY. 

(1) .  The  water-holding  and  consequently  drouth-resisting 
qualities  of  the  soil  are  increased  by  the  addition  of  organic 
matter  to  the  soil. 

(2) .  The  loss  of  water  by  evaporation  from  the  surface  of 
the  soil  must  be  regarded  as  the  prime  factor  in  robbing  the 
soil  of  its  moisture. 

(3) .  Anything  that  breaks  the  force  of  the  wind  may 
make  the  difference  between  success  and  failure  in  growing 
crops  by  lessening  the  evaporation. 

(4) .  Evaporation  from  the  soil  may  be  largely  prevented 
by  the  use  of  a mulch  on  the  surface. 

(5) .  The  use  of  a mulch  may  sometimes  increase  the 
amount  of  water  in  the  upper  one  foot  of  soil  on  one  acre  by 
1,700  barrels,  and  it  probably  exerts  as  much  influence  on 
the  several  upper  feet  of  soil.  As  the  roots  of  corn  and  most 
other  vigorous  plants  penetrate  several  feet  into  the  soil  the 
increase  due  to  a covering  of  mulch  must  be  considerable. 

(6) .  Using  the  figures  given  in  the  preceding  pages  it 
will  be  found  that  a circular  plat  of  land  six  feet  in  diameter 
that  is  mulched  may  have  the  water  it  contains  increased  in 
a period  of  drouth  by  eight  gallons  in  the  upper  two  feet  of 
soil.  This  indicates  the  great  value  of  a mulch  around  street 
trees. 

(7) .  The  use  of  a mulch  on  many  garden  crops  will  often 
make  the  difference  between  success  and  failure. 


FRUITS— NOTES  ON  VARIETIES. 


SAMUEL  B.  GREEN. 


In  the  following  notes  on  varieties  of  fruits  grown  at  the 
University  Farm  only  those  are  referred  to  which  are  of 
especial  interest,  have  proved  themselves  of  great  value  over, 
a long  period,  have  given  promise  of  more  than  usual  ex- 
cellence  or  have  been  widely  advertised. 

PLUMS. 

The  crop  of  plums  at  the  University  Farm  the  past  sea- 
son was  very  large  and  beautifully  developed.  There  was 
very  little  injury  from  the  curculio.  The  trees  are  on  a 
north  slope  in  cultivated  soil.  The  following  varieties  of 
special  interest  have  fruited: 

Cheney. — This  variety  fruited  abundantly  and  is  one  of  the 
hardiest,  thriftiest  and  best  plums  ever  grown  at  the  Uni- 
versity Farm.  It  is  of  very  fine  quality,  very  early  and 
large.  The  tree  is  a fine,  strong,  healthy  grower. 

Rockford — Has  done  very  well  and  I regard  it  as  a variety 
of  much  value,  especially  for  the  home  garden,  where  its 
productiveness  and  good  quality  will  make  it  a favorite. 

Among  the  older  well  tried  varieties  that  have  fruited  the 
past  season  are  the  following: 

l)e  Soto. — This  variety  has  again  demonstrated  its  value, 
is  reliable  and  productive.  It  still  leads  in  these  qualities 
and  is  the  variety  to  plant  if  but  one  kind  is  to  be  set  out. 
Of  good  quality. 

Forest  Garden. — Very  productive.  Not  as  early  as  the 
Cheney  but  follows  closely  after  that  kind.  Of  fair  quality. 

Rollingstone. — This  variety  increases  in  favor.  Fruit  of 
large  size  and  excellent  quality.  Tree,  healthy  and  produc- 
tive. Quite  distinct  in  habit.  Growth,  short  and  crooked. 

Wolf. — This  variety  should  be  better  known.  Fruit  large 
and  of  best  quality,  and  a free-stone.  The  pit  is  very  small. 
Tree  thrifty  and  productive.  One  of  the  best  kinds. 


240 


Weaver. — This  variety  has  not  fruited  as  heavily  as  usual, 
owing'  probably  to  its  having  been  severely  pruned  back  last 
year.  I regard  it  as  destined  to  be  one  ot  the  most  popular 
kinds  for  marketing  on  account  of  its  large  size  and  free 
stone,  although  it  is  not  of  high  quality. 

APPLES. 

The  apple  trees  at  the  University  Farm  are  just  commenc- 
.ing  to  bear  fruit,  attract  much  attention  from  visitors,  and 
the  work  will  undoubtedly  lead  to  valuable  results.  In . the 
Russian  orchard,  which  name  is  used  to  designate  the  young 
orchard  on  the  level  prairie  at  the  University  Farm,  are 
planted  about  300  varieties ofRussian  origin:  Some  of  these 
have  died  of  blight,  others  have  winter  killed,  but  many  of 
the  remainder  are  proving  to  be  of  wonderful  hardiness  and 
of  apparent  adaptability  to  this  climate.  I would  especially 
call  attention  to  the  following  kinds  which  have  fruited  here 
the  past  summer.  There  are  other  very  promising  kinds 
not  mentioned  which  have  not  yet  fruited. 

Recumbent  (Lieby.) — This  is  perhaps  the  hardiest  tree 
that  produces  large  apples  and  is  very  free  from  blight.  It 
is  much  hardier  than  Duchess  of  Oldenberg,  which  it  some- 
what resembles  in  fruit.  It  should  be  tried  on  every  farm 
in  the  State.  Season,  December.  An  excellent  cooking 
apple  and  not  to  be  despised  for  eating  out  of  hand.  Often 
referred  to  as  Hibernal. 

Borovinka. — This  variety  closely  resembles  the  Duchess 
of  Oldenberg  in  every  particular.  A fine  productive  kind. 
Season,  August  and  September. 

Anisim  (18M) — An  early  winter  apple  of  best  quality. 
The  tree  has  not  been  extensively  tried,  but  it  is  apparently 
as  hardy  as  the  Recumbent  and  less  liable  to  blight.  Fruit 
about  the  size  of  Wine  Sap,  which  it  resembles. 

Breskovka. — A late  summer  apple  of  good  quality  for 
table  use  or  for  cooking.  Tree,  very  hardy  and  free  from 
blight. 

Thaler  ( Gharlotten  Thaler). — Tree,  very  hardy,  very  pro- 
ductive and  free  from  blight.  Fruit  of  medium  size  and 
excellent  quality.  Season,  late  summer. 


241 


Blushed  Calville  (22  M.) — A large  apple  of  extra  dessert 
and  cooking  qualities.  Season,  last  of  August.  A good  tree 
and  free  from  blight. 

Duchess  of  Oldenberg  is  also  standing  well  and  yielding 
good  crops  in  this  orchard. 

JUNEBERRIES. 

This  fruit  is  proving  to  be  well  adapted  for  cultivation.  It 
produces  abundant  crops  in  the  garden  with  little  care  and 
needs  no  winter  protection.  The  Osage,  Alpina,  Chester 
Center  and  Success  are  the  varieties  which  have  been  fruited 
at  the  University  Farm.  Of  these,  the  earliest,  largest, 
most  productive  and  best  everyway  is  the  Success.  I be- 
lieve this  variety  could  be  profitably  grown  for  market,  were 
some  practical  measure  devised  for  keeping  off  the  robins, 
who  are  very  fond  of  it  and  are  not  easily  kept  from  eating  it. 

GRAPES 

The  grape  crop  was  a very  large  one  and  generally  free  from 
insects  or  diseases.  The  varieties  of  grapes  whieh  have  pro- 
duced the  most  good  fruit  at  the  University  Farm  the  past 
season  are  Aminia  (Rogers  No.  39), Cottage, Hartford, Herbert, 
Worden,  Concord,  Agawam  and  Brighton.  Of  these  I re- 
gard the  Cottage  and  Hartford  as  the  best  grapes  for  gen- 
eral planting  for  home  use  as  they  are  hardy,  early,  produc- 
tive and  of  fairly  good  quality.  But  for  marketing  and  for 
favorable  locations,  they  are  not  good,  as  they  have  the 
fault  of  dropping  from  the  bunch;  nor  are  they  of  the  best 
quality.  Of  the  new  varieties  fruiting  this  year,  I would  call 
especial  attention  to  the  following: 

Green  Mountain. — Which  I think  is  destined  to  be  popular 
as  a very  early  sweet  grape  for  home  use.  The  vine  is  vig- 
orous, very  productive  and  the  bunches  of  fair  size,  but  the 
berries  are  rather  small. 

Colerain. — Vine  vigorous  and  healthy.  Berry  large,  white 
and  of  good  quality.  Season  with  Worden. 

Mills. — Vine  very  vigorous  and  healthy.  A late  variety  of 
a peculiar  dark,  purplish  color.  Berry  of  medium  size 
and  adheres  well  to  the  stem.  Flesh  firm  and  meaty  with  a 


242 


rich,  sprightly  flavor.  Ripens  a little  later  than  Concord  or 
about  with  the  later  bunches  of  the  latter. 

Rommel. — Vine  very  strong  and  vigorous.  Two  seasons 
planted,  bore  several  bunches  of  fruit.  Judging  from  these 
I cannot  recommend  it  for  planting.  The  fruit  was  of  in- 
ferior quality  and  little  better  than  Elvira.  Bunches  com- 
pact, of  medium  size  and  handsome;  berry  of  medium  to 
large  size;  skin  thin,  tough;  pulp  melting.  Seems  to  be 
prolific.  Not  sufficiently  tried  to  determine  its  true  value. 

Early  Ohio. — The  earliest  purple  grape  I have  ever  seen. 
Fruited  with  us  for  the  first  time  the  past  season.  Berry 
and  bunch  of  medium  size.  Berry  purple,  sweet  and  of  very 
good  quality;  well  colored  and  quite  palatable  on  August 
16t’h.  Seems  to  be  prolific.  Vine  healthy  and  vigorous. 

Ebony. — This  variety  fruited  with  us  for  the  first  time. 
Of  inferior  quality  for  table  use,  but  evidently  valuable  for 
wine.  Vine  vigorous  and  healthy. 

Woodruff  Red  is  productive  and  evidently  hardy  enough 
for  our  conditions,  but  the  fruit  is  very  pulpy  and  of  poor 
quality. 

Moor’s  Early. — A large,  handsome,  white  grape  of  good 
quality.  Apparently  only  moderately  productive.  Vine, 
vigorous  and  hardy.  Clusters,  large  and  compact. 

THE  LEAF  HOPPER. 

The  mulched  vineyard  of  the  University  Farm  yielded  a very 
heavy  crop  of  fruit  on  most  varieties.  The  novel  method  of 
cultivation  adopted  in  this  vineyard  on  account  of  the  coarse, 
gravelly  nature  of  the  soil,  has  attracted  much  attention.  A 
drawback  to  this  use  of  mulch  was  this  year  found  in  the 
presence  of  the  leaf- hoppers  in  great  abundance.  These  in- 
sects pass  the  winter  in  leaves  and  trash,  and  it  has  been 
mentioned  that  their  presence  is  a sign  of  a slovenly  culti- 
vation. 

The  vines  were  very  free  from  diseases  the  past  season. 


243 


THE  STRAWBERRY. 

The  strawberry  crop  wTas  fully  up  to  the  average  at  the 
University  Farm  the  past  season.  This  was  largely  due  to  the 
retentive  soil  in  which  the  plants  grew  and  to  the  fact  that 
they  were  very  heavily  mulched.  The  varieties  which  have 
been  most  productive  or  are  new  are  reported  on  here: 

Accomack. — Perfect.  Fruit  small  and  irregular,  not  pro- 
ductive and  of  only  moderate  growth. 

Atlantic. — Fruit  large,  rather  late,  roundish  or  irregular 
and  bright  red.  Not  productive.  Foliage  and  growth  fair. 

Auburn. — Pistillate.  Fruit  roundish,  conical,  calyx  free. 
Rather  soft  but  of  excellent  quality  and  productive.  Foliage 
and  growth  fair. 

Beder  Wood. — Perfect.  Fruit  broadly  conical,  light  red, 
fair  quality,  early.  Firm  enough  for  near  market. 

Beverly. — Perfect.  Fruit  small  and  inferior.  Foliage 
healthy  and  growth  vigorous. 

Belmont. — Perfect.  Fruit  small  and  irregular,  moderately 
productive.  Foliage  and  growth  good. 

Boynton. — Pistillate.  Fruit  of  even  medium  size,  bright 
red,  very  firm,  very  productive.  Foliage  and  growth  good, 

Crescent. — This  variety  still  holds  its  own  as  the  most 
generally  productive  market  berry.  During  the  past  three 
years,  the  Warfield  and  Haverland  have  occasionally  produced 
more  and  better  fruit  but  this  has  always  been  entitled  to  a 
high  place,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  there  is  no  immediate 
prospect  of  its  being  entirely  supplanted.  There  is,  however, 
a demand  for  larger,  better  fruit  than  this. 

Daisy. — Pistillate.  Fruit  of  fair  size,  rather  soft  and 
moderately  productive.  Foliage  and  growth  good. 

Dayton. — Perfect.  Fruit  dull  red,  small  soft  and  scarce 
Foliage  and  growth  good. 

Edgar  Queen.  — Pistillate.  Fruit  irregularly  conical, 
bright  red,  fair,  even  size,  firm  and  productive.  Foliage  and 
growth  good.  A fine  berry  evidently  of  great  value. 

E.  P.  Roe. — Perfect.  Fruit  very  scattering.  Foliage  fair- 
ly healthy  but  growth  very  poor. 

Eureka. — Pistillate.  Fruit  large,  good  color  and  quality, 
very  productive.  Plants  vigorous  and  healthy. 


244 


Farnsworth. — Fruit,  small,  irregular  and  scarce.  Foliage 
and  growth  good. 

Gaudy. — Fruit  large  and  very  beautiful.  Foliage  and 
growth  good.  Season  very  late  and  it  is  valued  chiefly  on 
this  account.  Not  very  productive. 

Gem. — Pistillate.  Fruit  of  medium  size,  bright  red  and 
firm.  Foliage  and  growth  good. 

Gillespie.— Perfect.  Fruit  small  in  size  and  quantity  and 
irregular.  Growth  poor. 

Gov.  Hoard. — Perfect.  Fruit  small  and  irregular.  Foli- 
age and  growth  good. 

Great  American. — Pistillate.  Fruit  of  medium  size, 

rather  irregular,  late.  Foliage  and  growth  good. 

Great  Pacific. — Pistillate.  Fruit  of  fair  size  but  irregu- 
lar. It  sets  a large  amount  of  fruit  but  fails  to  mature  it  ex- 
cept under  very  favorable  circumstances.  Foliage  fair, 
growth  good. 

Greenville. — Pistillate.  Fruit  large,  firm  and  of  good 
color.  Foliage  and  growth  vigorous.  Productive.  A valu- 
able variety. 

Haverland. — Pistillate.  Not  so  productive  as  Warfield 

but  of  larger  size  and  much  better  quality  and  well  worthy 
of  being  ranked  among  the  most  desirable  kinds.  Fruit 
stems  short  and  unless  heavily  mulched  much  of  the  fruit 
will  be  worthless. 

Leader. — Perfect.  Fruit  dark  red,  rather  irregular  in 
form;  large.  Not  sufficiently  productive  for  the  market. 
Foliage  and  growth  fair. 

Lovett’s  Early. — Perfect.  Fruit  of  good  size  and  form, 
bright  red  in  color,  firm  and  very  productive.  Foliage  and 
growth  good. 

Michel’s  Early. — Perfect.  This  variety  is  not  sufficiently 
productive  to  warrant  holding  it  since  the  introduction  of  the 
Beder  Wood,  which  is  nearly  or  quite  as  good  a pollenizer 
and  far  more  productive. 

MiddlefieUl. — Pistillate.  Fruit  of  good  size,  bright  red, 
conical,  firm,  moderately  productive.  Foliage  and  growth 
fair. 

Mark. — Foliage  and  growth  fair,  the  fruit  mere  worthless 
nubbins. 


245 


Muskingum. — Perfect.  Fruit  flat,  with  a hard  bunch  at 
the  end  where  it  was  not  filled  out.  Not  productive.  Foliage 
and  growth  fair. 

Oliver. — Perfect.  This  variety  is  mentioned  because  it 
illustrates  a fickleness  in  fruit  production  that  is  quite  re- 
markable. We  have  grown  this  variety  three  years  and  have 
scarce  got  a berry  from  it,  although  there  has  been  no  gen- 
eral failure  of  the  strawberry  crop  during  that  time. 

Parker  Earle. — Perfect.  Highly  reported  on  by  some 
growers  in  the  state,  but  at  the  University  Farm  it  generally 
sets  more  fruit  than  it  can  mature  well.  Very  productive 
where  it  ripens  its  fruit. 

Putnam. — Pistillate.  Fruit  of  good  size,  light  red  in  color, 
conical.  Foliage  and  growth  good.  Moderately  productive. 

Saunders. — Perfect.  Fruit  medium  in  size,  bright  red. 
Foliage  somewhat  diseased. 

Southard. — Pistillate.  Fruit,  bright  red,  conical,  of  good 
size  and  color.  Not  sufficiently  productive  to  be  profitable. 

Standard.— Pistillate.  Fruit  small  and  poor.  Growth 
weak. 

Stevens. — Perfect.  Fruit  small  and  sparingly  produced. 
Growth  weak. 

Seedling  No.  7. — Perfect.  (From  John  Little,  Gran  ton, 
Ont).  Fruit,  very  large,  dark  red,  productive.  Foliage  and 
growth  good.  Very  conspicuous  on  account  of  its  very 
dark  green  foliage  and  long  leaf  stalks. 

Seedling  No.  9. — Pistillate.  (From  John  Little,  Granton, 
Ont).  Fruit,  bright  red,  medium  size,  roundish  conical. 
Foliage  and  growth  good.  Productive.  This  seems  to  be  a 
very  valuable  variety. 

Seedling  No.  37. — Pistillate.  (From  John  Little,  Gran- 
ton, Ont).  Fruit  closely  resembles  the  Warfield.  Foliage 
and  growth  good.  Very  productive. 

Swindle. — Pistillate.  Sets  more  fruit  than  it  can  mature. 
Fruit  rather  irregular,  of  fair  size  and  good  color.  Moder- 
ately productive.  Growth  and  foliage  good. 

Tippecanoe. — Perfect.  Fruit  small  and  irregular,  poor 
Foliage  and  growth  fairly  vigorous  and  healthy. 


246 


Waldron* — Perfect.  Fruit  very  imperfect,  not  productive 
enough.  Foliage  and  growth  good. 

Warfield. — Pistillate.  With  us,  this  still  ranks  among  the 
few  most  productive  kinds.  But  in  some  other  sections  of 
the  state,  it  is  not  so  highly  considered.  It  is  a good  ship- 
ping kind  and  is  popular  for  marketing.  Fruit  only  me- 
dium in  size. 

West  Lawn.— Pistillate.  Fruit  bright  red,  medium  size, 
roundish,  soft.  Foliage  and  growth  gbod.  Not  productive. 

Waupon. — Perfect.  Fruit  medium  size,  bright  red,  coni- 
cal. Growth  moderate.  Foliage  good.  The  first  picking 
wras  large  and  nice.  After  the  first  picking  the  berries  were 
very  small.  Moderately  productive. 

Williams. — Perfect.  Fruit  conical,  medium  size.  Growth 
and  foliage  good.  Fairly  productive. 

Wilson. — Perfect.  Fruit  well  known.  Foliage  and  growth 
good.  Very  productive.  Has  done  better  the  past  season 
than  for  several  years. 

Wolverton. — Perfect.  Fruit  irregularly  conical,  firm  and 
bright  red.  Moderately  productive. 

In  addition  to  the  varieties  mentioned,  there  have  been 
grown  and  fruited  at  the  Station  about  four  hundred  seed- 
lings from  Haverland  and  Warfield  crossed  with  Michel’s 
Early.  Sixty  of  these  have  been  deemed  worthy  of  further 
trial  and  some  of  them  are  very  promising.  All  the  vari- 
eties reported  on  were  fruited  in  young  beds.  Most  of 
the  varieties  also  fruited  on  beds  that  were  producing  their 
second  crop.  In  fact,  the  best  berries  came  from  the  old 
beds,  i.  e.,  those  that  were  producing  their  second  and 
third  crops. 

The  varieties  that  have  done  best  with  us  are  arranged  in 
order  as  to  their  value  as  follows : 


PISTILLATE  KINDS. 

. Crescent* 
Warfield* 
Haverland* 
Edgar  Queen. 


PERFECT-FLOWERING  KINDS. 

Bed  er  Wood, 

Michael’s  Early, 
Wilson, 


247 


LEAP  ROLLER. 

Our  strawberry  plants  have  been  somewhat  injured  the 
past  season  by  the  leaf  roller,  which  was  quite  destructive 
about  the  time  the  crop  was  nearly  harvested,  but  by  mow- 
ing and  burning  the  tops  of  the  plants  and  syringing  the 
new  foliage  with  Paris  Green  and  Bordeaux  Mixture  the  old 
beds  were  renewed  and  were  in  excellent  condition  on  the 
approach  of  winter. 

This  insect  in  its  mature  state  is  a small  moth.  For  the 
first  brood  the  female  lays  her  eggs  on  the  leaves  early  in 
the  summer.  These  soon  hatch  into  whitish  worms  which 
roll  up  the  leaves  and  eat  out  the  green  tissue,  leaving  it 
brown  and  dead.  They  go  through  their  changes  on  the 
leaves  and  the  females  emerge  during  July.  The  worms 
from  the  second  lot  of  eggs,  which  hatch  in  July  and  August, 
pass  through  the  winter  in  the  ground.  Besides  the  reme- 
dies recommended,  hand  picking,  or  rather  crushing,  maybe 
resorted  to  when  the  worms  are  not  too  abundant.  They  are 
very  active  and  often  drop  quickly  to  the  ground  if  dis- 
turbed, but  one  soon  comes  to  understand  how  best  to  press 
the  leaf  so  as  to  be  sure  and  kill  the  worm  inside. 


\ 


University  of  Minnesota. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

BULLETIN  No.  33. 

AGRICULTURAL  DIVISION. 

T-erX-TST,  1894. 


THE  RUSSIAN  THISTLE  OR  RUSSIAN  TUM- 
BLE WEED. 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK,  RAMSEY  CO., 

MINNESOTA. 


EAGLE  JOB  PRINT,  DELANO,  MINN. 


University  of  Minnesota 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis, 1896. 

The  HON.  GREENLEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - - 1894. 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - - 1894. 

The  HON.  JOHN  LIND,  New  Ulm, 1896. 

The  HON.  JOEL  P.  HEATWOLE,  Northfield,  ....  1896. 

The  HON.  O.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth,  - 1896. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson, 1896. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN,  Minneapolis, 1895. 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  B.  A.,  Mnneapolis,  - - 1895. 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  St.  Paul, Ex-Officio. 

The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PENDERGAST,  M.  A.,  Hutchinson,  - - Ex-Officio * 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHROP,  LL.  D.,  Minneapolis,  - Ex-Officio. 

The  President  of  the  University. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  J.  S.  PILLSBURY. 

The  HON.  JOHN  LIND. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN. 

The  HON.  W.  .W  PENDERGAST. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION: 

WM.  M.  LIGGETT, - Chairman. 

WILLET  M.  HAYS,  B.  S.  A.,  - - Vice  Chairman  and  Agriculturist. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S.,  - - Horticulturist. 

OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  - - - - Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S., Chemist. 

T.  L.  HH3CKER, Dairy  Husbandry. 

M.  H.  REYNOLDS,  M.  D.,  V.  M.,  -----  Veterinarian. 

THOS.  SHAW, Animal  Husbandry. 


J.  A.  VYE, Secretary. 

ANDREW  BOSS,  - - Farm  Foreman. 


I The  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the 
State  who  make  application  for  them. 


The  Russian  Thistle,  or  Russian  Tumble 

Weed. 

WILLET  M.  HAYS. 

The  Russian  Thistle  or  Russian  Tumble  Weed  ( Salsoli 
kali , var.  tragus)  was  brought  from  Russia,  probably  with 
flax  seed,  where  it  is  said  to  be  a most  serious 
pest.  From  a very  small  start,  in  ten  or  more  years  it  had 
gotten  a very  strong  hold  in  one  or  two  counties  in  South 
Dakota;  and  in  six  years  more  it  has  rapidly  spread  by  the  aid 
of  the  wind  so  as  to  thoroughly  infest  and  cover  numerous 
South  Dakota  and  several  North  Dakota  counties  and  the 
great  body  of  the  advance  is  nearly  to  the  western  border 
of  our  own  state.  By  the  aid  of  the  railroads  coming  east- 
ward this  pest  has  much  more  rapidly  advanced  upon  us 
than  its  natural  mode  of  traveling  before  the  wind  would 
enable  it  to  do.  It  infests  our  state  at  various  points  and 
has  even  passed  through  our  own  state  and  is  causing  alarm 
by  appearing  at  Madison,  Wis.,  and  at  otherpoints.  It  has 
shown  its  ability  to  travel,  and  to  thrive  in  a variety  of 
conditions  by  migrating  southward  through  Iowa,  Nebras- 
ka, and  even  into  more  remote  states.  In  Nebraska  it  has 
been  found  m nearly  thirty  counties.  Our  railroad  lines  are 
dotted  or  fringed  with  the  weed  at  many  points,  and  around 
our  stockyards  and  many  of  our  large  terminal  elevator 
centers  it  has  gotten  a firm  and  dangerous  hold.  It  is  now 
so  situated  that  it  can  very  rapidly  distribute  from  these 
many  centers  and  from  the  many  others  sure  to  become  in- 
fested by  the  further  importation  into  our  state,  and  if  left 
uncontrolled  it  will  soon  become  a common  and  pernicious 
weed.  The  great  body  of  this  weed  invasion  will  come  up- 


4 


on  us  through  our  western  border  before  the  winds  which 
drive  unhindered  across  our  nearly  treeless  and  fenceless 
western  prairies.  Likewise  from  the  centers  infested  within 
the  state  will  the  winds  roll  these  weeds  into  our  fields,  scat- 
ter seeds  along  our  wagon  roads  and  into  every  nook  where 
a weed  can  thrive,  will  this  pest  find  a place  to  center  as  a 
nuisance. 

When  young  this  tumble  weed  is  an  innocent  appearing 
plant  and  will  not  compete  strong^  with  grass  and  other 
plants  for  a place.  In  the  early  stage  of  its  growth  it  is  a 
soft,  succulent  kind  of  herbage  not  ungrateful  to  stock.  But 
if  given  a roomy  nook,  as  on  a freshly  made  gopher  mound, 
ample  room  in  a field  of  breaking,  or  plenty  of  air  and  sun 


Fig.  1 — a,  flowering  branch;  b,  flower,  enlarged;  c,  flower,  outer  parts  removed, 
showing  male  and  female  parts;  d,  female  part  alone;  e,  leaf  protecting  ovum; 
f,  ovum;  g,  cross  section  of  male  part;  h,  enclosed  seed;  i,  enclosed  seed;  k,  seed; 
1,  embryo  with  roots. — Lugger. 

room  along  the  wheel  tracks  in  the  highway,  it  grows  as 
few  other  weeds  ever  grow. 

It  thrives  in  our  richest  soils  and  does  nearly  as  well 
when  drouth  and  hot  winds  choke  most  other  weeds  into 
very  modest  achievements.  This  tumble  weed  is  like  our 
common  prairie  tumble  weed  (Amarantus  alba)  in  some  of 
its  characters,  looks  like  it  in  fact  from  a distance  when  ma- 


5 


ture,  grows  in  newly  broken  land  or  along  road- 
ways  and  is  like  it  in  its  manner  of  tumbling  before  the  wind. 
On  closer  examination  the  plant  is  found  to  be  very  different 
from  the  common  tumble  weed.  When  ripe  its  stems  are 
much  tougher  and  stiffer,  enabling  it  to  ride  longer  in  the 
wind  before  being  torn  to  pieces.  At  this  stage  of  growth  the 
slender,  soft  leaves  born  during  its  early  stages  have  partly 
fallen  off  and  at  each  joint  on  the  stems  are  several  leaflike 
spines,  both  strong  and  sharp.  These  are  so  rigid  that 
horses  legs  are  much  injured  by  forcing  them  to  pass  through 
a growth  of  the  nearly  mature  weeds.  In  the  illustration 
herewith,  made  by  Dr.  Otto  Lugger,  drawings  of  parts  of  a 
stem, of  flowers,  etc.,showthe  botanical  features  of  the  weed. 
The  flower  is  in  the  axils  of  the  leaf-like  spines.  The 
flower  parts  do  not  all  fall  off,  but  within  them  is  developed 
the  strange  seed.  This  is  simply  a small,  long-cylindrical- 
shaped seed  or  germ  nearly  the  size  of  the  shaft  of  a pin, 
forked  at  the  lower  or  root  end,  and  the  whole  coiled  up  into 
the  form  of  a rather  flat  snail  shell.  Around  this  is  a thin 
shell  or  covering,  but  no  “meat0  is  laid  up  outside  or  around 
the  germ  as  is  the  case  in  most  seeds.  The  seed  is  greenish 
until  quite  ripe  when  it  turns  a dark  brownish  color 
and  changes  to  a fairly  hard  seed.  But  the  important  fact 
is  that  the  seed  belongs  to  that  class  which  is  easily  pene- 
trated by  water,  will  germinate  readily  and  is  not  liable  to 
live  long  in  the  soil,  even  if  buried  at  some  depth,  as  would 
such  hard,  oily  seeds  as  mustard  and  clover. 

Weeds  large  enough  for  good  “tumblers0  before  the  wind 
rarely  grow  among  crops  of  small  grain.  They  come  from 
breaking,  fallow  ground,  roadsides,  freshly  made  mounds 
and  like  places  where  the  native  sod  is  temporarily  destroyed 
and  no  strongly  competing  plants  have  as  yet  secured  con- 
trol. In  fields  of  wheat,  the  plants  are  crowded  out  of  their 
natural  ovoid  or  spreading  form  of  growth  and  grow  more 
or  less  erect  among  the  grain.  They  rarely  grow  tall,  but  if 
the  grain  has  only  a poor  chance  to  thicken  its  clums  by 
“stooling,”  as  was  the  case  in  the  Dakotas  during  the  dry 
June  of  last  year,  the  weed  grows  in  large  numbers  among 
the  wheat,  and  in  thin  spots  in  the  grain,  produces  some 


6 


large  plants.  In  seasons  where  the  moisture  enables  the 
wheat  to  grow  vigorously  during  the  early  part  of  the  sea- 
son, most  of  the  Russian  Tumble  Weeds  grow  only  very 
small  or  are  crowded  to  death.  Where  they  grow  one  to 
two  feet  high  and  rather  thick  among  the  wheat  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  drive  teams  through  them,  the  spines  causing  great 
pain  to  the  horses'  legs ; and  the  harvester  oft-times  can  not 
cut  through  the  hard  weeds  but  must  give  way  to  the  header 
which  is  run  above  the  thistles  taking  only  the  heads  of  the 
grain.  In  rare  cases  the  weeds  grow  as  high  as  the  wheat 
and  even  the  header  will  not  work.  In  cultivated  crops,  as 
potatoes  and  corn,  the  occasional  weed  left  by  the  careless 
farmer  is  liable  to  develop  into  the  most  robust  tumbleweed 
two  to  five  feet  in  diameter,  and  in  a crop  of  thin  wheat  the 
masses  of  the  thistle  grow  large  and  thick  enough  so  as  to 
be  massed  together  by  the  wind  into  approved  ‘Tumblers" 
of  large  size. 

The  great  fact  that  this  weed  can  and  does  travel  from 
one  farm  to  another;  from  waste  or  government  lands  into 
the  fields  of  careful  husbandmen;  from  the  corporate  or  pub- 
lic highways  to  adjacent  or  remote  fields  of  the  cleanly  farm- 
er,brings  before  our  states  and  even  the  general  government, 
a new  condition — a sudden  and  imperative  duty.  The  indi- 
vidual cannot  deal  with  this  foe  any  more  than  he  can  pro- 
tect himself  from  yellow  fever  let  loose  in  the  streets.  The 
power  of  the  government  to  bring  about  a co-operative,  en- 
forced, systematic  and  comprehensive  fight  must  be  brought 
into  use  before  the  pest  has  spread  from  the  present  compar- 
atively small  infested  areas  to  the  entire  country.  And  if 
the  state,  possibly  with  aid  and  co-operation  of  the  general 
government,  compels  one  man  to  prevent  this  weed  from 
spreading  from  his  lands, it  assumes  the  responsibility  of  com- 
pelling every  other  land  owner  to  likewise  keep  it  in  check, 
that  he  who  complies  with  the  law  may  accomplish  his  pur- 
pose and  not  merely  spend  labor  and  money  and  have  the 
weed  again  come  on  his  fields  from  surrounding  lands.  Dur- 
ing a recent  visit  to  the  infested  region  in  South  Dakota,  I 
found  that  many  farmers  were  making  heroic  efforts  to  keep 
this  weed  out  of  their  own  lands  but  as  the  state  does  not 


7 


execute  its  law  compelling  others  to  do  the  same,  these  farm- 
ers are  placed  at  a great  disadvantage  as  their  fields  are 
constantly  reinfested  by  the  weeds  being  blown  from  road- 
ways, public  lands  and  from  the  fields  of  other  farmers. 

This  weed  is  not  going  to  ruin  Minnesota  if  it  does  gain 
entrance  to  every  farm.  But  it  is  a good  business  proposi- 
tion to  invest  enough  of  energy  to  prevent  its  ever  getting  a 
stronghold  in  the  state.  Every  dollar  spent  on  complete 
eradication  will  save  hundreds  in  loss  of  crops  and  in  the  ev- 
erlasting warfare  which  must  be  hereafter  kept  up  if  this  pest 
is  not  subdued.  A sharp,  decisive  contest  is  better  than  a 
weary,  long-drawn  fight  which  we  can  only  bequeath  to  the 
coming  generation.  A successful  fight  would  be  a great  and 
needed  lesson  in  weed  eradication. 

Three  alternatives  are  offered.  First:  Take  no  advan- 
tage from  our  association  in  organized  towns,  counties, 
states  and  nation,  but  allow  each  farmer  to  fight  his  own 
battles  with  the  weeds  blowing  on  his  lands  during  most 
months  of  the  year  from  surrounding  fields,  roads,  etc. 
Second : Make  and  execute  laws  preventing  the  ripening  of 
all  weeds  which  grow  large  enough  to  be  blown  before  the 
wind,  and  to  prevent  their  being  spread  by  such  means 
as  railroads  and  grain  dealers.  This  plan  would 
result  in  the  weed  spreading  only  very  slowly  to  sec- 
tions not  now  infested.  If  the  law  were  faithfully 
executed,  it  would  result  in  the  farmer  who  strong- 
ly desired  to  keep  his  land  clean  of  the  weed  being  able  to  do 
so.  The  presence  in  all  infested  regions  of  small  plants 
among  grain  and  in  other  places  where  they  would  not  de- 
velop into  large  weeds  would,  however,  be  a constant 
menace  and  source  of  trouble  and  expense.  The  seeds  are 
rather  light  and  have  something  of  a wing  which  will  enable 
the  wind  to  carry  them  across  snow  in  winter.  Third: 
Make  state  laws  under  which,  with  some  aid  from  the  gener- 
al government,  the  weed  might,  if  possible,  be  completely 
eradicated.  If  practicable  this  plan  would  in  the  end  be  far 
more  economical.  Killing  out  the  last  plant  of  so  wide- 
ly distributed  a weed  would  indeed  be  difficult.  No  one  has 
yet  investigated  the  subject  enough  to  be  warranted  in  say- 


8 


ing  whether  or  not  it  is  practicable,  or  not  economy,  to  try 
to  eradicate  this  pest  as  was  done  with  pleuro-pneumonia 
in  cattle.  This  whole  matter  should  be  carefully  considered 
from  a purely  business  standpoint  and  a plan  devised  where- 
by the  states  aftected  and  even  the  general  government  could 
unite  in  enacting  laws  under  which  all  individuals,  corpor- 
ations, and  governing  powers  could  co-operate  to  handle  this 
weed  in  the  most  business-like  and  practical  manner.  A 
strong  commission  of  men  should  be  appointed  to  look  up 
all  the  economic,  the  agricultural,  the  business  and  the  legal 
aspects  of  the  case  and  report  suggestions  of  a general  plan 
under  which  the  law-making  bodies  of  states  and  govern- 
ment could  intelligently  act.  Recent  careful  study  of  the 
affected  territory  has  made  me  a firm  believer  that  the  neces- 
sary energy  and  money  to  control,  and  possibly  to  eradicate, 
this  weed  could  be  expended  by  the  farmers,  the  states  and 
the  general  government  to  the  advantage  of  all. 


HOW  TO  ERADICATE  THE  RUSSIAN  TUMBLE  WEED 
IN  MINNESOTA  AND  PREVENT  ITS  GETTING 
ON  OUR  FARMS. 

A year’s  experience  will  tell  us  how  to  meet  the  difficulties. 
No  one  has  heretofore  been  able  to  fight  this  weed  alone. 
It  is  an  annual , however,  grows  from  the  seed  each  year,  and 
the  plants  are  easily  killed  by  means  of  the  hoe , cultivator 
or  any  tool  or  implement  which  will  uproot  or  seriously  dis- 
turb them.  They  are  easily  pulled  up,  and  when  turned  un- 
der with  the  plow  they  die.  The  individuals  are  easily  killed. 
If  all  plants  large  enough  to  travel  before  the  wind  are  kept 
from  ripening , the  weed  will  not  be  very  hard  to  eradicate 
on  each  farm. 

By  preventing  plants  from  seeding  for  two  years  the  pest 
would  disappear.  That  might  not  be  possible.  But  it  looks 
reasonable  that  the  plants  could  so  nearly  all  be  kept 
down  for  two  years  that  occasional  sources  of  remaining 
danger  points  could  be  found  and  looked  after,  and  in  a few 
years  the  land  be  freed  entirely  from  the  pest.  The  essential 
need  is,  not  to  allow  any  plants  to  mature  seeds,  especially 


9 


plants  large  enough  to  roll.  The  seeds  already  ripe  in  the  land 
should  be  encouraged  to  germinate  that  they  may  be  killed 
by  plow,  hoe,  frost  and  other  agencies.  There  is  no  easy 
‘•cure-all, ” no  specific  except  eternal  vigilance;  brains  for  a 
plan  and  willing  hands  on  the  spot  to  do  the  work  at  the 
right  time. 

The  methods  enumerated  below  are  along  the  line  we 
must  act — they  are  written  before,  not  after, the  execution  of 
the  work  and  apply  to  the  section  worst  infested  and  to  the 
scattering  patches  in  Minnesota.  They  will  suggest  to  the 
ingenious  farmer  and  to  the  official,  what  he  can  do  under 
his  conditions. 


METHODS  IN  CULTIVATED  LANDS. 

(1)  The  green  manure  fallow , whenlarge  fields  must  be 
dealt  with,  is  valuable  if  rightly  managed,  to  kill  Russian 
Thistle,  and  other  weeds  as  well.  Two  plowings  are  neces- 
sary. The  best  way  is  to  plow  shallow  in  May  or  June  and 
sow  half  a bushel  per  acre  of  millet  or  two  bushels  of  oats 
and  plow  under  when  beginning  to  head  out.  The  humus 
gotten  into  the  soil  will  amply  repay  the  cost  of  the  seed  for 
the  green  manure,  though  the  thistles  can  be  as  effectively 
treated  without  the  crop  of  green  manure.  After  the  last 
plowing  the  field  should  be  gone  over,  with  the  hoe  if  neces- 
sary, to  destroy  stray  plants. 

(2)  Early  fall  plowing  of  stubble  done  as  soon  as  the 
grain  can  possibly  be  stacked  or  threshed  will  kill  most  of 
the  weeds  if  great  care  is  given  to  thoroughness  and  plow- 
ing before  any  seeds  are  ripe  enough  to  grow. 

(3)  The  bare  fallow  in  some  cases  is  the  best  means  to 
use  in  cultivated  lands.  To  make  it  the  most  effective  the 
grain  shocks  of  the  previous  crop  should  be  stacked  as  soon 
as  dry,  not  waiting  to  thresh  out  of  the  shock  unless  it  can 
be  done  at  once;  and  the  stubble  immediately  plowed  or  even 
disked  to  kill  unripe  weeds  or  to  bury  ripe  seeds  that  they 
may  surely  be  induced  to  germinate.  The  land  in  most 
sections  should  the  next  season  be  twice  fallow-plowed,  once 
in  June  or  July,  and  where  necessary  at  or  after  harvest.  As 


10 

practiced  at  present  where  the  land  lies  from  one  harvest 
through  the  entire  season,  with  only  once  fallow-plowing  in 
midsummer,  the  bare  fallow  often  is  productive  of  the  largest 
“tumblers”  and  spreads  the  weeds. 

(4)  Annual  hay  crops  grown  instead  of  green  manure 
will  likewise  serve  a good  purpose  and  in  sections  where  wild 
hay  is  no  longer  plentiful  will  pay  as  a crop.  By  very  early 
fall  plowing,  then  plowing  shallow  in  spring  and  seeding  to 
millet,  oats,  oats  and  peas,  sowed  corn,  or  other  crop  for 
cured  forage,  and  again  fall-plowing  very  early,  the  Russian 
Thistle  will  not  have  a chance  to  seed  for  two  years,  and 
will  be  practically  killed  out  if  no  seeds  are  allowed  to  blow 
into  the  field. 

(5)  Cultivated  crops , early  fall  plowing,  fallowing, 
among  which  every  stray  plant  not  killed  by  means  of  the 
cultivator  is  destroyed  by  the  hoe,  is  a very  effective  means 
of  killing  out  Russian  Tumble  Weed  and  these  crops,  especial- 
ly corn  and  potatoes,  can  be  much  extended  with  profit  on 
our  wheat  farms,  but  poorly  tended  they  are  a source  of  in- 
fection. A few  plants  allowed  room  and  cultivation  will 
develop  into  the  largest  and  most  dangerous  Tumble  Weeds. 
Thorough  work  with  the  cultivator  supplemented  by  com- 
plete hoe  work  up  to  the  latter  part  of  August  will  surely 
leave  no  plants  with  age  enough  to  mature  their  seeds  be- 
fore frost 

(6)  Mowing  and  burning  the  stubbles  and  weeds  as 
soon  as  the  grain  crop  is  off  and  before  the  weed  seeds  are 
ripe  is  a valuable  means  where  the  weeds  are  thick  and 
cannot  be  well  turned  under  with  the  plow.  This  plan  fol- 
lowed by  one  of  the  methods  stated  above  would  be  effect- 
ive. The  Russian  Tumble  Weed  and  grain  stubble  will  not 
as  a rule  burn  readily  in  the  fall,  at  least  not  until  many  of 
the  seeds  have  ripened,  unless  first  mowed  and  dried.  In 
some  cases  they  may  be  burned  after  mowing  without  ra- 
king, which  is  an  advantage  as  seeds  are  thus  destroyed 
which  might  have  escaped  the  mower.  In  other  cases  they 
must  be  more  or  less  raked  into  piles.  Plants  mowed  before 
the  seeds  are  quite  ripe  will  probably  hold  their  seeds  more 
tightly. 


11 


(7)  Mow  or  hoe  patches  in  the  grain  fields  where  a 
poor  stand  of  grain  has  allowed  them  to  develop  into  large 
weeds.  This  is  necessary  to  avoid  trouble  to  teams  and  ma- 
chines at  harvest  time,  and  also  to  prevent  the  development 
of  large  “tumblers”  which  if  allowed  to  ripen  may  be  blown 
about  scattering  the  seeds.  Generally  the  scythe  will  do  the 
work.  The  hoe  or  even  the  horse  mowing  machine  may  at 
times  be  better. 

(8)  Plow  under  poor  grain  crops  for  green  manure  if 
they  promise  to  pay  but  little  more  than  the  cost  of  harvest- 
ing and  threshing  and  are  filled  with  a thick  growth  of  Rus- 
sian Tumble  Weeds.  It  sometimes  pays  to  be  heroic  in  this. 
The  plowing  can  be  done  early  when  there  is  little  pressing 
work  to  do.  The  green  crop  of  hay  and  weeds  will  make 
much  humus  or  fertility  in  the  soil  and  a chance  for  double 
profits  on  the  crop  the  next  season-  Sometimes  green  man- 
uring and  summer  fallowing  are  objectionable  means  in  dry, 
wind-swept  sections  on  account  of  resulting  blowing  or  drift- 
ing of  the  fine  surface  soil. 

HIGHWAYS,  RAILWAYS,  GRASS  LANDS,  COMMONS,  GROVES. 

Total  eradication  outside  of  cultivated  fields  is  not  so 
easily  accomplished  as  in  the  lands  used  for  grain  and  hoed 
crops. 

(9)  Infested  highways  which  have  been  shaped  up  with 
the  elevating  grader  or  the  reversible  road  machine  can  be 
easily  kept  clean  of  the  weeds  by  one  or  few  dressings 
during  the  summer  with  the  reversible  road  machine.  Plants 
which  escape  this  treatment  can  be  cut  with  hoe.  In  some 
cases  it  will  pay  to  “break  and  back-set”  the  roadway  to 
kill  out  the  weeds.  The  farmer  can  use  this  land  for  crops  or 
it  can  soon  be  seeded  down  to  grass,  timothy,  Kentucky 
blue  grass,  red  top  and  white  clover  being  the  best  mixture 
I can  recommend.  Road  ditches  should  be  built  of  such  shape 
or  form  that  they  are  not  weed  strongholds.  Road  officers 
should  look  sharply  after  the  weeds  in  all  highways  and  see 
that  the  farmers  keep  them  from  seeding  along  their  lands 
or  that  the  roads  are  kept  free  of  weeds  at  the  expense  of  the 
township.  Farmers  should  be  encouraged  to  farm  the  land 
to  the  wheel  track  along  infested  highways. 


12 


(10)  Along  rough  highways  and  on  the  railway  right 
of  way  ‘ 4 Breaking  and  back-set  ting/ * possibly  followed  by  a 
year  of  bare  fallowing,  then  the  next  year  seeding  to  grass, 
will  sometimes  be  the  most  economical  measure.  Usually 
the  hoe  thoroughly  applied  is  the  best  remedy.  The  scythe 
leaves  low  lying  branches  uncut  to  ripen  seeds.  Our  railway 
right  of  ways  as  well  as  our  highways  in  all  sections  of 
country  should  be  left  in  such  shape,  when  being  constructed, 
that  they  can  be  seeded  to  grasses  which  are  easily  mowed 
or  “back  fired’ ’ both  to  lessen  the  number  of  escaping  fires 
and  to  abate  the  weed  nuisance. 

(11)  Pastures  and  meadows  whether  native  or  wild 
need  attention  “Breaking  and  back-setting,”  then  growing 
crops  and  treating  as  in  1 to  8 above  is  safest.  In  grass 
lands  left  undisturbed  the  hoe  in  the  hands  of  careful  men  in 
August  is  probably  the  best  means.  A foreman  on  horse- 
back following  and  constantly  inspecting  the  work  of  a 
gang  of  a dozen  men  could  rapidly  get  over  the  prairie  or 
tame  pasture  or  meadow  and  do  the  work  effectively,  and 
cheaply  as  in  a similar  way  we  pull  mustard.  Prof.  Bolley, 
of  North  Dakota  Experiment  Station,  says:  “A  compara- 
tively small  force  of  workmen  would  suffice  to  destroy  all 
weeds  upon  road  margins  and  the  wild  lands  of  the  worst 
infested  townships  in  the  state.”  Thus  could  the  larger 
weeds  which  develop  in  gopher  mounds,  fire  breaks  and 
similar  places  on  the  prairies  be  destroyed,  and  the  plants, 
kept  small  by  the  thick  growth  of  grass,  might  thus  be  grad- 
ually eradicated. 

(12)  Cities  and  towns  in  Minnesota  in  which  this  weed 
has  obtained  a hold  should,  in  the  common  interest,  and  in 
justice  to  the  farmers  who  patronize  them, at  once  take  mea- 
sures to  prevent  not  only  all  large  plants  from  blowing 
about  and  spreading  the  weed,  but  see  that  no  seeds  are 
ripened  in  the  next  years.  Cities  and  towns  are  strongholds 
for  this  pest  which  the  farmers  cannot  reach;  and  as  towns 
are  now  centres  from  which  the  weed  is  spreading  there  is 
nothing  improper  in  their  taking  the  initiative.  Every  waste 
lot  or  block  in  every  town  or  city  should  be  broken  and  sowed 
to  Kentucky  blue  grass  and  white  clover.  Aside  from  keep- 


13 


ing  out  this  and  other  weed  pests,  such  a practice  would 
make  our  towns  look  much  prettier  and  cleaner. 

(13)  Prevention  of  spreading.  The  greatest  barrier  to 
the  spreading  of  the  Russian  Tumble  Weed  is  the  prevention 
of  all  plants  growing  large  enough  to  roll  before  the  wind. 
If  every  township  can  be  so  organized  this  summer  as  to 
prevent  spreading  by  the  wind,  each  farmer  can  successful- 
ly fight  his  own  battles  and  all  working  together  could  in 
two  or  three  years  eradicate  the  weed.  Railroads  have 
helped  to  spread  it.  They  should  vigorously  set  about  clean- 
ing it  off  their  right  of  way  and  out  of  their  depot  yards. 
Township  road  overseers  and  citizens  should  not  hesitate  to 
notify  the  railroad  of  the  presence  of  the  weeds  on  the  right 
of  way  and  in  depot  yards,  and  to  see  that  the  companies 
look  after  keeping  their  properties  clean. 

(14)  Fences  catch  the  “ tumblers ” and  keep  them  out 
of  the  field.  Wire  fences  serve  a good  purpose,  though  the 
weeds  often  pile  high  and  blow  over.  Three  rows  of  Russian 
Sunflower  around  a field  inside  the  fence,  rows  three  to  four 
feet  apart  and  seeds  a foot  or  less  apart  in  the  row  and 
well  cultivated  so  as  to  grow  tall  and  strong  would  make 
something  of  a hedge  but  are  only  temporary  and  not  very 
promising.  The  heads  make  good  feed  for  poultry  and  other 
stock  while  the  stalks  remain  erect  all  winter.  Willow 
hedges  in  double  rows  thirty  feet  apart,  and  cuttings  a foot 
apart  in  the  row  make  the  best  of  hedges.  A row  or  two  of 
plums  between  the  two  rows  of  willows  is  suggested  as  an 
improvement.  Hedges  and  timber  belts, ho  wever,  are  the  hard- 
est place  from  which  to  rid  out  the  last  weed  because  hard 
to  cultivate. 

(15)  Ripe  seeds  should  he  burned  whereverit  is  possibleto 
burn  the  field  over  or  to  burn  piles  of  the  weeds.  Thus  will 
it  be  possible  to  kill  very  many  seeds  in  the  spring  or  late  in 
the  fall.  Wherever  an  opportunity  offers  in  a strong  wind  in 
dry  weather  unusual  efforts  should  be  put  forth  to  burn 
stubble  and  prairie  grass.  Mowing,  raking,  and  then  burn- 
ing will  also  assist  to  kill  many  weeds.  An  iron  drag  with 
team  hitched  twelve  feet  away  by  means  of  a gas  pipe  cross- 
tree and  chains  or  wires  and  dragged  through  the  field  of  ripe 


14 


thistles,  with  fire  burning  the  thistles  caught  in  the  drag  as  it 
is  run  along  the  side  of  the  field  and  against  the  wind — is 
often  the  most  practical  way  of  burning  ripe  Russian  Thistles. 

GENERAL  PRECAUTIONS. 

Infested  flax,  millet  and  buckwheat  seeds,  or  seeds  of  other 
crops  harvested  late  in  the  fall  after  the  Russian  thistle  has 
ripened,  cause  the  spread  of  this  weed.  Farmers  should  care- 
fully examine  all  seeds  coming  from  a distance  and  discard 
all  having  seeds  of  this  or  any  other  noxious  weed.  As  these 
seeds  are  rather  light  they  can  be  nearly  all  cleaned  out  of 
most  kinds  of  grain  by  using  a common  fanning  mill  with  its 
blast  and  sieves  properly  adjusted. 

Railways  and  Individuals  handling  grains,  stock  or 
other  farm  products  from  infested  districts  should  be  com- 
pelled to  use  care  in  cleaning  cars  at  only  certain  places 
where  the  weeds  may  be  destroyed  and  to  use  proper  care 
in  preventing  the  spread  of  this  weed. 

LAWS  ARE  NEEDED. 

The  two  Dakotas  have  fairly  good  laws  and  Nebraska, 
Minnesota,  Iowa  and  Wisconsin,  and  possibly  other  states, 
should  each  at  the  earliest  possible  opportunity  enact  laws 
making  it  obligatory  for  the  proper  officials  of  each  town- 
ship, city  and  county  to  see  that  this  weed  is  controlled. 
As  to  whether  it  is  practicable  to  entirely  eradicate  the  Russian 
Thistle  from  the  country  there  is  a diversity  of  reasonable  opin- 
ion. But  that  the  state  and  general  government  owes  to  every 
farmer  enough  of  protection  that  this  seed  may  not  be  blown 
upon  his  fields  from  surrounding  lands  and  roadways,  all 
must  admit.  Whether  it  is  wise  for  the  government  to  aid 
the  states  in  a trial  at  utter  eradication  is  one  question;  the 
consideration  of  practical  laws  looking  to  preventing  the 
ripening  and  blowing  about  of  all  weeds  large  enough  to 
roll  before  the  wind  is  another  question.  Any  of  these  states 
refusing  to  do  at  least  this  much  is  not  loyal  to  its  own  citi- 
zens nor  careful  of  the  interests  of  its  neighbors.  And  the 
government  to  be  loyal  to  one  or  two  of  its  young  states  and 
their  farmers  may  find  it  wise  to  give  material  support  as 
well  as  its  great  moral  support  to  laws  looking  to  the  eradi- 


15 


cation  of  this  new  pest.  The  individual  farmer  can  fight  his 
own  battle  if  the  state  will  provide  so  that  he  need  not  fight 
it  over  again  the  next  year.  It  might  be  far  cheaper  in  the 
end  to  entirely  eradicate  the  weed  than  to  continually  fight 
it,  as  the  farmer  must  be  given  a chance  to  keep  his  land  clean 
if  he  is  so  disposed.  With  the  weeds  blowing  upon  his  farm 
every  year  he  must  adapt  his  farming  to  the  presence  of  this 
weed  and  the  farmers  in  affected  districts  recognize  this  as  a 
very  serious  pest.  Real  estate  dealers,  however,  do  not  all 
recognize  that  this  or  any  other  disadvantage  exists  in  their 
section  of  the  country.  Let  the  state  make  and  execute  a 
good  law  and  three-fourths  of  our  farmers,  if  not  nearly  all, 
would  learn  that  total  eradication  on  their  own  lands  is 
economy.  It  would  not  be  very  difficult  to  execute  a law  pre- 
venting the  ripening  of  all  the  large  weeds.  This  would  in 
the  main  stop  the  rapid  spread  of  the  weed  and  its  entire 
eradication  could  be  taken  up  in  any  section  or  in  the  entire 
country. 

Every  farmer  should  try  to  prevent  the  ripening  of  all 
“tumblers”  on  his  lands  and  in  the  township  and  county. 
He  should  also  favor  and  work  for  the  making  and  the  exe- 
cution of  some  reasonable,  comprehensive  and  efficient  laws. 
Figures  2 and  3 show  Russian  Tumble  Weed  at  stage  when 
nearly  ready  to  blossom  and  when  all  stray  plants  should 
be  destroyed  as  recommended  in  sections  9 to  15. 


Fig.  2 — A young  Russian  Tumble  Weed  of  spreading  habit,  over  two  feet  across, 
photographed  by  Prof.  Swem  at  St.  Paul  July  1st. 


Everyone  should  know  the  Russian  Thistle. 

Mounted  dry  specimens  of  Russian  Thistle  show- 
ing it  as  it  appears  in  July  and  August— themonths 
in  which  all  plants  in  neglected  places  on  roads,  on 
breaking,  in  towns,  etc.,  should  he  killed— -will  he 
sent  free  on  application  to  all  school  districts, 
road  overseers,  railway  section  foremen  and  other 
officials  responsible  for  killing  noxious  weeds. 


Fig.  3— A Russian  Tumble  Weed  of  rather  erect  habit,  18  inches  high  and  at  a&e 
when  spines  are  beginning  to  develop  and  the  slender  foliage  is  beginning  t 
drop  off.  Photographed  at  St.' Paul,  July  1st,  1894. 


University  of  Minnesota. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  No.  34. 

CHEMICAL  DIVISION. 


SEPTEMBER,  1894. 


I.  The  Chemical  Development  and  Value  of  Red 

Clover. 

II.  The  Russian  Thistle.  Its  Food  Value  and  Draft 

upon  the  Soil. 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK,  RAMSEY  CO., 

MINNESOTA. 


EAGLE  JOB  PRINT,  DELANO,  MINN. 


TJnivensity  of  Minnesota 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis, 1896 

The  HON.  GREENLEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - - 1894 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - - 1894 

The  HON.  WM.  H.  YALE,  Winona.  1896 

The  HON.  JOEL  P.  PIEATWOLE,  Northfield,  ....  1896 

The  HON.  O.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth,  - 1 896 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson, 1896 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN,  Minneapolis, 1895 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  B.  A.,  Minneapolis,  - - 1895 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  St.  Paul,  - - - - - Ex-Officio . 

The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PENDERGAST,  M.  A.,  Hutchinson,  - - Ex-Officio . 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHROP,  LL.  D.,  Minneapolis,  ...  - Ex-Officio . 

The  President  of  the  University. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  J.  S.  PILLSBURY. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PENDERGAST. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION: 

WM.  M.‘  LIGGETT, Chairman. 

WILLET  M.  HAYS,  B.  S.  A.,  - - Vice  Chairman  and  Agriculturist. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S.,  - - - - - - Horticulturist. 

OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  - - - - Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S., Chemist. 

T.  L.  HACKER,  t - - - Dairy  Husbandry. 

M.  H.  REYNOLDS,  M.  D.,  V.  M.,  -----  - Veterinarian. 

THOS.  SHAW,  Animal  Husbandry. 


J.  A.  VYE,  Secretary. 

ANDREW  BOSS, Farm  Foreman. 


The  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the 
State  who  make  application  for  them. 


The  Chemical  Development  and  Value  of 
Red  Clover. 


HARRY  SNYDER. 

Object  of  Bulletin. — The  value  of  clover  as  a farm  crop  isso 
well  known  that  little  need  be  said  by  way  of  introduction 
as  to  the  importance  of  the  clover  crop.  Recognizing  its  im- 
portance, many  farmers  of  the  state  have  attempted  to  raise 
clover  but  with  indifferent  results  ; hence  a complete  chemi- 
cal study  of  the  clover  plant  was  undertaken  to  obtain  a 
knowledge  of  some  of  the  more  important  facts  in  connection 
with  its  growth. 

The  Failure  of  Clover  not  Due  to  Deficiency  of  Plant  Food 
in  the  Soil. — In  a few  cases  where  clover  has  made  a poor 
showing,  farmers  have  sent  samples  of  the  soil  to  the  labor- 
atory for  chemical  analysis,  thinking  that  the  cause  might 
possibly  be  due  to  the  want  of  some  special  form  of  plant 
food  in  the  soil.  The  analyses,  in  all  of  these  cases,  have  not 
shown  the  absence  of  any  of  the  essential  materials  for  crop 
growth.  From  the  numerous  analyses  of  soils,  partial  re- 
sults of  which  are  published  in  Bulletin  Nc.  30,  it  is  to  be 
noted  that  all  of  the  types  of  soil  in  the  state  are  well  sup- 
plied with  lime,  phosphates,  magnesia  and  potash.  This, 
coupled  with  the  fact  that  clover  does  thrive  under  certain 
conditions  and  in  certain  seasons,  indicates  that  the  cause  of 
the  failure  is  due  more  to  the  want  of  the  proper  mechanical 
conditions  of  the  soil,  as  the  right  time  and  best  crop  to  seed 
it  with,  than  to  the  absence  of  any  special  plant  food  from 
the  soil. 


18 


These  necessary  conditions  for  clover  culture  can  be 
learned  only  after  a careful  series  of  experiments  in  different 
parts  of  the  state,  on  different  types  of  soil  and  under  differ- 
ent climatic  conditions.  This  work  has  already  been  outlined 
and  undertaken  by  Professor  Hays,  agriculturist  of  the 
station. 

Clover  Influenced  by  Crop  with  which  it  is  Seeded. — That 
the  yield  of  clover  is  influenced  by  the  crop  with  which  it  is 
seeded  is  shown  from  the  following  data : Two  adjoining 

plots  of  land,  an  eighth  of  an  acre  each,  had  been  in  corn  for 
two  years  (1891-92).  The  plots  were  fall  plowed  and  in 
every  way  had  received  the  same  treatment.  In  the  spring 
of  1893,  one  plot  was  seeded  with  oats  and  clover,  and  the 
other  one  to  wheat  and  clover.  In  the  following  }rear  1894, 
the  yields  from  each  of  the  plots  were : 

Clover  seeded  with  oats — 295  lbs.,  y8  acre  plot  at  the  rate  of  2,360  lbs.  per  acre. 
Clover  seeded  with  wheat — 545  lbs.,  y8  acre  plot  at  the  rate  of  4,360  lbs.  per  acre. 

A difference  of  a ton  per  acre  in  favor  of  the  clover  seeded 
with  wheat. 

A review  of  the  growing  conditions  of  the  clover  in  these 
two  plots  shows  that  with  the  oats,  the  clover  had  the  dis- 
advantage of  being  compelled  to  compete  with  a more  rapid 
growing,  and  an  earlier  maturing  crop  than  when  the  clover 
was  grown  with  the  slower  ripening  wheat.  The  oats  were 
harvested  about  two  weeks  earlier  than  the  wheat.  This 
was  a period  of  drought.  The  oats  being  harvested  left  the 
soil  and  young  clover  exposed  to  the  sun,  while  the  young 
clover  which  had  been  sown  with  wheat  was  protected  until 
the  conditions  were  more  favorable  when  the  wheat  was 
harvested. 

On  this  point  Professor  Hays  says  that  the  poorer  chance 
of  the  clover  seeded  with  the  oats,  to  get  started,  was  also 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  oats  are  apt  to  grow  very  rank  and 
dense  and  that  the  clover  seeded  with  the  oats  is  far  more 
slender  and  weak  than  the  plants  sown  with  the  wheat, 
which  leaves  the  clover  less  able  to  stand  drought  and  hot 
weather  that  may  come  later  in  the  season,  after  the  oats 
and  wheat  are  cut. 


19 


After  a careful  series  of  experiments  with  raising  clover 
in  different  parts  of  the  state,  many  important  facts  in  con- 
nection with  its  growth,  will  doubtless  be  observed. 

The  work  recorded  in  this  bulletin  has  reference  mainly 
to  the  results  of  the  chemical  examinations  of  clover  at  dif- 
ferent stages  of  its  growth,  together  with  the  separate  exam- 
ination of  a number  of  samples  of  clover  grown  in  different 
parts  of  the  state. 

The  Different  Periods  of  Development  of  Clover. — Sam- 
pling.— The  clover  plant  is  considered  at  five  different  pe- 
riods in  its  development.  At  each  of  the  earlier  periods  three 
samples  were  taken  from  known  areas.  One  sample  was  sep- 
arated into  leaves,  stems,  etc.,  and  each  part  analyzed  sepa- 
rately. In  the  second  sample  the  entire  plant  above  ground 
was  taken,  while  with  the  third  sample  particular  attention 
was  paid  to  securing  the  roots.  Working  in  this  way  the 
result  of  each  period  is  duplicated;  absolute  agreement  is 
not  secured  among  all  the  duplicates  because  the  clover 
plants  from  two  different  areas  are  not  alike  in  all  respects, 
yet  the  results  taken  as  a whole  show  a satisfactory  agree- 
ment for  each  of  the  periods. 

In  the  first  period,  the  clover  was  five  to  six  inches  in 
height,  the  flower  head  had  not  yet  made  its  appearance.  In 
the  second  period,  twenty -four  days  later,  the  clover  was  in 
early  .bloom  and  making  a very  rapid  growth.  The  clover 
in  the  third  period,  fourteen  days  later,  was  just  a little  past 
full  bloom, — in  the  condition,  as  will  be  seen  later,  for  mak- 
ing the  best  hay.  At  the  end  of  flowering,  and  when  the 
clover  was  ripe,  samples  were  again  taken. 

The  Rate  of  Formation  of  Food  Constituents. — In  order 
to  follow,  in  a general  way,  the  entire  plant  above  ground 
through  each  of  the  separate  periods,  the  analyses  have  been 
calculated  to  pounds  of  dry  matter,  ash,  etc.,  for  each  period. 
The  largest  amount  of  dry  matter,  which  is  found  at  the 
flowering  is  taken  as  100,  and  the  largest  amount  of  ash  or 
mineral  matter  at  the  end  of  flowering  as  100,  and  each  of 
the  largest  amounts  of  the  other  compounds  that  are  found 
in  any  of  the  periods  as  100.  The  following  table  will 
show  the  comparative  amounts  that  were  present  at  each 
of  the  various  periods. 


CLOVER  AT  DIFFERENT  STAGES  OF  GROWTH. 

TABLE  I — FOOD  CONSTITUENTS. 


Dry  Matter... 

Ash 

1 

Nitrogenous 
Matter  

1 

Nitrogenous 
Matter  in  the 
form  of  pro- 
teids  

! Fiber ^ 

1. 

Flower  Head  Invisible 

9 

14 

15 

67 

5 

2. 

Early  Bloom 

31 

46 

37 

70 

24 

3. 

Full  Bloom  

97 

98 

100 

88 

92 

4. 

End  of  Flowering 

100 

100 

96 

85 

96 

5. 

Maturity  

97 

95 

94 

83 

100 

Note. — In  the  table  the  nitrogenous  matter  in  the  form  of  proteids  is  represent- 
ed on  the  basis  of  the  total  nitrogenous  material  of  that  period  taken  as  100.  It  is 
the  per  cent,  of  total  nitrogenous  material  of  each  period  which  is  in  the  form  of  pro- 
teids, as  determined  by  Stutzer’s  method. 

The  Earlier  Stages  of  Plant  Growth. — This  table  shows 
that  the  most  active  growing  period  of  the  clover  is  between 
early  and  full  bloom  when  sixty  per  cent,  of  the  dry  matter  is 
formed,  fifty-eight  per  cent,  of  the  mineral  matter  is  taken 
from  the  soil,  and  sixty-three  per  cent,  of  the  nitrogenous 
matter  is  produced.  The  largest  yield  of  clover  would  be 
obtained  at  the  end  of  flowering,  but  it  would  not  con- 
tain as  much  nitrogenous  matter,  the  important  bone  and 
muscle  forming  material,  as  when  the  crop  was  in  full 
bloom. 

Development  of  the  Nitrogenous  Compounds. — In  the 
earlier  stages  of  the  plant  growth  there  is  not  so  much  of  the 
nitrogenous  matter  in  the  more  valuable  form  of  proteids  as 
when  the  plant  becomes  more  mature.  At  the  time  of  full 
bloom  the  nitrogenous  materials  in  the  clover  are  in  the  most 
valuable  food  forms.  From  the  time  of  early  bloom  until  the 
period  of  full  bloom,  a large  portion  of  the  nitrogenous  ma- 
terials are  assimilated  and  undergo  the  transformation  from 


21 


lower  (amido)  compounds  to  the  more  highly  organized  and 
valuable  food  compounds  of  protein. 

The  Ripening  Period. — The  period  of  full  bloom  marks  the 
end  of  the  formation  of  nitrogenous  materials.  Between  full 
bloom  and  the  end  of  flowering  only  two  and  three  per  cent, 
respectively,  of  mineral  matter  and  dry  matter  are  added  to 
the  crop.  The  period  of  ripening  is  simply  a period  of  re-ar- 
ranging the  materials  that  are  already  within  the  plant,  and 
not  a period  of  addition  of  any  new  material. 

Best  Time  for  Cutting  Clover  Hay. — The  clover  hay  cut 
at  the  time  of  full  bloom  contains  the  largest  amount  of  ni- 
trogenous material  in  the  most  valuable  food  forms,  while 
clover  cut  at  the  end  of  flowering  contains  the  largest 
amount  of  dry  matter,  which  is  poorer  in  the  valuable  nitro- 
genous compounds. 

The  largest  amount  of  nitrogen  present  in  the  clover 
plant  as  found  by  Dietrich  and  b}r  Wolff,  was  at  the  time  of 
full  bloom.  Dietrich's  results  show  a decline  of  10  per 
cent,  of  the  nitrogen  from  full  bloom  until  maturity.  ( Annales 
de  la  Science  Agronomique,  1888.) 

Assimilation  of  the  Separate  Ash  Elements. — Of  the  sep- 
arate ash  elements,  potash  and  lime  appear  to  be  assimilat- 
ed a little  in  advance  of  most  of  the  other  elements.  At  the 
time  of  full  bloom,  all  of  the  potash  has  been  taken  up  by  the 
plant,  while  the  end  of  flowering  marks  the  highest  point 
reached  by  the  lime  and  phosphates.  The  fourth  period,  end 
of  flowering,  marks  a period  of  decline  in  the  potash,  which 
is  even  greater  at  the  time  of  maturity. 

Retrograde  Movement  of  the  Potash.— There  is  more 
potash  in  the  clover  plant  at  the  time  of  early  bloom  than  at 
maturity.  This  is  due  to  the  retrograde  movement  of  the 
potash  at  the  approach  of  maturity.  The  clover  crop  re- 
quires a larger  working  supply  of  potash  than  the  amount 
that  is  represented  in  the  crop  at  maturity.  In  the  work  of 
Wolff  on  the  clover,  previously  referred  to,  there  is  a decline 
of  five  per  cent,  in  the  potash. 

The  following  table  gives  the  rate  of  assimilation  of  the 
principal  ash  elements  of  the  clover.  The  highest  amount 
reached  in  any  of  the  periods  is  taken  as  100. 


CLOVER  AT  DIFFERENT  STAGES  OF  GROWTH. 

TABLE  II — ASH  ELEMENTS. 


Potash 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Phosphates 

Flower  Head  Invisible 

15 

15 

8 

14 

Early  Bloom 

50 

37 

35 

34 

Fall  Bloom 

100 

97 

100 

98 

End  of  Flowering  

94 

100 

92 

100 

Maturitv 

86 

97 

91 

98 

Compared  with  the  growth  of  the  wheat  plant,  results 
of  which  are  published  in  Bulletin  29  of  this  Station,  it  will 
be  observed  that  with  the  clover  there  is  a more  general  rela- 
tionship between  the  assimilation  of  the  mineral  matter  and 
the, formation  of  organic  matter.  In  the  first  periods  of  the 
clover  the  mineral  matter  is  taken  up  somewhat  in  advance 
of  the  formation  of  organic  matter,  while  in  the  wheat  the 
nitrogen  and  separate  ash  elements  are  assimilated  much 
earlier  in  the  development  of  the  plant. 

Mineral  Food  Required  to  Grow  a Clover  Crop . — Taking 
the  entire  crop  of  clover  from  the  plot  seeded  with  wheat, 
which  gave  a yield  of  4,360  pounds  per  acre  of  field  cured 
clover,  the  pounds  of  the  separate  ash  materials  removed  in 
one  acre  of  the  crop  are  as  follows  : 


Potash 

Lime  

Soda  

Magnesia... 

Iron 

Phosphates 

Sulphates... 

Carbonates 

Chlorine 

Silica 


66.  pounds. 

76.4 

1. 

17.4 
1.3 

28.4 
5.6 

33.6 

6.0 

15.8 


u 


Total 


251.5 


23 


Characteristics  of  the  Ash  of  Clover. — The  above  table 
shows  the  characteristic  food  of  the  clover,  and  the  amount 
of  mineral  matter  that  must  be  furnished  by  the  soil  for  a 
good  crop.  The  silica  is  small  compared  with  wheat,  which 
removes  114  pounds  and  more  per  acre.  The  phosphates  are 
a little  lower  than  the  amouut  found  in  a wheat  crop.  Lime 
and  potash  are  the  two  compounds  which  are  required  in 
the  largest  amounts.  The  large  amount  of  lime  in  the  clover 
has  caused  it  to  be  known  as  a lime  plant. 

Best  Kinds  of  Manure  for  Clover . — Lime  in  the  form  of 
land  plaster,  and  potash  in  the  form  of  ashes  are  the  most 
profitable  and  best  materials  that  can  be  used  on  clover. 
They  both  have  a very  beneficial  effect  in  “bringing  in  clover/  * 

Composition  of  the  Leaves  and  Stem. — The  analyses  of 
the  separate  parts  of  the  clover  plant  at  the  different  stages 
of  their  development,  show  that  the  leaves  are  very  rich  in 
nitrogenous  material ; from  sixty  to  seventy  per  cent,  of  the 
entire  nitrogen  in  the  plant,  excepting  the  roots,  is  present  in 
the  leaves.  The  first  time  the  leaves  were  analyzed  they  con- 
tained over  thirty  per  cent,  of  nitrogenous  material — a very 
high  figure  and  one  that  is  not  far  from  the  amount  found  in 
the  animal  body.  The  leaves  also  contain  a proportionally 
less  amount  of  fiber.  As  the  plant  matures  there  is  a grad- 
ual decrease  in  the  proportional  amount  of  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds in  the  leaf,  and  a corresponding  increase  of  fiber  and 
other  non-nitrogenous  compounds.  Over  half  of  the  total 
ash  elements  of  the  clover  are  found  in  the  leaf,  with  a pro- 
portionally higher  figure  for  the  lime  and  potash. 

The  separate  analyses  of  the  clover  leaf  show  its  food 
value  to  such  an  extent  as  to  demand  that  every  possible  ef- 
fort be  made,  in  harvesting  and  handling  the  crop,  to  pre- 
vent mechanical  losses  such  as  breaking  the  leaves. 

Other  minor  characteristics  can  be  observed  from  the 
tables  given  on  the  following  pages. 

Table  III  gives  the  composition  of  the  dry  matter,  and 
the  ash  of  the  entire  plant,  excepting  of  the  roots,  at  the  five 
different  periods  discussed  in  this  bulletin. 

The  figures  under  the  heading  of  dry  matter  represent  the 


24 


nitrogenous  material,  fiber,  ash,  etc.,  that  are  present  in  one 
hundred  pounds  of  the  dry  clover.  The  clover  hay,  field- 
cured  and  ready  for  feeding,  contains  from  ten  to  fifteen  per 
cent,  of  water,  and  when  one  hundred  pounds  of  clover  is 
fed  a correspondingly  smaller  amount  of  nitrogenous  materi- 
al, etc.,  are  present  than  is  represented  in  these  tables.  Since 
the  amount  of  water  that  is  present  is  subject  to  variations, 
the  results  are  calculated  on  the  perfectly  dry  material. 

The  term  dry  matter  is  used  to  indicate  the  perfectly  dry 
clover.  All  of  the  water  is  removed  by  drying  the  substance 
for  several  hours,  in  a drying  oven,  at  the  temperature  of 
boiling  water.  The  drying  oven  is  made  of  copper  and  has 
double  walls.  The  space  between  the  walls  is  filled  with 
water  which  is  kept  boiling.  When  any  material  is  dried  in 
such  an  oven  it  will  give  up  the  water  which  it  contains  and 
leave  the  dry  substance. 

In  order  to  change  the  results  from  dry  substance  to 
original  substance  a simple  calculation  will  illustrate  the 
method.  In  the  first  period,  when  the  clover  is  very  young 
a hundred  pounds  of  it  contains  86  pounds  of  water  and  14 
pounds  of  dry  matter.  The  analysis  of  the  dry  matter 
showed  23.61  per  cent,  of  total  nitrogenous  material ; 14 
pounds  of  dry  matter  would  then  contain  (14  x .2361)  3.36 
pounds  of  nitrogenous  matter.  The  14  pounds  of  dry 
matter  is  all  there  is  in  100  pounds  of  the  green  clover. 
Hence,  if  the  green  clover  had  been  used  for  fodder,  100 
pounds  would  have  contained  3.36  pounds  of  total  nitro- 
genous material. 

The  figures  for  the  ash  are  the  amounts  of  the  separate 
constituents  in  every  hundred  pounds  of  the  ash  for  that 
period.  The  amount  of  each  separate  ash  element  in  the  un- 
cut clover  is  calculated  in  the  following  way : In  the  first 

period  there  is  14  per  cent,  of  dry  matter.  The  analysis  of  the 
dry  matter  shows  10.57  per  cent,  of  ash  of  which  32.75  per 
cent,  is  lime.  Hence  there  is  (14  x .1057)  1.48  per  cent,  of  ash 
in  the  clover  as  it  stands  in  the  field  ; 32.75  per  cent,  of  this 
ash  is  lime  which  is  equivalent  to  (32.75  x .0148)  .48  of  lime 
in  the  uncut  clover. 


25 


In  order  to  avoid  too  many  tables  the  results  in  the  re- 
maining tables  of  this  Bulletin  are  all  expressed  on  the  dry 
matter  and  the  ash  constituents  in  per  cents,  of  the  total  ash. 

TABLE  III. 

COMPOSITION  OF  CLOVER,  ENTIRE  PLANT  (EXCEPT 
ROOTS)  AT  DIFFERENT  STAGES. 


I 

Flower 

Head 

Invisible 

II 

Early 

Bloom 

III 

Full 

Bloom 

IV 

End  of 
Flowering 

V 

Ripe 

Water .. 

86.00 

85.59 

74.96 

71.65 

33.47 

Dry  Matter 

14.00 

14.41 

25.04 

28  35 

66-53 

COMPOSITION  OF  DRY  MATTER. 


Ash 

10.57 

10.22 

6.87 

7.02 

6.21 

Ether  Extract 

5.35 

4.70 

5.73 

4.26 

3.92 

Total  Nitrogenous  

23  61 

17  19 

14.81 

14.40 

14.06 

Crude  Fiber 

13.37 

20.08 

24.62 

25.28 

26.60 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ASH. 


Total  Insoluble  (sand) 

d.94 

4.44 

4.62 

6.24 

7.16 

Potash  

28.26 

29.48 

29.16 

26.12 

25.12 

Soda  

1.82 

2.42 

.72 

.41 

.60 

Lime  

32.75 

24.32 

30.64 

30.22 

30.66 

Magnesia 

5.07 

7.89 

10.54 

6.89 

7.01 

Iron  Oxide  

.33 

2.16 

.42 

.48 

.52 

Phosphates 

11.33 

8.32 

11.57 

11.22 

11.46 

Sulphates 

3.07 

2.88 

1.01 

2.20 

2.12 

Chlorides 

1.10 

2.73 

1.93 

2.40 

1.60 

Carbonates 

9.06 

14.01 

9.96 

13  23 

13.12 

Totals .. 

99.73 

98.65 

100.77 

99.41 

99.37 

In  table  IV  the  separate  composition  of  the  leaves  and 
stems  for  the  first  three  periods  is  given.  These  figures 
illustrate  the  various  points  that  have  already  been  discuss- 
ed in  connection  with  the  development  of  the  clover  plant. 


26 


TABLE  IV. 

COMPOSITION  OF  LEAVES  AND  STEMS  OF  CLOVER 
AT  DIFFERENT  STAGES  OF  GROWTH. 


COMPOSITION  OF  THE  DRY  MATTER. 


First  Period 

Second  Period 

Third  Period 

Leaves 

Stems 

Leaves 

Stems 

Leaves 

Stems 

Ash  

Ether  Extract 

10.02 

11.02 

3.08 

13.44 

18.46 

10.07 

11.30 

4.95 

11.25 

26.32 

9.1  9 

4.87 

Total  Nitrogenous  

Crude  Fiber 

30.68 

10.48 

27.38 

10.51 

19.37 

15.36 

11.26 

35.27 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ASH. 


Total  Insoluble  (sand)  

3.55 

9.0C 

2.83 

6.05 

1.84 

1.23 

Potash  

26.75 

29.66 

27.30 

37.14 

25.88 

27.69 

Soda 

2.02 

.94 

1.24 

2.26 

1.06 

.65 

Lime 

37.83 

28.79 

30.26 

19.96 

31.74 

26.22 

Magnesia 

4.89 

5.05 

7.91 

7.08 

9.70 

11.06 

Iron  Oxide 

.61 

.26 

1.50 

3.18 

.24 

.56 

Phosphates 

11.41 

10.70 

10.84 

6.78 

9.83 

12.48 

Sulphates 

3.00 

4.02 

2.02 

2.08 

1.31 

1.40 

Chlorides  

1.19 

1.00 

1.61 

2.84 

1.53 

1.53 

Carbonates 

9.32 

8.62 

15.10 

14.20 

16.60 

16.64 

Total  

100.57 

98.10 

100.61 

99.57 

99.73 

99.46 

In  each  of  the  above  periods  the  per  cent,  of  potash  is 
greater  in  the  stems  than  in  the  leaves,  while  the  per  cent,  of 
lime  is  greater  in  the  leaves.  When  in  early  bloom,  the  per 
cent,  of  total  ash  is  greater  in  the  leaves  than  in  the  stems. 
In  Wolff's  Aschen- Analysed  these  same  points  are  to  be  ob- 
served, bnt  the  differences  of  potash  and  lime  content  in  the 
stems  and  leaves  are  nruch  greater  than  here  recorded.  In 
each  period  there  is  a gradual  increase  in  carbonates  which 
is  due  to  a larger  amount  of  the  bases  lime  and  potash  being 
combined  with  organic  acids.  These  organic  acids  upon 
combustion  leave  an  increased  amount  of  carbon  dioxide. 


CLOVER  ROOTS. 


Importance . — The  roots  and  crop  residue  left  by  clover 
are  of  the  greatest  importance  for  keeping  up  the  fertility  of 
the  soil.  In  Bulletin  No.  30  of  this  Station  the  continuous 
cultivation  of  soils  to  grain  crops  was  shown  to  result  in  re- 
ducing the  amount  of  vegetable  matter  and  humus  in  the 
soil.  The  loss  of  humus  was  followed  by  a loss  of  nitrogen, 
and  a decreased  power  of  the  soil  for  retaining  moisture  and 
withstanding  drought,  as  well  as  rendering  some  of  the 
mineral  matters,  especially  the  phosphates,  which  are  com- 
bined and  associated  with  the  humus,  less  valuable  as  plant 
food. 

When  the  crop  residue  and  roots  of  clover  decompose 
they  furnish  organic  matter  which  increases  the  humus  in 
the  soil,  and  the  minerals  which  they  contain  are  rendered 
available  for  the  next  crop  that  is  not  so  able  to  obtain  food 
from  the  soil  as  is  the  clover. 

Fertilizer  Constituents  in  Roots. — At  full  bloom,  the 
amount  of  clover  roots  present  from  an  acre  of  clover  of 
4000  pounds  yield  is  approximately  1760  pounds,  contain- 
ing thirty-nine  pounds  of  nitrogen,  and  352  pounds  of 
mineral  matter  composed  in  part  of, 

Potash 26.7  pounds 

Phosphates 27.8  pounds 

Lime 23.6  pounds 

Fertilizer  Value  of  Roots. — The  nitrogen  if  purchased  in 

the  form  of  commercial  fertilizers  would  cost  $6.63.  Since 

the  experiments  by  Hellriegel  and  Weilfarth  have  shown 
that  a large  portion  of  this  nitrogen  comes  from  the  free 
nitrogen  of  the  air,  a form  which  most  farm  crops  are  unable 
to  make  use  of,  a good  share  of  this  nitrogen  maybe  counted 


28 


upon  as  a clear  gain  to  the  soil. 

In  addition  to  the  fertilizer  ingredients  in  the  roots,  the 
amount  present  in  the  stubble  and  crown  must  be  added, 
which  would  make  the  total  even  larger.  Leaving  out  this 
factor,  which  is  a variable  one,  the  figures  as  given  show 
that  the  amounts  would  not  be  far  from  what  could  be  ex- 
pected of  even  a poorer  crop  of  clover. 

Value  of  Young  Clover  as  Green  Manure. — Had  the 
young  clover  been  plowed  under  for  green  manure  at  the 
first  period,  May  9,  which  would  have  been  sufficiently  early, 
in  this  latitude  for  planting  corn,  the  amount  of  fertilizer  in- 
gredients furnished  to  the  corn  from  an  acre  of  the  clover, 
including  the  roots,  would  have  been: 

Plant.  Roots.  Total. 


Dry  Matter,  pounds 324.  236.  560. 

Nitrogen 12.  9.  21. 

Phosphoric  Acid 4.  2.5  6.5 

Potash 10.  6.  16. 

Lime 11.  12.  23. 

VALUE. 

21  pounds  Nitrogen  @ 15  cents  per  lb $3.15 

6.5  pounds  Phos.  Acid  @ 6 cents  per  lb. 39 

16  pounds  Potash  @ 4 cents  per  lb 64 


Total ,....$4,18 

The  clover  plant,  with  its  roots,  at  this  period  con- 


tained as  much  dry  matter,  phosphates,  and  potash  per  acre 
as  there  is  present  in  a ton  of  good  farm  manure,  and  as 
much  nitrogen  as  is  in  two  tons  of  the  best  farm  manure. 

The  important  points  regarding  the  value  of  clover 
roots,  when  fully  developed,  are: 

1.  An  increase  of  1500  to  2000  lbs.  of  organic  matter  to 
every  acre  of  soil. 

2.  An  increase  of  30  to  50  lbs.  of  nitrogen  per  acre. 

3.  Changing  20  to  30  lbs.  each  of  phosphates,  potash 
and  lime  into  more  valuable  forms  of  plant  food. 

Dry  Matter  in  Roots. — During  growth,  the  roots,  at 
the  different  periods  of  their  development  show  a marked 
change  in  composition.  A gradual  increase  in  dry  matter  is 


29 


to  be  observed.  The  amount  of  dry  matter,  in  a square 
yard  of  the  roots,  at  the  different  dates  was: 

First  Period 122  grams  of  roots 

Second  Period 320  grams  of  roots 

Third  Period 916  grams  of  roots 

Inasmuch  as  clover  roots  are  of  so  much  importance  as  a 
manure,  their  composition  is  given  in  the  following  table : 

TABLE  v. 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ASH  OF  CLOVER  ROOTS. 


First  Period 

Second  Period 

Third  Period 

Potash 

12.67 

8.41 

7.61 

Soda 

2.12 

4.63 

2.64 

Lime 

26.01 

5.76 

6.73 

Magnesia 

-1.87 

5.46 

3.84 

Iron  Oxide 

.40 

2.95 

1.67 

Phosphates 

5.55 

11.28 

7.87 

Sulphates  

2.39 

4.86 

2.12 

Chlorides 

1.16 

2.12 

3.16 

Carbonates 

4.02 

2.12 

Total  Insoluble 

40.58 

50.86 

48.50 

Total 

99.77 

98.45 

COMPOSITION  OF  DRY  MATTER  OF  THE  CLOVER  ROOTS. 


Ash  

20.16 

20.16 

20.41 

Ether  Extract  

4.11 

3.89 

2.47 

Total  Nitrogenous  

23.61 

16.70 

13.81 

Fiber 

15.85 

27.49  j 

33.63 

The  Nitrogen  in  the  Root  Nodules. — The  analysis  of  the 
dry  matter  of  the  clover  roots  at  the  third  period  showed 
2.21  per  cent,  of  total  nitrogen.  There  are  certain  parts  of 
the  clover  roots  that  are  much  richer  in  nitrogen  than  other 
parts.  An  examination  of  a healthy  and  well  developed 
clover  root  will  show  little  swellings  known  as  root  nodules. 
These  root  nodules  are  particularly  rich  in  nitrogen.  Analy- 
ses made  in  this  laboratory  show  that  they  contain  from 
four  to  six  per  cent,  and  more  of  nitrogen.  In  one  case  the 
light  colored  and  active  nodules  contained  5.55  per  cent, 
nitrogen,  while  the  dark  colored  and  older  ones  from  the 
same  plants  contained  3.21  per  cent.  These  small  nodules 
were  separated  from  the  roots  by  the  use  of  a scalpel.  The 
work  was  very  carefully  done  by  Messrs.  Hoverstad  and 
Sandsten,  members  of  the  agricultural  chemistry  class  of  the 


30 


College  of  Agriculture.  The  mixed  nodules,  both  active  and 
inactive,  from  another  lot  of  plants  contained  4.60  per  cent, 
nitrogen,  while  one  hundred  parts  of  the  entire  roots  con- 
tained 2.21  parts  of  nitrogen. 

These  root  nodules  have  been  found  to  be  the  centres  of 
action  of  definite  and  characteristic  micro-organisms  which 
transfer  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air  into  forms  which  can  be 
made  use  of  by  the  plant.  When  these  nodules  cease  to  act 
the  nitrogen  and  organisms  which  they  contain,  according 
to  the  investigations  of  Professor  Marshall  Ward,  are  dis- 
tributed in  the  soil,  which  results  in  increasing  the  valuable 
nitrogen  in  the  soil  wherever  clover  has  been  grown. 

In  table  VI  analyses  are  given  of  red  clover  grown  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  state.  The  first  sample  was  grown  in  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  state  at  Camden,  on  the  farm  of 
Supt.  Gregg.  The  clover  grown  at  Rush  City  is  in  the  north- 
eastern portion  of  the  state;  Garfield,  Douglas  county,  in 
the  central  western  part,  and  Winnebago  City  in  the  south- 
ern central  part  of  the  state.  Each  sample  of  clover  was 
grown  on  a different  type  of  soil,  and  under  as  varied  condi- 
tions of  climate  and  exposure  as  one  would  expect  to  find  in 
clover  culture.  The  composition  of  the  soil  from  these  sec- 
tions is  given  in  Bulletin  No.  30,  and  in  the  annual  report  of 
1893.  The  greatest  variations  are  shown  in  the  amount  of 
lime  and  potash  that  is  present  in  the  ash.  The  amount  of 
nitrogenous  material  in  the  different  samples  is  quite  con- 
stant. The  analysis  of  the  ash  does  not  show  the  want  of 
any  of  the  necessary  elements,  but  rather  an  abundance,  and 
gives  no  indication  that  any  of  these  samples  have  suffered 
for  the  want  of  mineral  food  which  the  soil  has  failed  to  sup 
ply. 


TABLE  YI. 

COMPOSITION  OF  CLOVER  GROWN  IN  DIFFERENT 
PARTS  OF  THE  STATE. 


Marshall. 

Rush  City. 

Garfield. 

Winnebago 

City. 

Water 

17.70 

14.16 

16.18 

12.06 

Dry  Matter 

82.30 

85.84 

83.82 

87.94 

COMPOSITION  OF  DRY  MATTER. 


Ash 

7.83 

7.40 

8.53 

7.57 

Ether  Extract 

3.85 

3.82 

3.12 

2.95 

Total  Nitrogenous 

12.87 

12.96 

13.20 

12.83 

Crude  Fiber 

27.44 

29.34 

23.45 

27.03 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ASH. 


Insoluble  (sand) 

1.73 

4.62 

2.64 

11.84 

Potash 

27.37 

29.53 

31.03 

29.64 

Soda 

.75 

1.12 

.84 

1.32 

Lime 

25.52 

32.59 

28.54 

24.84 

Magnesia 

7.84 

8.95 

10.60 

11.14* 

Iron  Oxide 

.34 

.66 

.44 

1.10 

Phosphates 

13.07 

9.16 

10.12 

7.10 

Sulphates 

3.20 

1.74 

2.13 

1.33 

Chlorides 

1.41 

.91 

1.12 

.86 

Carbonates 

18.24 

10.30 

10.86 

9.75 

Total 

99.47 

99.58 

98.32 

98.92 

Another  beneficial  effect  from  clover  has  undoubtedly 
been  observed  by  many  farmers,  that  is,  when  clover  is  sown 


with  timothy.  A farmer  in  Southern  Minnesota,  says  that 
one  year  he  seeded  clover  and  timothy,  while  his  neighbor  in 
an  adjoining  field  planted  timothy  only.  The  line  between 
the  two  fields  was  not  well  established,  and  when  the  fence 
was  built,  twenty  feet  of  the  timothy  seeding  came  into  the 
field  with  the  timothy  and  clover.  A marked  difference 
could  be  observed  between  the  height  and  yield  of  grass. 
For  three  or  four  years,  even  after  the  clover  had  all  “run 
out,”  the  timothy  seeded  with  the  clover  was  much  superior 
in  quality  and  gave  a larger  yield.  The  seeding  of  mixed 
clover  and  timothy  is  a favorite  method  with  many  farmers 
of  the  state. 


SUMMARY 

OF  THE 

CHEMICAL  DEVELOPMENT  AND  VALUE  OF  RED  CLOVER. 


1.  The  failure  of  clover  does  not  appear  to  be  due  to  a 
deficiency  of  plant  food  in  the  soil,  but  is  due  more  to  the 
want  of  the  proper  mechanical  conditions  of  the  soil.  These 
conditions  can  be  ascertained  only  after  extended  experi- 
ments with  the  seeding  of  clover  on  different  soils,  and  un- 
der different  conditions. 

2.  Clover  seeded  with  late  wheat  gave  a yield  of  a ton 
per  acre  more  than  clover  seeded  with  early  oats.  In  both 
cases  the  clover  was  sown  on  fall  plowed  land  which  had  pre- 
viously been  in  corn  for  two  years. 

3.  The  largest  yield  of  dry  clover  can  be  obtained  at  the 
end  of  flowering,  while  the  largest  yield  of  nitrogenous 
matter  is  from  the  time  of  full  to  late  bloom. 

4.  At  the  time  of  full  bloom,  the  nitrogenous  materials 
in  red  clover  have  reached  their  most  valuable  food  forms. 

5.  The  lime  and  potash  are  taken  up  by  the  plant  the 
most  rapidly  of  any  of  the  mineral  matters.  Only  two  per 
cent,  of  mineral  matter  is  added  to  the  crop  after  full  bloom. 
No  potash  is  taken  up  after  full  bloom,  and  when  ripe  the 
plant  contains  less  potash  than  at  the  time  of  full  bloom, 
which  is  due  to  the  retrograde  movement  of  the  potash  at 
maturity. 

6.  From  fifty  to  sixty  per  cent,  of  the  mineral  matter 
taken  from  the  soil  by  a clover  crop  is  lime  and  potash ; and 
in  the  way  of  fertilizers,  clover  responds  the  best  to  land 
plaster,  which  is  a lime  fertilizer,  and  wood  ashes,  which  is 
mainly  a potassium  fertilizer. 

7.  The  leaves  of  clover  are  very  rich  in  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds, from  sixty  to  seventy  per  cent,  of  the  entire  amount 


33 


found  in  the  plant,  excepting  roots,  is  in  the  leaves.  About 
the  same  proportion  of  the  lime  is  stored  up  in  the  leaves. 

8 . When  the  leaves  are  young  and  in  the  first  stages  of  de- 
velopment they  are  the  richest  in  nitrogen,  on  account  of  the 
nitrogenous  compounds  of  the  plant  being  developed  at  an 
earlier  period  than  the  non-nitrogenous  compounds.  The 
greatest  change  from  lower  (amido)  forms  of  the  nitrogen  to 
the  higher  (proteid)  food  forms  occurs  from  early  to  full 
bloom. 

9.  Clover  roots  are  of  much  value  for  increasing  the 
ferility  of  the  soil  by  adding  organic  matter  and  nitrogen 
and  changing  phosphates,  potash  and  lime  into  more  avail- 
able and  valuable  forms  of  plant  food  for  succeeding  crops. 

10.  At  the  time  clover  is  five  to  six  inches  high,  the 
plant,  with  its  roots,  if  used  for  green  manure,  will  contain 
as  much  dry  matter,  phosphates  and  potash  per  acre  as 
there  is  in  a ton  of  good  farm  manure,  and  as  much  nitrogen 
as  there  is  in  two  tons  of  the  best  farm  manure. 

11.  The  clovers  grown  on  different  soils  of  the  state, 
show  the  most  variations  in  lime  and  potash,  varying  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  and  the  amount  in  the  soil.  The 
clover  in  all  cases  has  a practically  equal  food  value. 

12.  The  root  nodules  of  clover  contain  from  four  to  six 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen.  A crop  of  clover  will  add  from  thirty 
to  fifty  pounds,  and  more  of  nitrogen  to  every  acre  of  land, 
and  in  addition  to  this,  enough  available  mineral  food  will 
be  left  in  the  crowns  and  roots  for  two  good  crops  of  wheat. 


II  — THE  RUSSIAN  THISTLE. 


• CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS. 

When  the  Russian  thistle  is  young  and  tender,  a very 
high  food  value  is  claimed  for  it  by  many  sheep  feeders,  others 
claim  that  the  sheep  are  attracted  to  the  thistle,  and  relish 
it  on  account  of  the  salt  which  it  contains.  As  no  analysis 
of  the  plant,  grown  under  the  conditions  in  which  it  now 
flourishes  in  this  state,  is  to  be  found,  a complete  analysis  of 
the  ash  and  dry  matter  at  different  stages  of  its  growth,  was 
made.  It  was  intended  to  obtain  samples  from  different 
parts  of  the  state,  and  accordingly  a number  of  letters  were 
sent  out  requesting  samples  for  analysis.  Most  of  the  re- 
plies were  to  the  effect  that  there  were  no  thistles  in  the 
neighborhood,  but  “plenty  of  them  in  the  next  township”  or 
“across  the  river.”  Fortunately  for  this  work  a liberal  sup- 
ply of  the  thistles  are  growing  in  what  is  known  as  the 
Midway  Districts,  between  St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis,  where 
abundant  material  was  obtained  near  at  home. 

Food  Value . — The  chemical  analysis  of  the  plant  shows  a 
very  large  amount  of  ash  materials;  in  fact,  nearly  a fifth  of 
the  weight  of  the  dry  plant  is  mineral  matter.  This  is  an 
objection,  as  a fodder;  but  few  agricultural  plants  contain 
ten  per  cent,  or  more  of  mineral  matter,  while  most  of  the 
fodder  crops  contain  a much  less  amount.  A serious  objec- 
tion to  its  constant  use  as  a fodder,  is  the  large  amount  of 
mineral  matter,  of  an  alkaline  nature,  that  is  present. 

One  very  favorable  point,  is  the  large  amount  of  nitro- 
genous matter  which  it  contains, — from  twelve  to  seventeen 
per  cent.,  as  much  as  there  is  in  clover  or  rape.  From  sixty- 
five  to  eighty  per  cent,  of  this  nitrogen  is  in  the  valuable  food 
form  of  protein,  varying  with  the  developement  of  the  plant. 


35 


No  examination  was  made  to  determine  whether  any  of  the 
remaining  nitrogen  was  in  the  form  of  alkaloids  or  other  in- 
jurious compounds. 

Before  the  developement  of  the  thorns  there  is  not  so 
much  fiber,  at  which  time  it  is  more  valuable  as  food,  but  it 
is  still  open  to  the  serious  objection  of  the  abnormal  amount 
of  alkaline  mineral  matter.  When  ripe,  the  fiber  (woody 
material)  and  mineral  (earthy)  matter,  make  up  half  of  its 
composition.  Although  rich  in  nitrogenous  matter  it  is  as- 
sociated with  so  much  indigestible  fiber  and  ash  as  to  great- 
ly lessen  its  food  value. 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  RUSSIAN  THISTLE. 


Small  and 
Tender 

No 

Thorns 

Thorns 

Out 

Ripe 

Water 

82.65 

17.35 

78.59 

21.41 

Drv  Matter 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  DRY  MATTER. 


Ash 

20.32 

21.21 

18.25 

13.75 

Ether  Extract 

3.91 

3.18 

2.97 

3.77 

Total  Nitrogenous 

17.78 

14.71 

13.45 

12  34 

Fiber 

16.27 

22.45 

21.62 

37.70 

Nitrogen  free  extract.. 

41.72 

38.45 

43.71 

32.44 

Total 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

Draft  upon  the  Soil— The  separate  composition  of  the 
ash  shows  that  the  weed  has  very  strong  foraging  powers, 
and  feeds  upon  the  very  best  materials  that  are  in  the  soil. 
There  is  a large  amount  of  potash  and  lime  taken  up  by  the 
plant.  From  the  small  amount  of  silica  (sand)  present,  the 
plant  evidently  does  not  feed  upon  the  silicates,  but  takes 
large  amounts  of  the  very  best  materials  from  the  soil. 

The  amount  of  sodium,  one  of  the  elements  of  common 
salt,  is  large  compared  with  the  amount  found  in  agricultur- 
al plants,  but  not  any  more  than  is  found  in  the  alkali  plants 
to  which  this  is  allied.  The  draft  which  the  plant  makes  up- 
on the  sodium  is  a benefit  to  alkali  lands,  but  with  the  bene- 
ficial loss  of  the  sodium  from  these  soils  there  is  a serious 
loss  of  nitrogen,  lime  and  potash,  and  to  a less  extent  of 
phosphates. 


36 


The  amount  of  sodium  present  in  the  plant  is  quite  vari- 
able, indicating  that  the  plant  is  capable  to  a certain  extent 
of  adapting  itself  to  conditions  where  there  is  a less  amount 
of  alkali  in  the  soil.  This  is  generally  followed  by  a dimin- 
ished vigor  of  growth. 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ASH. 


Small  and 
Tender 

Thorns 
well  out 

Ripe 

Total  insoluable 

1.93 

2.43 

3.95 

Potash 

26.82 

31.21 

27.36 

Soda 

9.16 

4.25 

12.46 

Lime .... 

26.37 

24.55 

22.39 

Magnesia 

9.66 

7.66 

5.56 

Iron  Oxide 

.86 

1.01 

.85 

Phosphates 

3.49 

4.00 

3.11 

Sulphates 

1.52 

1.26 

4.39 

Carbonates 

19.28 

20.25 

17.34 

Chlorides 

1.56 

Total 

98.97 

From  the  time  the  thorns  are  out,  until  ripe,  the  thistle 
takes  up  a large  amount  of  sodium  from  the  soil,  and  only 
small  amounts  of  other  materials.  The  thistle  makes  its 
heaviest  draft  upon  the  soil  before  the  thorns  are  well  out, 
after  that  it  takes  but  little  of  the  essential  plant  food.  To 
prevent  the  heavy  draft  of  the  thistle  upon  the  soil,  it  should 
be  destroyed  while  young.  In  the  last  stage  of  growth,  the 
large  amount  of  sodium  taken  from  the  soil  is  a benefit  to 
strong  alkali  lands,  but  before  this  beneficial  loss  of  sodium 
takes  place,  there  is  a serious  loss  of  nitrogen,  potash  and 
lime. 

An  ordinary  thistle  of  two  pounds  weight,  covering  a 
square  yard,  will  take  potash  and  lime  than  two  good 
crops  of  wheat  from  the  same  area. 


University  of  Minnesota. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  No.  35. 


DAIRY  DIVISION. 


OCTOBEE,  1894. 


DAIRY  HERD  RECORD  FOR  1893. 

COST  OP  BUTTER  PRODUCTION  IN  WINTER. 
COMPARING  PRAIRIE  HAY  WITH  TIMOTHY. — REARING  DAIRY 
CALVES.— CO-OPERATIVE  CREAMERIES. 
EXPERIMENTS  IN  SWEET  CURD  CHEESE  WORK. 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK,  RAMSEY  CO., 

MINNESOTA. 


EAGLE  JOB  PRINT,  DELANO,  MINN. 


University  of  Minnesota 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis, 1896 

The  HON.  GREENLEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - - 1894 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  - - - 1894  - 

The  HON.  WM.  H.  YALE,  Winona.  ------  1896 

The  HON.  JOEL  P.  HEATWOLE,  Northfield,  - 1896 

The  HON.  0.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth,  -------  1896 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson, 1896 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN,  Minneapolis, 1895 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  B.  A.,  Minneapolis,  - - 1895 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  St.  Paul, Ex-Officio. 

The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PENDERGAST,  M.  A.,  Hutchinson,  - - Ex-Officio . 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHROP,  LL.  D.,  Minneapolis,  - Ex-Officio. 

The  President  of  the  University. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  J.  S.  PILLSBURY. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PENDERGAST. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION: 

WM.  M.  LIGGETT, Chairman. 

WILLET  M.  HAYS,  B.  S.  A.,  - - Vice  Chairman  and  Agriculturist. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S.,  - - - - - - Horticulturist. 

OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  - - - - Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S., Chemist. 

T.  L.  H^ECKER, Dairy  Husbandry. 

M.  H.  REYNOLDS,  M.  D.,  V.  M.,  - - - - - - Veterinarian. 

THOS.  SHAW, Animal  Husbandry. 

J.  A.  VYE, Secretary. 

ANDREW  BOSS,  Farm  Foreman. 


The  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the 
State  who  make  application  for  them. 


DAIRY  HERD  RECORD  FOR  1898. 

T.  L.  HACKER. 

The  unprecedented  shrinkage  in  the  price  of  wheat  dur- 
the  past  few  years,  the  heavy  draft  which  it  makes  on  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  uncertainty  of  the  crop,  has 
awakened  in  the  minds  of  the  people  of  the  northwest  a 
greater  interest  in  dairying.  Dairy  husbandry  covers  a large 
field,  embracing  the  kind  of  animal  best  adapted  for  dairy- 
ing, selection,  breeding,  rearing  and  training  of  the  young 
stock,  their  management,  and  the  feeding  value  of  the  differ- 
ent grasses,  grains  and  by-products  of  the  mills,  the  best 
method  of  creaming  milk,  ripening  and  churning  cream,  and 
working,  packing  and  marketing  butter,  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  various  kinds  of  cheese  best  adapted  to  our  condi- 
tions, the  organization  of  co-operative  dairy  associations, 
building,  equipment  and  operation  of  creameries  and  cheese 
factories,  with  many  other  questions  which  bear  upon  this 
industry.  The  call  for  information  has  been  so  great  and 
the  lines  of  inquiry  so  varied  that  it  was  difficult  to  decide 
in  which  direction  investigation  should  begin  and  if  more 
has  been  undertaken  than  could  be  done  well  it  is  because  of 
the  great  need;  however,  much  of  this  work  may  be  consid- 
ered as  simply  preliminary. 

One  of  the  most  important  factors  in  dairying  is  the  cost 
of  butter  production  and  to  ascertain  this  the  annual  yield 
of  milk  and  butter  fat  of  each  cow  in  the  University  Farm 
herd  and  cost  of  feed  for  each  was  the  chief  object  of  this 
record.  No  special  effort  was  made  to  select  an  economical 
ration;  the  cows  were  fed  bran,  barley,  com,  linseed  meal, 
ensilage,  roots  and  hay  as  had  been  the  practice  theretofore. 


38 


During  the  winter  season  the  rations  were  adjusted  to 
the  appetite  and  power  of  assimilation  of  the  cow,  giving  as 
much  grain  as  each  would  eat  regardless  of  size.  During 
the  summer  enough  grain  was  given  to  maintain  a normal 
flow  of  milk.  Prom  the  1st  of  January  to  the  25th  of 
February  each  cow  received  daily  from  twenty-four  to  forty 
pounds  of  ensilage,  from  three  to  five  pounds  of  mixed  hay, 
mostly  timothy,  six  to  ten  pounds  of  wheat  bran,  and  one 
to  two  pounds  of  linseed  meal.  From  the  25th  of  February 
to  the  7th  of  March  each  received  from  twenty-four  to  thirty 
pounds  of  ensilage,  six  to  eight  pounds  of  bran,  five  to  six 
pounds  of  barley,  one  and  a half  to  two  pounds  of  linseed 
meal  and  three  to  five  pounds  of  hay.  During  the  remainder 
of  March  there  was  a reduction  of  two  pounds  of  bran  and 
a decrease  in  the  amount  of  ensilage  to  about  half  of  that 
fed  in  January.  The  ensilage  was  made  from  the  two  varie- 
ties of  corn,  “Pride  of  the  North”  and  “White  Dent,”  and 
was  richer  in  ears  than  is  usually  the  case.  Toward  spring 
much  of  it  was  of  inferior  quality  owing  to  mould,  and  from 
this  cause  several  of  the  cows  were  thrown  off  their  feed  and 
suffered  a material  shrinkage  in  milk  and  fat.  During 
April  they  were  fed  from  six  to  twelve  pounds  of  old  millet  hay, 
which  caused  stomach  disorders  in  several  of  the  cows  and 
proved  fatal  in  one  case,  post  mortem  examination  revealing 
impaction  of  the  third  stomach  with  millet  seed.  The  cows 
were  turned  out  to  pasture  the  17th  of  May,  when  the 
grain  feed  was  gradually  reduced  and  by  the  1st  of  June  it 
ranged  from  four  to  eight  pounds  of  the  mixture — bran, 
barley  and  linseed  meal. 

The  feeding  stuffs  used  have  been  found  by  analysis  to 


contain  the  following  per  cent,  of  dry  matter: 

Hay,  timothy 

89.75 

Ensilage 

26.15 

Hay,  millet 

92.35 

Bran 

89.60 

Hay,  prairie 

89.15 

Linseed  meal 

89.89 

Barley  meal 

88.22 

Squashes 

14.72 

Corn  meal 

89.27 

Mangels 

10.00 

The  average  price  per  ton  for  the  feed  was  found  from 
statistics  furnished  by  prominent  farmers  residing  in  differ- 
ent portions  of  the  state  and  is  believed  to  be  a fair  average 
valuation  for  the  whole  state: 


39 


Per  Ton. 

Per  lb. 
cents 

Per  Ton. 

Per  lb. 
cents. 

Hay,  timothy  $ 5.60 

.28 

Corn  meal.... 

$14.00 

.7 

Hay,  prairie. 

. 3.20 

.16 

Linseed  meal 

26.00 

1.30 

Hay,  millet.... 

. 5.60 

.28 

Ensilage 

2.00 

.10 

Hay,  oat 

. 4.80 

.24 

Bran 

11.00 

.55 

Barley  meal... 

. 14.00 

.70 

Mangels 

2.00 

.10 

Oats 

. 18.00  .90 

Pasture,  the 

Squashes 

season,  $3.50. 

2.00 

.10 

The  Grain  Ration  for  each  cow  consisted  of  one  part 
linseed  meal,  two  parts  barley,  two  parts  corn  meal  and 
lTABLE  VII,— Age  of  Cows  and  Date  of  Calving  Prior  to  and  During  Experiment. 


Age. 

Date  of  calving 
1892. 

• 1 

Date  of  calving 
1893. 

6 

July  10 

August  4 

Beckley 

8 

November  1 2 

♦July  10 

Bess 

9 

February  15 

Bettie 

8 

November  2 

♦September  1 

Clara 

7 

June  13 

♦May  27 

Dido 

10 

March  1 

Dora 

11 

March  27 

March  9 

Fancy 

7 

March  21 

M ay  6 

Gertie 

4 

November  10 

September  26 

Houston 

9 

October  27 

November  5 

Jennie 

5 

November  27 

Nora 

3 

November  20 

♦August  15 

Olive 

9 

October  ^4 

Patsy 

6 

Noypmher  30 

Pride 

10 

February  1ft  ... 

May  22 

Reddie 

9 

July  25  . .. 

November  28 

Rose 

10 

April  7 

Rossy 

5 

April  16.  .. 

*May  15 

Roxy 

8 

October  16 

♦Aug.  10 

Sully 

9 

October  16  .... 

*July  5 

Sweet  Briar 

9 

November  1 1 

October  28 

Topsy 

7 

1 

February  22 

Tricksey 

9 



1 October  21 

Deeemher  14 

I 

♦Aborted. 


40 


three  parts  wheat  bran,  or  in  cases  where  either  barley  or 
corn  was  omitted  the  other  was  increased  pound  for  pound. 

During  the  winter  the  cows  were  confined  at  night  and  a 
portion  of  the  day  in  a basement,  fastened  with  the  Smith 
revolving  stanchion  which  gives  them  more  freedom  than 
does  the  old  rigid  stanchion.  Nearly  all  the  cows  are  de- 
horned which  made  it  possible  to  turn  them  a portion  of  each 
day  into  a large  enclosed  basement  adjoining  the  stable,  for 
water  and  exercise.  During  warm  winter  days  they  were 
occasionally  turned  into  a yard. 

In  Table  VII  is  given  a list  of  the  cows,  approximate  age, 
date  of  calving  prior  to  and  during  the  experiment  and  the 
number  of  da}rs  they  were  in  milk  during  the  year.  It  will 
be  seen  that  a number  of  cows  aborted ; whether  this  in- 
creased or  diminished  the  yield  of  milk  and  butter  fat  for  the 
year  is  not  known.  It  is  apparent  however  that  it  had  an 
injurious  effect  on  a few  that  are  somewhat  inclined  to  lay 
on  flesh,  such  as  Beckley,  Clara,  Rossie  and  Sully.  Bettie 
and  her  daughter  Nora,  with  Roxy  show  but  little,  if  any 
such  disposition,  or  suffer  an  abnormal  shrinkage  in  the 
flow  of  milk.  The  general  plan  was  to  have  all  cows  calve 
in  the  fall.  In  some  cases  this  was  not  carried  out  for  vari- 
ous reasons.  The  cows  were  not  all  selected  especially  for 
the  dairy  as  they  were  also  to  be  used  for  illustrating  pur- 
poses in  the  class  room,  where  it  is  necessary  to  have  fair 
representatives  of  the  various  types.  Dido  and  Fancy  do 
not  belong  to  the  dairy  herd.  The  former  is  a full  blood 
shorthorn  of  a milking  family.  Fancy  is  a full  blood  Polled- 
Angus  but  was  transferred  to  the  dairy  for  a year’s  trial,  for 
the  reason  that  in  conformation  she  had  some  points  which 
indicated  fair  dairy  qualities.  Rose  and  Sully  are  grade 
shorthorns.  Rose  is  rather  spare  and  angular  while  Sully 
belongs  to  the  medium  fleshy  type.  Most  of  the  cows  se- 
lected for  the  dairy  were  spare,  deep  in  body,  well  developed 
spine  and  rump,  sharp  withers,  steep  at  the  crops,  thin, 
rather  long  neck  and  face.  At  the  time  they  were  selected 
no  information  was  solicited  from  or  given  by  the  owners, 
but  each  cow  was  selected  because  of  the  individuality  she 
showed  as  a milk  and  butter  giver.  Neither  was  the  Bab- 


41 


cock  test  resorted  to  except  in  case  of  Tricksey,  and  after 
three  years’  trial  and  severe  pruning  none  of  the  cows  so 
selected  have,  as  yet,  been  culled  out. 


TABLE  VIII..— Total  Individual  Yields  of  Milk  and  Fat. 


Name. 

Breed. 

Days  in  Milk. 

Lbs.  of  Milk. 

Lbs.  of  Butter 
Fat. 

334 

5,013.90 

4,948.30 

312.70 

Beckley 

Grade  Jersey 

365 

300.98 

Bess 

Holstein  Fresian 

331 

10,087.00 

374.09 

Bettie  

Guernsey  

365 

4,957.90 

267.67 

Clara 

Grade  Jersey 

365 

4,952.80 

241.92 

Shorthorn 

343 

5,562.60 

6,515.90 

5,992.00 

216.43 

Dora  

Jersey  

346 

353.86 

Fancy 

Polled  Angus  

363 

261.71 

Gertie  

Grade  Jersev 

339 

5,106.20 

260.28 

Houston 

J ersey-Guernsey . . . 

320 

6,976.10 

366.98 

Jennie  

Grade  Holstein  ... 

334 

6,008.40 

226.99 

Nora 

Jersey-Guernsey  .. 

365 

4,526.00 

225.46 

Olive 

Grade  Guernsey... 

357 

6,093.10 

284.40 

Patsy  

Grade  Jersey 

365 

6,284.20 

293.09 

Pride 

Jersey  

301 

6,090.20 

5,183.50 

303.05 

Reddie 

Grade  Guernsey... 

349 

274.57 

Rose 

Grade  Shorthorn. 

266 

7,337.70 

296.38 

Rossie 

Grade  Jersey 

365 

6,784.70 

7,546.30 

278.23 

Roxy 

Grade  Jersey 

365 

358.42 

Sully 

Grade  Shorthorn 

365 

7,066.00 

318.01 

Sweet  Briar 

Guernsey  

336 

7,094.30 

357.62 

Topsy 

Grade  Holstein  ... 

331 

10,287.20 

407.92 

Tricksey 

Guernsey  

326 

6,964.60 

340.71 

Average 

343 

6,407.78 

300.93 

In  Table  VIII.  is  given  the  names  of  the  cows,  the  breed  to 
which  they  belong,  days  in  milk,  the  pounds  of  milk  and 
fat  produced.  It  was  the  aim  not  to  resort  to  any  estimates 
in  this  work  when  it  was  possible  to  get  actual  results. 

Each  milking  was  therefore  weighed  and  recorded  and  a 
sample  taken  and  tested  by  the  Babcock  test  for  per  cent,  of 
fat.  In  yield  the  grade  Holstein-Friesian,  Topsy,  leads  with 


42 


S£E  TOPSY. 

10,287.2  lbs.  of  milk  and  407.92  lbs.  of  fat.  Bess,  the  full 
blood  Holstein-Friesian  follows  with  a record  of  10,087  lbs. 
of  milk  and  374.09  lbs.  of  fat.  The  smallest  yield  of  milk 
4,526  lbs.  was  from  the  three  year  old  heifer  Nora.  The 
smallest  yield  in  butter  fat  was  from  the  shorthorn  Dido, 
216  lbs.  The  only  farrow  cow  in  the  herd  was  Fancy,  the 
Polled-Angus  and  this  fact  should  be  borne  in  mind  in  com- 
paring the  amount  and  cost  of  her  dairy  product  with 
others  in  the  trial.  Topsy  carried  a calf  only  a short  time 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  year's  work.  Beckley,  Clara, 
Rossie  and  Sully  aborted  quite  early  and  were  not  bred  until 
late  in  the  autumn  or  early  winter.  The  annual  average 
yield  of  milk  was  6407.78  pounds  and  average  of  fat 
300.93  pounds  including  the  two  beef  cows  Fancy  and 
Dido. 


TABLE  IX.— Weight  of  Cows,  Average  for  Months  and  Year  1893. 


43 


Aver’ge 

H<NNe*05lOa5<DOHOC*10<NXN<£>COlOOCHO» 
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H H ri  H H H nrlrl 

1 

Dec.  j 

ioOCCNNCOflSWOHClO^HMlOMNrlOOO 
:C0HHOC0XHNOMTfiHMbHC005N^^CDa5 
:®NMJ.NMNMaO»0>®^Or(MaHOOO  1 

5 H HrH  H HH  H H ri  H 

Nov. 

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XC5<MXXOlXO*XC5riXC5C5r-riOC5C5HOHO 
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Oct. 

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fNXHHCClCCG!OOOIN©COhON^bCOHf)0 
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Sept. 

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ri  H H r'  H 

April. 

NXl-05CrC0X05C0CDHTf-i0l0l0«Dl0C^C^NNOH 
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March. 

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J>l0i0<0CM0SNl0CCDCCD05  CXbC^OHX® 
NOSOl^C.  NXNXOSOSXNl^CCOSMXOSCIOSOX 

H H ri  ri  H H 

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Feb. 

OCOXtOONXHHXOHHNHXHCr-WOOW 
N^n^XNOlONNaOCOOXOOiNNbNcDH 
N®HNXWXNX05ffiXbXb®NXfflN®N® 
H H ri  ri  ri  H 

•* 

Jan. 

^WlOimONNfONOlO«OlNX^WXlOXCO®N 
b^HNN0OWCCNrXlOaiO®HCOb0lOifiO 
l^0SN^XN0S®IX0S0St»NXI-0sei«0SN0S«0S 
H ri  H HHH 

1 

1 

Annie 

Beckley 

Bess 

Bettie 

Clara 

Dido 

Dora 

Fancy 

Gertie 

Houston 

Jennie 

Nora 

Olive 

Patsy 

Pride 

Reddy 

Rose 

Rossie 

Roxy ...  

Sully 

Sweet  Briar 

Topsv 

Tricksey 

a 

x 


u 

& 

<v 

u 

a 


a 


<u 

JO 


TABLE  X.— Milk  Record,  Monthly  and  Total  for  Each  Cow. 


44 


Total. 

5,013.9 

4.948.3 
10,087.0 

4,957  9 

4.952.8 

5.562.6 

6.515.9 

5.992.0 
5,106.2 

6.976.1 

6.008.4 

4.526.0 

6.093.1 

6.284.2 

6.090.2 

5.183.5 

7.337.7 

6.784.7 

7.546.3 
7,066.0 

7.094.3 
10,287.2 

6.964.6 

Dec. 

466.1 

255.2 

189.2 

290.6 

324.7 

326.6 

357.2 

365.6 

598.3 

834.0 

990.0 

391.6 

146.6 

243.5 

491.1 

932.9 

664.5 

488.4 

503.1 

658.5 

558.9 

830.6 

442.7 

Nov. 

575.3 
296.7 

584.0 

317.1 

385.6 

440.2 

415.7 

431.8 

615.6 

705.6 
37.7 

415.8 

327.4 

344.5 

555.6 

127.7 

605.3 

561.3 

565.3 

713.4 
594.1 

761.4 
72.5 

Oct. 

545.4 
378.1 

833.0 

352.4 

472.1 

465.7 

458.0 

485.8 
662.6 

125.7 

+17.2 

398.5 

426.5 

606.6 

286.0 
649.0 

593.6 

639.2 
696.5 

57.2 

756.7 

317.2 

-p 

a 

<U 

m 

654.6 

410.7 

948.7 
<538.7 

453.1 

464.2 

557.7 

550.5 

255.3 

383.3 

384.5 

461.5 

406.1 

634.8 

328.1 

755.4 

608.4 
577.0 

713.8 

437.6 

850.4 

492.7 

bi) 

$ 

< 

688.9 

404.2 

977.5 

415.1 

558.7 

497.1 
601.0 
616.0 

33.0 

485.2 

471.8 

351.2 

527.2 
481.7 

748.6 

401.2 
849  1 

656.1 

451.7 
711  4 

562.2 
936.0 

583.8 

July. 

(X)  l>  o ^ ^ cr;  H H O H ei  W M W CO  «)  8;  ^ 00  01  CQ 

id  cd  cd  tJ?  i-  id  oi  d o’  ad  cd  rji  h h h*  cd  ad  o'  ei  o’  G d 

C^OOCDtHOHHIOHOH^N^IOCDCDOWOOOCDO 
C\l  lOt^t>lOCO<DlOCQlOlDOO^OCDlOiO<D  O CD 

H ri 

June. 

285.3 

499.1 
1,172.8 

438.8 

499.7 

687.1 

767.4 

891.9 

437.2 

693.8 

676.7 

388.0 

598.1 

653.9 

915.8 

542.7 
1,067.2 

713.1 

788.7 

398.6 

765.8 
1,121.0 

766.7 

May. 

329.7 

476.5 
1,087.6 

430.5 

282.3 

535.6 

765.5 

725.1 

439.8 

617.1 
617.0 

368.3 

519.6 

541.1 

243.2 

421.7 
1,069.4 

502.9 
646.6 

518.4 

653.5 
1,064.8 

660.4 

‘u  . 
Ph 
< 

360.1 

454.3 

1,114.5 

440.0 

330.1 
610.6 
848.9 

*271.8 

428.2 

592.2 

552.6 

328.6 

500.7 

501.2 

351.3 
709.0 

467.4 

608.5 

520.7 
613.2 

1,184.2 

625.7 

March. 

399.1 

470.5 
1,431.8 

488.5 

373.5 
720.7 

695.0 

303.5 

505.1 

708.3 

604.6 

366.4 

647.4 

621.7 

127.1 

409.7 

479.1  525.0 

652.H  682.4 

517.9  552.6 

686.2  649.7 

132.0  1,407.6 

669.0  727.0 

Feb. 

347.0 

488.0 

455.2 

451.8 

334.4 
*10.6 
*69.8 

*254.7 

492.0 

668.9 

489.8 

347.4 

623.3 

659.9 

448.9 

381.1 

Jan. 

386.8 

528.3 

225.9 
579.8 
373  .2 

*189.1 

*266.8 

*337.2 

584.3 

807.7 

546.1 
422  8 

771.3 

862.8 

467.2 
537.5 

498.7 

854.0 

561.4 

826.5 
175.3 
806.9 

NAME. 

Annie  

Becklev  

Bess  

Bettie 

Clara  

Dido  

Dora  

Fancy  

Gertie 

Houston  

Jennie 

Nora  

Olive  

Patsy  

Pride  

Reddie 

Rose 

Rossie  

Roxy  

Sully  

Sweet  Briar 

Topsy  

Tricksey 

The  figures  marked  thus  (*)  are  for  the  year  1894. 


45 


For  the  dairy  herd  proper,  the  average  annual  milk 
yield  was  6,467.80  pounds,  and  butter  fat  306.83  pounds. 

The  cows  were  weighed  every  Monday  morning  after 
milking  and  feeding  and  before  they  were  allowed  to  drink. 
Little  change  took  place  in  the  weight  of  the  cows  during  the 
year.  Sweet  Briar  gained  84  pounds  and  Jennie  gained  116. 
Nora  and  Gertie  made  some  growth  during  the  year.  The 
scales  afford  but  little  assistance  in  our  efforts  to  convey  to 
the  reader  a proper  conception  of  the  size  of  the  cow.  A small 
cow  compactly  built  and  carrying  considerable  flesh  may 
weigh  as  much  or  more  than  one  with  a large  frame,  lean 
and  loosely  built. 

In  the  last  annual  report  of  this  station  it  appears  that 
there  were  ten  cows  in  the  herd  weighing  over  one  thousand 
pounds;  of  these  three  do  not  appear  in  this  year's  record, 
having  been  culled  out.  In  table  X.  are  eight  cows  weighing 
over  a thousand  pounds  each  and  three  of  these  will  be  dis- 
carded for  want  of  merit. 


TABLEIXI.— Per  Cent  Fat— Average  per  Month  and  Year. 


46 


Average 



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dHCOt-C  10 
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Jan. 

CDlOCD^dCONCOdHHlOlODXM 

q rf;  q x q ^ q q ^ ^ tq  q q ^ tq  q 

t>  cd  4 id  4 cd  4 id  id  cd  4 4 4 id  id 

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CO  10  10  coox 
d q q o q q 

4 rji  rfi  id  10*  rj? 

NAME. 

Annie  

Beckley  

Bess 

Bettie 

Clara  

Dido 

Dora 

Fancy 

Gertie 

Houston 

Jennie 

Nora 

Olive 

Patsy 

Pride 

Reddie 

Rose 

Rossie 

Roxy 

Sully 

Sweet  Briar 

Topsy 

Tricksey 

ie  figures  marked  thus  (*)  are  for  the  year  1894. 


TABLE  XII.— Total  Butter  Fat  for  each  Cow  for  each  Month  and  for  the  Year. 


47 


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The  figures  marked  thus  (*)  are  for  the  year  1894. 


48 


Table  XII.  gives  the  yield  of  milk  of  each  cow  in  pounds, 
each  month  in  the  year,  and  shows  a remarkable  persistency 
in  the  flow  of  milk,  though  this  feature  cannot  be  taken  into 
account  with  Becklev,  Bettie,  Clara,  Nora,  Rossie,  Roxy  and 
Sully,  as  they  aborted  during  the  trial,  and  also  Fancy,  as 
she  was  not  in  calf  during  the  year,  which  doubtless  caused 
her  to  give  a larger  yield  than  she  would  have  done  under 
normal  conditions. 

Annie  left  the  herd  in  Nov.  1893,  so  her  record  for  Nov. 
and  Dec.  1892  is  given  to  complete  the  year.  Dido  and  Dora 
calved  in  March  and  to  complete  the  year’s  record  for  them 
it  is  carried  over  into  1894,  the  requisite  length  of  time.  The 
same  would  have  been  done  with  Rose  had  she  been  in  milk 
during  that  period;  she  goes  dry  about  three  months  of  the 
year.  Fanc3^’s  record  commences  with  May,  1893  and  ends 
May  1st,  1894.  The  amount  of  milk  given  by  a cow  or  the 
cost  of  milk  alone  gives  but  little  data  of  practical  value  for 
the  reason  that  there  is  such  a marked  difference  in  the  qual- 
ity of  the  milk  from  different  cows. 

By  comparing  tables  X.  and  XI.  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
milk  from  the  cows  giving  a large  flow  contains  a small  per- 
centage of  fat  while  the  milk  from  those  giving  a small  quantity 
is  relatively  rich  in  fat.  Annie’s  milk  contained  the  largest 
percentage  of  fat  up  to  August  when  she  calved  and  the  qual- 
ity of  the  milk  dropped  nearly  two  per  cent.  The  next  in 
quality  is  Beckley  with  an  average  of  6.13  per  cent.  fat.  The 
average  per  cent,  for  the  Jerseys  and  their  grades  is  5.3;  for 
the  Holstein  Friesian  and  grades  it  is  3.9,  the  Guernseys  and 
grades  average  5 per  cent,  and  the  shorthorns  and  grade 
shorthorns  4.2  per  cent.  There  seems  to  be  a general  ten- 
dency for  the  milk  to  get  richer  as  the  period  of  lactation  ad- 
vances, yet  there  are  so  many  variations  that  it  is  exceeding- 
ly difficult  to  account  for  them  all.  During  the  first  half  of 
June  there  was  a marked  decrease  in  the  per  cent,  fat,  while 
for  the  remainder  of  the  month  the  increase  was  equally  as 
marked.  So  far  there  is  no  indication  that  feed  produces  any 
great  change  in  the  quality  of  milk.  Succulent  feed  slightly 
increases  the  volume  of  milk  and  consequently  decreases  the 
per  cent,  fat,  while  a change  to  dry  feed  decreases  the  flow 


49 


which  results  in  an  increased  per  cent.  fat.  The  daily  varia- 
tion in  the  quality  of  milk  is  greater  than  the  daily  variation 
in  quantity,  but  taking  longer  periods,  such  as  a month  or 
more,  the  variation  appears  to  be  reversed. 

The  herd  as  a whole  is  composed  of  cows  light  in  weight, 
the  two  most  marked  exceptions  being  Dido  and  Fancy, 
which  are  heaviest,  though  not  as  large  as  Bess  and  Topsey. 
Next  in  size  and  weight  are  Sully  and  Rose,  the  grade  short- 
horns. If  we  exclude  the  two  beef  cows,  Dido  and  Fancy, 
(which  do  not  belong  to  the  dairy  herd  proper)  the  average 
weight  is  947  pounds. 

As  will  be  seen  by  Table  XIII.  all  the  feed  consumed  by  each 
cow,  and  time  in  pasture  during  the  year,  is  charged  to  her 
account.  This  seems  to  be  the  proper  thing  to  do,  for  a cow 
must  be  maintained  during  the  time  when  she  goes  dry  be  it 
long  or  short.  If  she  is  a good  dairy  cow  the  period  will  be 
comparatively  short.  Sully,  the  grade  shorthorn,  consumed 
the  most  feed,  which  cost  $43.98;  Bess  follows  next  with 
$43.52;  then  Topsy  $42.56;  Sweet  Briar  $42.34;  Houston 
$4122  and  Roxy  $41.01.  All  the  others  were  under  $40 
and  over  $32  with  an  average  for  the  herd  of  $37.82.  The 
amount  of  milk  and  cost  per  100  pounds  is  a matter  of  little 
moment  on  account  of  the  wide  variation  in  the  per  cent,  of 
fat  and  other  solids  contained  in  different  milks.  The  grade 
Holstein,  Topsy,  produced  the  largest  amount  of  butter  fat 
for  the  year;  she  also  produced  it  at  the  least  cost,  10.4  cents 
per  pound.  Judging  from  her  conformation,  her  quality  in- 
dividually, the  richness  of  her  milk  and  the  fact  that  many 
of  the  cows  in  the  neighborhood,  where  she  was  bred,  have 
an  infusion  of  Jersejq  it  is  suspected  that  she  has  some  Jersey 
blood  in  her  veins.  The  fact  that  the  full  blood  cows  Dora 
and  Annie  came  from  the  same  herd  and  that  other  cows  in 
the  herd  are  grade  Jerseys,  and  that  it  is  not  known  which 
cow  was  her  dam,  makes  her  blood  lines  a matter  of  uncer- 
tainty. It  is  known,  however,  that  her  sire  was  a Holstein- 
Friesian. 


TABLE  XIII.— Feed  Consumed  by  Each  Cow. 


50 


TABLE  XIV.— Cost  of  Feed  and  Dairy  Products, 


51 


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52 


Dora  gave  353.86  lbs.  of  fat  costing  10.6  cents  per  lb., 
she  was,  however,  at  a disadvantage  as  she  carried  a calf 
six  months  of  the  test  while  Topsy  was  in  calf  only  a short 
time  during  the  year.  Eleven  of  the  cows  average  344.04 
lbs.  butter  fat  and  the  herd  with  Dido  and  Fancy  average 
300.93,  while  the  dairy  herd  proper  averages  306.83  lbs. 
In  examining  further,  table  XIV.  it  will  beseen  that  there  are 
excellent  cows  among  all  the  breeds  represented  in  the 
Station  herd;  it  also  appears  that  among  the  best  can  be 
found  large  cows  as  well  as  small  ones ; large  in  this  sense 
does  not  mean  heavy  in  weight  but  has  reference  to  size  only. 

The  average  cost  of  100  lbs.  of  milk  was  61.2  cents. 
The  average  cost  of  a pound  of  butter  fat  for  the  herd  was 
12.8  cents.  If  all  the  cows  in  the  herd  that  are  spare  and 
will  not  lay  on  flesh  under  heavy  feeding  are  placed  in  one 
group  and  those  that  carry  a superfluous  amount  of  flesh 
in  another  group,  we  find  the  cows  that  give  the  largest  re- 
turns for  food  consumed,  in  the  first  lot  and  in  every  instance, 
those  that  give  a smaller  return,  in  the  other  lot.  The  spare 
cows  average  337.1  lbs.  of  butter  fat  at  a cost  of  11.6 
cents  per  lb.  while  the  cows  that  are  inclined  to  put  on  flesh 
average  267.8  lbs.  of  fat  at  a cost  of  13.8  cents  per  lb.  It 
should  be  stated  in  justice  to  Beckley  and  Sully,  that  under 
normal  conditions  one  or  possibly  both  would  be  classed  in 
the  spare  group.  At  the  time  of  dropping  their  calves  the 
placenta  was  removed  from  these  two  by  artificial  means, 
while  in  the  other  cases  nature  was  allowed  to  take  its 
course.  These  two  shrunk  materially  in  their  milk  and  were 
out  of  condition  a couple  of  weeks. 

In  Table  XIV.  is  given  also  the  number  of  pounds  of 
butter  and  its  cost  per  pound  assuming  that  each  .825  of  a 
bl.  of  fat  in  the  milk  will  make  a pound  of  butter  allowing 
for  losses  in  skim  and  butter  milk.  The  average  amount 
of  butter  per  cow  for  the  entire  herd  for  the  year  was  364.6 
lbs.  Taking  out  the  two  beef  cows  the  average  for  the  re- 
mainder of  the  herd  was  371.9  lbs.  being  a trifle  over  one 
pound  of  butter  per  day  for  each  cow.  The  average  cost  for 
feed  per  day  for  each  cow  was  10.4  cents.  In  examining 
Table  IX.  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  cows  were 
charged  a uniform  price  for  pasture  as  it  was  impossible  to 
ascertain  how  much  grass  each  cow  consumed,  consequently 
the  cost  of  butter  fat  for  the  summer  may  not  be  absolutely 
correct,  though  the  errors,  if  any,  are  slight. 

Further  investigation  will  be  made  on  this  subject  with 
a view  of  arriving  at  some  definite  conclusions  as  to  the 
type  of  cow  best  adapted  for  the  dairy. 


TABLE  XV. — Cost  of  One  Pound  of  Butter  Fat  by  Months. 


53 


Dec. 

CD  CD  CO  CO  © <M  C O X tH  05  t-h  10  1>  H CO  t- : 

<mxchxcotJu-coo50ioiohdixi>^cococo<m  : 
rlH'^HrHNrHHrlOrHriClClHOrl’HrHHrlH  : 

.164 

Nov. 

0501010^^00^<M1H^HN(NIOI>C0^10CD05I> 
T-l0005lO00  00^l>rH05CDCDXCDr^OTf<l0VOT}<^C0H 
HHHrlHrl^rlHOClrlrlrlriClrlHritHHHrl 

.159 

Oct. 

lO^XlOlOOOCOO  ilOrf(r}iLO^CC>lOODl(Ml0^rf< 
OON-NCONlOOl^l©  IClCOCOCOnCDT-iClr-iHXOllO 
'HHHHH'HH'HH  llOrlHrirlrlrirlHHOHO 

o 

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4i 
i » 

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m 

b- 00  00  05  GO  00  CO  CO  i CD  ^ X J>  H 05  Cl  H 05 10  CO  t*  05  O 
05  H 00  CO  05  O 05  O : H 10  CO  n H 05  M X X 05  X O X O 
OrlOrlOHOH  IrlrlrlrlrlOHOOOOrlOH 

.106 

be 

P 

< 

<MHCDXCDH05GriXl001DlCDOX^C0(MCDL0HX 

HClOlnO'^OrlCOrUOlOrlrlOrlGOOiCOOOOH 

rlrlOrHHHOrlriHHHrlriHHOOrlrlrlOrl 

.114 

h 
P 
*— > 

Ol0<MM^05CD^CDXC0DlDlU0H  05  05l>l0OXl0  01 
COCDXNb-<Dl>XCDOCl>Nl>l>lOCDCDHCDlOb- 
HHOOOOOOOOHriOOOOOOOrtOOO 

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June. 

COCDNCDCDXOXNOM^COOOHOOOOOH 

O^CDXXt-CDCD05CDOOXCDCDXTfU>l>Hl>l01> 

HOOOOOOOOOHHOOOOOOOHOOO 

.076 

May. 

l0050<M^CDHy50CDlMCDC105  05l>05CDCDOl>^X  ^ 
^<MO'^Xl0C5X^CH>t>l001Nl0t^l001CDH05(M  1 
WrlrlrlHHOOrlrirlHHiHOrlOHrlrlHCH 

.132 

April. 

l0C0l005r}<C0OCDXHt-Tji05l0  :i0XiM05OC0OtJ< 
^^H^O^OHCD^HnhLO  :XXt>^0rf(0^ 
HHHHdrHHXHHOlDlHri  IrlOHrlClrlrlH 

.162 

March. 

HCOCOCOOlCl^bbOlbCOOlOH^ 
Xt^O"t0105t-OCD<MD105ClTj<t0  05 
HTHrirlClrlOCOHrlClHnr'ClTH 

^0101^00 
CD^HCOXCO 
HHC1  HOrl 

.165 

Feb. 

^CDCDlOOCllOMCDNXXOXOrl 

dCOCOCONXCDCOHONCOOlCCO-P 

HrlOHrlrlWNHrlHrlrlT^NH 

WCOOlObCO 

lOOt^rlCOOl 

rirlrlHHH 

.151 

Jan. 

O^CODKMN01>I>005tJI05050CO 

00<M<M<Mt-lOb~XO5O5COCOC5XOlC0 

HHClHHClrlrlOOrlHOOrin 

OOOOrfTf 

(MOCDCOOt-i 

rlrlrlrlMrl 

.149 

NAME. 

Annie  

Beckley  

Bess 

Bettie 

Clara  

Dido 

Dora 

Fancy 

Gertie 

Houston 

Jennie  

Nora 

Olive 

Patsy 

Pride 

Reddie 

Rose 

Rossie  

Roxy 

Sully 

Sweet  Briar 

Topsy 

Trick  sey 

Average 

COST  OF  BUTTER  PRODUCTION  IN  WINTER. 


T.  L.  HACKER. 

The  object  of  this  experiment  was  to  ascertain  with 
greater  accuracy,  the  cost  of  butter  fat  for  the  winter 
months  when  all  the  conditions  are  more  under  control  than 
during  the  summer.  Each  cow  was  charged  with  all  the 
feed  consumed  and  credited  with  her  yield  of  milk  and  fat. 
It  was  found  impossible  to  make  the  trial  the  same  length 
for  each  cow  for  the  reason  that  they  were  not  all  at  the 
same  time  in  a condition  which  would  make  it  fair,  so  each 
cow  was  placed  on  trial  at  a time  when  it  was  thought  she 
would  do  herself  justice. 

A careful  record  was  kept  of  the  amount  of  feed  taken  by 
each  cow,  and  a chemical  analysis  made  of  all  the  feed  stuffs 
used.  The  cost  of  the  feed  was  calculated  upon  the  same 
basis  as  it  was  in  the  yearly  feed  record.  Each  milking  was 
weighed  and  tested  by  the  Babcock  test,  so  the  results  are 
actual,  no  estimates  being  resorted  to  in  any  part  of  the 
work.  The  average  weight  was  ascertained  by  weighing 
each  cow  every  Monday  morning  after  feeding  and  before 
watering,  dividing  this  sum  by  the  number  of  weeks  each 
cow  was  in  the  trial. 

To  explain  the  headings  below  the  columns  in  Table  XVI. 
it  may  be  well  to  state  that  the  first  gives  the  names  of  the 
cows  in  the  trial,  the  second,  average  weight  of  each  cow; 
third,  the  number  of  days  each  cow  was  in  the  trial;  fourth 
the  total  pounds  of  dry  matter  eaten;  fifth,  the  average 
number  of  pounds  of  dry  matter  taken  per  day;  sixth,  the 
number  of  pounds  of  dry  matter  taken  daily  per  one  thous- 
and pounds  of  live  weight;  seventh,  pounds  of  butter  fat 
produced  during  the  trial;  eighth,  butter  fat  produced  per 
day;  ninth,  pounds  of  dry  matter  required  for  each  pound  of 
butter  fat;  tenth,  cost  of  a pound  of  butter  fat;  eleventh, 


TABLE  XVI.— Summary  of  Results  Obtained. 


55 


Butter  Fat  per 
Day  per  1000 
lbs.  live  weight 


Cost  of  1 lb.  of 
Butter  Fat ... 


COO^OOCOH^XHCOTHfOCM^lOt-OO^ClCDCO 

O5Ori©XlOr-H>J>Ot^©O5O5l>lOCO'£>C0XriCO(O 

HOOi35!OiiNTj(C^M^ffia5HOOX®NCOHON 


. 00  CO  CO  X X 0*  H H CO  X CO  M t*  CO  CD  OOOtD^^XO^ 

2 d d co  d x r-J  x d © d t>  co  d d co  d rji  d d d d h 


Dry  Matter  for 
1 lb.  Butter 
Fat 


^HlOHiiHMXMHOXClCCCJriTfHlOHXWOO 


Butter  Fat  per 
Day 


Ci^OCD^OiX^iOCOt-OXCD^Ci^Xt-M^xO 
•«T}UOlOril>U:Xril>Tf(C^Tf(T#OlC<MOa5lOt^^^ 
j£  05  05  ri  t>  CD  10  © O 05  N N CO  X X 05  X 05  N r*  X © H H 

H HH  ri  H H ri 


Total  Butter.... 
Fat 


Dry  Matter  per 
1000  lbs.  live 
Weight  


^lOlOaWTH^OllOMXC'lWCON^HNOnOilOOO 


Dry  Matter  per 
Day 


,O©C0^X05XC5XC510'H05OX05H05I><Mt}<^C0'^ 


Dry  Matter  in 
Food  


j/510^ttMl0C^TlXlD^0105t-~T-lOC0CQ<0C005C0l0C0 

n05C0OMl0l0l>C0©X<MC0Tj<rl050JH05^CCX©t- 

>OXt'CO^T)(hXlOX^COtDi(OOXWHO^^OfO 

'"COMCOCOCOCONWCOfOCOCOCOCONCOMCOii^TfTfCO 


Days  on  Trial... 


OJ  H if*  H H ^ OJ  H'HHririHHriClC^rHrH'H'H'^X 
Ifl^lOXXXtWXlOlOXXXlOXHXXXXt-M 
HrlHHHrlrlrlri  TiTirtHririHTHHrliHHH 


Avge.  Weight  .. 


NH'^J>OU>Tj<(M©H(Ol0^05ri^©'^OI>©X'^ 

•X^COXObbm^HOnlO^bOOlOlOCOOOW 

£l>05ri^05C^X0*X0505XXXi>OriOC5CJ05H05 


05  rH  . 

‘5  ^ w 

5 05  t» 


W 

4-> 


u 6 «3  W 4J  5?  *S  d « ® ^ 

1)  15  15«.h  OcjdlOCoaoiCuOOOd^OVi 


56 


pounds  of  butter  fat  produced  daily  per  thousand  pounds  of 
live  weight.  Every  cow  in  the  herd  was  in  the  trial,  and  by 
referring  to  Table  VIII.  the  breeding  of  each  cow  may  be  seen. 
In  noticing  the  average  weight  of  the  cows  it  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  weight  of  a cow  does  not  convey  a correct 
idea  of  her  size.  Neither  Dido  nor  Fancy  are  as  large  as  their 
weight  would  indicate.  The  same  is  true  of  Beckley , Clara 
and  Rossie,  while  Topsy,  Jenny.  Bess  and  Bettie  are  larger 
than  one  would  suppose,  judging  from  their  weight.  The 
variation  in  amount  of  dry  matter  consumed  per  day  by  dif- 
ferent cows  is  much  larger  than  is  generally  supposed.  In 
order  to  make  comparison,  the  feed  consumed  is  figured  on  a 
basis  of  one  thousand  pounds  live  weight.  Houston  consum- 
ed an  average  of 28. 24  pounds  per  day,  Dido  took  only  14.61 
pounds  per  day,  Fancy  following  next  with  15.41  pounds. 
Not  only  are  these  two  cows  light  feeders,  but  it  also  appears 
from  the  foregoing  table,  that  they  gave  a small  return  for 
the  feed  consumed.  Fancy  gave  only  one  pound  of  butter  fat 
for  every  32.47  pounds  of  dry  matter  eaten,  Dido  required 
32.36  pounds  for  each  pound  of  butter  fat,  while  the  smaller 
cows,  Houston  and  Dora,  required  only  20.18  and  18.44 
pounds  respectively,  and  the  large  framed  cow,  Topsey,  re- 
quired only  20  04  of  dry  matter  for  a pound  of  gutter  fat. 
From  this,  it  seems  the  line  cannot  be  drawn  between  good 
and  poor  cows  on  their  size,  neither  can  it  be  drawn  on 
breeds;  for  example,  take  the  two  shorthorns,  Dido  and 
Rose,  the  former  requiring  32.36  pounds  of  dry  matter  for  a 
pound  of  butter  fat,  to  21.37  pounds  for  Rose.  The  grade 
Holstein,  Jennie,  takes  28.58,  while  the  grade  Holstein, 
Topsy,  is  charged  only  20.04.  The  Jersey,  Beckley,  takes 
25.08  and  the  Jersey,  Dora,  takes  only  18.44. 

It  is  evident  then  that  some  cows  produce  butter  fat 
much  cheaper  than  others,  the  variation  being  so  great  that 
under  certain  conditions  one  class  will  produce  it  at  a profit 
and  another  at  a loss.  If  the  cows  are  divided  into  four 
groups  based  on  conformation,  assigning  the  beefy  cows  to 
the  first  those  with  less  tendency  toplumpness  to  the  second, 
the  spare,  cows  lacking  depth  to  the  third  and  the  spare 
cows  with  deep  bodies  to  the  fourth,  results  follow  which 
seem  to  be  of  vital  importance  to  every  dairyman. 


57 


DIDO. 

table  XVII.  GROUP  I, — Beaf  Type,  ocky  and  Plump. 


Cow. 

Weight. 

Breed. 

Lbs.  Dry  Mat- 
ter per  day  per 
1000  lbs.  live 
weight 

^ Cl 
*1  -t  v 

7 cr 

n a 

f P‘3 

; o& 

i Lbs.  butter  fat 
itromlOOlbs.  of 
drv  matter 

1 

Cost  of  lib  of 
butter  fat 

Fancy 

1256 

Polled  Angus 
Shorthorn 

15.41 

32.47 

3 08 

cents. 

18.1 

Dido 

1245 

14.61 

32.36 

3.09 

18.2 

Sully... 

1219 

Shorthorn 

19.96 

28.94 

3.45 

16.4 

1 

Average 

| 1240 
1 

1 

| 16.66 
1 

i 31.25  | 
1 1 

1 

3.20 

1 

| 17.5 
1 

To  illustrate  the  general  conformation  of  the  cows  in 
this  group  a picture  of  the  Shorthorn  cow  Dido  is  given. 
The  engraving  was  made  from  a photograph  taken  before 
the  experiment  began,  and  is  an  excellent  likeness  of  Die  cow. 
She  is  large  and  blockv  in  outline,  being  level  from  base  of 
horns  to  setting  on  of  tail,  deep  well  rounded  thigh  coming 
well  down  to  hock,  brisket  low  and  running  well  forward, 
neck  short  and  heavy  at  the  shoulders,  broad  across  the 
shoulders,  full  crops,  ribs  well  sprung  and  body  deep  in  the 
middle.  She  is  in  every  way  a very  fine  animal. 
She  ate  18.76  pounds  of  dry  matter  per  day,  required 


58 


32.36  pounds  of  dry  matter  for  each  pound  of  butter  fat, 
making  the  cost  of  butter  fat  18.2  cents.  Fancy  is  smaller 
in  frame  but  carries  more  flesh.  She  is  level  on  upper  and 
lower  lines,  making  her  deeper  in  the  flank  and  chest  than 
Dido.  She  is  closely  ribbed,  ribs  well  sprung  making  her 
level  across  the  back,  crops  full,  very  heavy  shouldered, 
broad  across  the  withers  and  remarkably  broad  between 
the  elbows  indicating  enormous  lung  capacity.  She  required 
32.47  pounds  dry  matter  for  a pound  of  butter  fat,  making 
the  butter  fat  cost  18.1  cents  per  pound.  Sully  is  less  in- 
clined to  lay  on  flesh  than  either  of  the  others.  She  has  less 
breadth  of  withers,  crops  quite  low,  deep  and  low  in  the  mid- 
dle and  heavy  thigh.  She  required  28.94  pounds  dry  matter 
for  a pound  of  butter  fat,  making  it  cost  16.4  cents  per 
pound.  The  cost  of  butter  fat  from  group  I.  was  17.5 
cents  per  pound. 


59 


BECKLEY. 

TABLE  XVIII.  Group  II.— Cows  Having  Less  Tendency  to  Lay  on  FlesE. 


Cow. 

Weight. 

Breed. 

Lbs.  Dry  Mat- 
ter per  day  per 
1000  lbs.  live 
weight 

Lbs.  Dry  Mat- 
ter for  lib.  of 
butter  fat 

i 

Lbs.  butter  Fat 
from  100  lbs 
of  Dry  Matter. 

Cost  of  lib.  of 
butter  fat 

Beckley  

942 

Gr.  Jersey 

25.15 

25.08 

3.98 

cents 

14.3 

Clara 

909 

21.16 

31.05 

3.22 

17.8 

Reddie 

1027  | 

“ Guernsey 

21.02 

24.44 

4.09 

13.8 

Rossie 

903  | 

“ Jersey 

16.75 

25.12 

3.98 

14.6 

Average 

' 1 

945 

! 

1 , 

1 

| 21.02  I 

1 

1 1 
26.42  | 

3.82 

1 

15.1 

This  group  would  ordinarily  be  classed  as  fair  dairy 
cows,  but  upon  close  inspection  they  show  a well  defined 
tendancy  to  growing  flesh.  Their  hips  (hooks),  chines  and 
withers  are  not  as  sharp  as  is  the  case  with  those  in  the  two 
groups  following.  Their  necks  are  rather  short  and  a trifle  * 
heavy,  thighs  and  crops  too  full.  Rossie,  a first-cross 
Jersey,  carries  the  most  flesh.  Beckley,  a high  grade  Jersey, 
follows  next,  both  are  more  than  ordinarily  deep  in  body; 
Reddy  and  Clara  are  not  as  deep,  and  show  less  tendency  to 
lay  on  flesh.  The  cows  in  Group  II.  consumed  on  an  aver- 
age 20.37  pounds  dry  matter  per  day,  and  required  26.42 
pounds  of  dry  matter  for  a pound  of  butter  fat,  costing  15.1 
cents  per  pound. 


60 


BETTIE. 


TABLE  XIX.  Group  III.— Cows  Spare  and  Angular  in  Form,  but  Lacking 

Depth. 


Cow 

Weight 

Breed 

Lbs.  dry  matter 
per  day  per 
1000  lbs.  live 
weight 

i 

Lbs.  of  dry 
matter  for 
1 lb  of  butter 
fat 

Lbs.  of  butter 
fat  from  100 
lbs.  of  dry 
matter 

Cost  of  1 lb. 
of  butter  fat... 

Jennie 

1 

1020 

Gr.  Holstein 

1 

22.09 

1 

28.58 

1 

3.49 

16.6 

Bettie 

802 

Guernsey 

23.33 

24.30 

4.12 

13.8 

Olive 

805 

Gr.  Guernsey 

23  59 

23.75 

4.21 

13.4 

Average 

i 

875 

23.00 

25.54 

3.94 

14.6 

The  cows  in  this  group  are  spare  and  angular,  but  lack 
in  depth  through  the  flank  and  middle.  This  is  especially 
# the  case  with  Jennie,  that  has  a restless,  roving  disposition 
always  seeming  to  look  for  something  better,  while  Olive 
and  Bettie  are  more  contented.  Bettie  is  a fair  representa- 
tive of  the  cows  in  Group  III.;  they  are  not  inferior  dairy 
cows,  their  record  for  the  year  1893  was  944  pounds  of 
butter.  They  are  the  lightest  feeders  in  the  herd  and  require 
25.54  pounds  dry  matter  for  a pound  of  fat,  the  butter  fat 
costing  14.6  cents. 


61 


HOUSTON. 


TABLE  XX.  Group  IV.— Cows  Spare  and  Angular  with  Deep  Bodies. 


Name  of  cows 

Breed 

Lbs.  dry  mat- 
ter per  day  per 
1000  lbs.  live 
weights 

Lbs.  dry  mat- 
ter per  1 lb  but- 
ter fat.  

Lbs.  of  butter 
fat  from  100 
lbs.  of  dry 
matter 

Cost  of  1 lb.  of 
butter  fat 

Annie  

Jersey 

25.80 

21.68 

4.61 

cents 

12.8 

Bess 

Holstein 

22.04 

21.29 

4.69 

12.3 

Dora 

Jersey 
Gr.-  “ 

22.33 

1 8.44 

5.42 

11.1 

Gertie 

23.20 

21.53 

4.64 

12.3 

Houston 

JerseyGuernsey 

28.24 

20.16 

4.96 

10.8 

Patsy 

Gr. -Jersey 

22.20 

22.27 

4.49 

12.6 

Pride 

Jersey 

24.82 

21.18 

4.72 

12.6 

Rose 

Shorthorn 

17.87 

21.37 

4.67 

12.9 

Roxy 

Gr. -Jersey 

23.52 

21.91 

4.56 

12.4 

Sweet  Briar 

Guernsey 

25.65 

23.06 

4.33 

12.8 

Topsy 

Holstein 

20.91 

20.04 

4.99 

12.0 

Tricksey 

Guernsey 

26.46 

20.88 

4.78 

11.4 

Average 

23.58 

21.15 

4.73 

12.1 

The  cows  in  group  IV.  embrace  all  in  the  herd  not  in  the  pre- 
ceding groups  except  the  heifer  Nora,  that  is  not  classified  for 
the  reason  that  she  made  some  growth  during  the  year. 
It  requires  feed  to  make  growth,  consequently  she  is  an  ex- 
ception to  the  conditions  common  to  the  other  members  of 
the  herd.  To  give  a better  idea  of  the  conformation  of  the 
cows  in  these  groups,  than  can  be  done  by  words  alone, 
the  illustrations  are  given.  Houston,  a cross-bred  Jersey- 
Guernsey  consumed  more  feed  per  day  and  produced  butter 
fat  at  less  cost  than  any  other  cow  in  this  trial.  It  is  there- 


62 


fore  proper  that  she  should  be  selected  as  one  of  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  type  of  cow  that  gives  best  return  for  food 
consumed.  The  illustration  is  from  a photograph  taken 
after  the  close  of  the  experiment.  She  is,  andhasbeen,  ingood 
health  all  the  time  she  has  been  in  the  herd.  Her  appetite  is 
clearly  shown  by  the  fact  that  she  ate  28.24  pounds  of  dry 
matter  daily  during  the  test;  the  standard  being  24  pounds. 
That  she  made  good  use  of  it — possibly  the  best  that  could 
be— is  evident  from  the  cost  of  butter  fat,  10.8  cents  per 


DORA. 


pound.  Dora  follows  next  in  productive  capacity,  making 
a pound  of  butter  fat  for  11.1  cents,  and  returning  a pound 
of  fat  for  every  18.44pounds  of  dry  matter  consumed.  The 
average  number  of  pounds  of  dry  matter  eaten  per  day  by 
the  group  is  23.58;  average  pounds  of  dry  matter  for  a 
pound  of  fat  21.15;  cost  of  a pound  of  fat  12  1 cents.  The 
cows  in  group  IV  deviating  the  most  from  the  type  as  rep- 
resented by  Houston  and  Dora,  are  Rose,  Annie  and  Sweet 
Brier,  deviation  being  in  the  order  named.  In  examining  the 
cost  of  butter  fat  in  this  group  it  will  be  seen  that  Rose 
produces  it  for  12.9  cents  and  Annie  and  Sweet  Brier  each 
for  12.8  cents  per  pound. 


63 


TABLE  XXI.— Averages  of  the  Four  Groups. 


Group 

Dry  matter 
eaten  per  day... 

Dry  matter  per 
1000.  lbs. 
of  live  weight 

Dry  matter  per 
lb.  of  butter  fat 

Butter  fat 
for  100  lbs.  of 
dry  matter 

Cost  of  a lb. 
of  butter  fat 

I 

20.81 

16.66 

31.25 

3.20 

17.5 

II 

20.37 

21.02 

26.42 

3.78 

15.1 

III 

19,95 

23.00 

25.54 

3.91 

14.6 

IV 

21.86 

23.58 

21.15 

4.72 

12.1 

It  appears  from  the  foregoing  table  that  group  I..  the 
heavy  beefy  cows,  consumed  20.81  pounds  of  dry  matter 
per  day  and  required  31.25  pounds  dry  matter  for  a pound 
of  butter  fat;  that  group  II.,  the  cows  having  an 
angular  form,  but  a tendency  to  lay  on  flesh,  consumed 
20.37  pounds  dry  matter  per  day  and  required  less  to 
make  a pound  of  butter  fat  than  the  first  group;  while  group 
III.,  the  spare  cows  lacking  somewhat  in  depth  of  body,  con- 
sumed 19.95  lbs.  food  daily,  and  required  less  dry  matter  for 
apound  of  fat  than  groups  I.  and  II.,  and  that  group  IV.,  the 
spare,  deep  bodied  cows,  consumed  the  most  feed  per  day  and 
made  the  best  use  of  it.  The  cost  of  butter  fat  as  indicated 
in  the  last  column,  seems  to  depend  more  upon  the  type  of 
cow  than  the  breed,  there  being  less  variation  in  cost 
of  production  between  cows  of  a certain  type  than 
between  cows  of  the  same  breed.  The  cost  of  one  hun- 
dred pounds  of  dry  matter  was  57  cents;  estimating  the  price 
of  a pound  of  butter  fat  at  25  cents  the  cows  in  group  I.  re- 
turned a net  profit  of  23  cents  for  each  hundred  pounds  of 
dry  matter  consumed;  group  II.,  37  cents;group  III.,  41  cents 
and  group  IV.,  61  cents.  Referring  to  table  XXI.,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  first  group  consumed,  on  an  average,  20.81 
pounds  dry  matter  per  day,  returning  4.7  cents*profit;  the 
cows  in  group  II,  ate  20.37  pounds  dry  matter  and  gave 
7.5  cents  profit;  group  III.  ate  19.95  pounds  each  and  re- 
turned 8.1  cents,  while  group  IV.  ate  21.86  pounds  each 
per  day  at  a profit  of  13.3  cents,  or  nearly  three  times  as 
great  a net  profit  as  the  blockv  cows  in  group  I. 


SUMMARY. 


The  record  of  the  dairy  herd  for  the  year  1893  seems  to 
warrant  the  following  conclusions: 

First.  The  average  annual  cost  of  keeping  a dairy  cow 
is  thirty-eight  dollars. 

Second.  A herd  of  cows  bred  on  dairy  lines,  well  fed  and 
carefully  handled,  will  produce  on  an  average  six  thousand 
four  hundred  pounds  of  milk  per  year  at  a cost  of  sixty-two 
cents  per  hundred  pounds  and  twelve  and  a half  cents  a 
pound  for  butter  fat. 

Third.  A herd  of  good  dairy  cows  well  fed  and  carefully 
handled  will  produce  on  an  average  three  hundred  pounds 
of  butter  fat  each  per  year,  which  is  equivalent  to  three 
hundred  and  sixty-five  pounds  of  butter  per  cow. 

Fourth.  The  average  cost  of  a pound  of  butter  will  be 
ten  and  a half  cents. 

Fifth.  Taking  the  entire  herd  the  average  cost  of  a 
pound  of  butter  fat  during  the  winter  months  is  thirteen 
and  nine-tenths  cents. 

Sixth.  The  productive  capacity  of  a cow  depends  more 
upon  type  and  conformation  than  upon  size  or  breed.  Those 
of  the  beef  type  produced  butter  fat  at  a cost  of  seventeen  and 
a half  cents  per  pound ; those  carrying  a medium  amount  of 
flesh  produced  butter  fat  at  a cost  of  fifteen  and  one- tenth 
cents  per  pound;  the  spare  cows  lacking  in  depth  of  body 
produced  butter  fat  at  a cost  of  fourteen  and  six  tenths 
cents  per  pound  and  the  spare  cows  having  deep  bodies  pro- 
duced butter  fat  at  a cost  of  twelve  and  one  tenth  cents  per 
pound. 


COMPARING  PRAIRIE  HAY  WITH  TIMOTHY  HAY. 


T.  L.  HACKER. 

In  a state  like  Minnesota  where  so  large  aportion  is  com- 
posed of  open  prairie  still  covered  with  the  virgin  grasses,  the 
question  of  their  food  value  is  one  of  no  little  moment,  espec- 
ially in  all  that  section  north  and  west  of  the  Twin  Cities. 
For  that  section  the,  almost,  universal  roughage-feed  for 
horses,  cattle  and  sheep  is  the  upland  prairie  hay. 

The  term  employed  to  designate  this  hay  is  rather  am- 
biguous ; prairie  hay  consists  of  many  varieties  of  grasses,  de- 
pending, to  a certain  extent,  upon  composition  of  soil  and 
degree  of  moisture.  But  if  practical  investigation  into  the 
value  of  the  native  grasses,  for  the  production  of  milk  and 
growing  of  young  stock,  be  deferred  until  these  grasses  are 
all  divided  and  classified  and  the  relative  proportion  of  each 
contained  in  a given  quantity  of  hay,  is  computed,  there  will 
be  little  use  for  the  facts  after  they  are  obtained.  For  feeding 
purposes,  prairie  grasses  can  be  divided  into  three  classes,  the 
upland,  the  dry  bottom  land  and  the  swale  or  marsh  grasses. 
Of  these  the  upland  prairie  is  the  most  common  and  for  this 
reason  it  was  selected  for  an  experiment  in  milk  production 
in  comparison  with  timothy  hay. 

Character  of  Hay  Fed. — The  prairie  hay  secured  was  fine 
in  blade,  of  good  quality,  apparently  early  cut  and  not  ex- 
posed to  rain  before  stacking.  It  was  almost  free  from  swale 
grass  and  tall  blue  joint.  The  timothy  hay  was  medium  fine, 
rather  short,  cut  early  and  properly  cured,  had  a fine  flavor, 
good  color  and  was  first  grade  in  every  respect. 

The  intention  was  to  carry  this  experiment  from  the  first 
of  February  to  the  first  of  May,  covering  the  period,  March 
and  April,  when  it  is  most  difficult  to  get  satisfactory  results 
in  a feeding  experiment  with  dairy  cows.  But  it  was  not  un- 
til about  the  middle  of  February  that  the  cows  adjusted  them- 


66 


selves  to  the  rations  selected.  There  was  no  difficulty  expe- 
rienced in  feeding  prairie  hay  but  it  required  careful  training 
to  induce  all  of  them  to  eat  the  timothy  clean. 

The  mixed  grain  ration  consisted  of  98  pounds  bran,  44 
pounds  ground  barley,  44  pounds  ground  corn  and  26 
pounds  linseed  meal. 

Sixteen  cows  were  selected  for  the  experiment  and  were 
divided  into  four  groups,  and  the  time  into  four  periods.  The 
daily  feeding  program  was  as  follows: 

Lot  1 — Periods  I and  III,  Grain  14  lbs.,  Prairie  hay  14  lbs. 

. Lot  1— Periods  II  and  IV,  Grain  14  lbs.,  Timothy  hay  14  lbs. 

Lot  2 — Periods  I and  III,  Grain  14  lbs.,  Timothy  hay  14  lbs. 

Lot  2 — Periods  II  and  IV,  Grain  14  lbs,  Prairie  hay  14  lbs. 

Lot  3 — Periods  I and  III,  Grain  12  lbs.,  Ensilage  10  lbs.,  Prairie  hay  11  lbs. 
Lot.  3 — Periods  II  and  IV,  Grain  1 2 lbs.,  Ensilage  10  lbs.,  Timothy  hay  11  lbs. 
Lot  4 — Periods  I and  III,  Grain  12  lbs.,  Ensilage  10  lbs.,  Timothy  hay  11  lbs. 
Lot  4 — Periods  II  and  IV,  Grain  12  lbs.,  Ensilage  10  lbs.,  Prairie  hay  11  lbs. 

CONDUCT  OF  THE  EXPERIMENT. 

The  feeding  preliminary  to  the  experiment,  began  the 
22nd  day  of  January,  continuing  to  the  12th  of  February, 
when  the  experiment  proper  commenced  and  it  was  closed 
the  evening  of  the  29th  of  April.  It  was  divided  into  four 
periods  of  fourteen  days  each  with  seven  days  intervening 
between  periods  for  preliminary  feeding.  During  the  first 
and  third  periods  the  cows  in  Lot  1 were  fed  on  grain  and 
prairie  hay;  Lot  2,  on  grain  and  timothy  hay;  Lot  3,  grain, 
ensilage  and  prairie  hay  and  Lot  4,  grain,  ensilage  and 
timothy  hay.  During  the  second  and  fourth  periods,  the 
cows  in  Lot  1,  were  fed  grain  and  timothy  hay;  Lot  2,  grain 
and  prairie  hay;  Lot  3,  grain,  ensilage  and  timothy  hay 
and  Lot  4,  grain,  ensilage  and  prairie  hay.  The  cows  were 
fed  twice  and  watered  once  a day,  and  weighed  every  Mon- 
day morning  after  feeding  and  before  watering.  The  feed 
was  weighed  each  day  and  in  a few  instances  when  feed  was 
left  it  was  weighed  back,  giving  due  credit  to  the  cow  leav- 
ing it. 

In  the  preliminary  feeding  between  the  first  and  second 
periods,  Daisy,  in  Lot  1 went  off  her  feed  and  did  not  recover 
in  time  to  enter  the  trial  in  the  second  period.  She  was 
therefore  dropped  from  the  experiment.  Betty  also  at  one 


67 


time  refused  to  eat  the  full  amount  of  timothy  hay,  but  it 
was  so  near  the  close  of  the  second  period  that  no  perceptible 
change  took  place  in  her  yield  of  milk  and  butter  fat.  During 
the  third  and  fourth  periods  she  was  in  excellent  condition 
and  gained,  both  in  milk  and  in  butter  fat,  though  during 
the  last  week  ot  the  experiment  she  refused  to  eat  all  the 
timothy.  Fancy  was  offered  the  hay  left  by  Bettie  but  she 
refused  to  take  it.  In  the  third  period,  when  changing  from 
prairie  to  timothy,  Clara  in  Lot  2,  failed  to  eat  the  required 
amount  of  timothy  and,  showing  abnormal  loss  in  both 
milk  and  fat,  was  taken  out  of  the  experiment.  Beckley, 
in  Lot  3,  ate  all  the  feed  given  but  showed  by  her  appearance 
and  performance  that  she  was  not  in  normal  condition, 
which  subsequent  developements  confirmed.  During  the 
first  period,  Jenny  in  Lot  4,  refused  to  eat  a full  ration  of 
timothy,  and  throughout  the  experiment,  showed  that  the 
ration  was  a trifle  too  large  when  on  timothy  hay.  She 
seemed  to  like  the  wild  hay  much  better,  increasing  both 
in  yield  of  milk  and  fat  when  on  prairie  hay.  Because  of 
the  break  in  the  first  period  and  other  peculiarities  noted, 
she  was  taken  out  of  the  trial,  which  left  three  cows  in  each 
lot.  All  of  them  were  fed  to  their  full  capacity  for 
so  long  a period  except  Sweet  Brier  and  possibly,  Topsy; 
the  former  would  have  taken  a few  pounds  more  and  the 
latter  might  have  taken  half  as  much. 

Every  milking  of  each  cow  was  weighed  and  tested  for 
per  cent  fat,  as  has  been  our  invariable  practice  since  the 
establishment  of  the  dairy  herd  in  the  autumn  of  1891. 

The  daily  grain  ration  was  as  follows: 


Lots  1 and  2 

Bran  6.17  lbs. 

Barley  3.08  lbs. 

Corn  3.08  lbs. 

Linseed  Meal  1.65  lbs. 


Lots  3 and  4 

Bran  5.29  lbs. 

Barley  2.64  lbs. 

Corn  2.64  lbs. 

Linseed  Meal  1.41  lbs. 


Samples  of  Grain , Hay  and  Ensilage. — Samples  of  the 
grain  were  taken  in  Mason  pint  jars  and  sealed.  The  samples 
of  ensilage  were  taken  by  the  chemist,  and  both  prairie  and 


68 


timothy  hay  were  sampled  every  day  and  a composite 
sample  of  each  was  analyzed. 

All  the  work  in  connection  with  the  experiment  was  done 
by  students  attending  the  School  of  Agriculture.  Messrs. 
Walter  Field  and  A.  J.  Glover  had  charge  of  the  feeding;  W. 
C.  Currie,  R.  W.  Clark  and  James  McGrath  did  the  milking; 
Archie  L.  Haecker  tested  the  milk  with  the  Babcock  test 
and  Ernest  W.  Major  kept  the  record  and  computed  the 
yield  of  milk  and  fat.  The  milk  was  weighed  and  sampled 
by  the  milkers.  All  the  work  was  done  with  that  zeal  and 
earnest  fidelity  which  can  only  be  secured  through  those 
who  take  a deep  interest  in  obtaining  accurate  results  in  an 
experiment  of  this  kind. 

Since  the  ration  fed  to  Lot  1 and  Lot  2 differed  from  that 
fed  to  Lot  3 and  Lot  4,  the  results  obtained  from  the  first 
two  groups  will  be  considered  separate  from  that  of  the  last 
two. 


TABLE  XXII.— Cows,  Weights,  Date  of  Calving  and  Date  of  Service. 


Name 


Bettie 

Daisy 

Gertie 

Fancy 

Houston 

Roxy 

Clara 

Sully 

Beckley 

Mollie 

Pride 

Nora 

Jenny 

Sweet  Brier. 

Rossie 

Topsy 


Age 

Breed 

Wt. 

Date  of  calving 

9 

Guernsey 

846 

Aug.,  1893 

2y2 

5 

Grade  Guernsey 
Grade  Jersey 

874 

Sept.  26,  1893 

8 

Polled  Angus 

1246 

Mar.,  1893 

10 

Jersey-Guernsey 

867 

Nov.  5,  1893 

9 

Gr.  Jersey 

936 

Aug.  10,  1893 

8 

May  27,  1893 

10 

“ Shorthorn 

1173 

Jul v 5,  1893 

9 

“ Jersey 

July  10,  1893 

“ Shorthorn 

950 

11 

Jersey 

“ -Guernsey 

748 

May  2,  1893 

4 

827 

Aug.  15,  1893 

6 

Gr.  Holstien 

Nov.  27,  1893 

10 

Guernsey 

1025 

Oct.  28,  1893 

6 

Gr.  Jersey 

916 

May  15,  1893 

8 

“ Holstien 

1030 

Nov.  9,  1893 

Jany.  9,  1894 
Nov.  10,  1893 


Served 


Dec.  30,  1893 
April  10,  1894 
Nov.  15,  1894 


Nov. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Dec. 

Dec. 


19,  1893 
13,  1893 
27,  1893 
30,  1893 
26,  1893 
17,  1894 
30, 1894 

15. 1893 

28. 1893 


The  weight  of  the  cows  is  the  average  of  the  weight  of 
each  on  the  5th  and  12th  of  February  at  the  beginning  of 
the  experiment. 

The  composition  of  the  bran,  barley,  corn,  ensilage,  timo- 
thy and  prairie  hay  and  percentage  digestible  of  bran,  bar- 
ley and  corn  was  obtained  by  analyses  and  experiments 
made  by  Prof.  Harry  Snyder.  The  co-efficients  employed  in 
calculating  the  amount  digestible  in  timothy  and  prairie 
hay  were  taken  from  the  Massachusetts  State  Experiment 


69 


TABLE  XXIII.— Composition  of  Feed  Stuffs  Used. 


Percentage  composition.  j Lbs.  digestible. 


Bran.  

Barley 

•Corn 

Linseed  meal... 
Timothy  hay.. 

Prairie  hay 

Ensilage 


B* 


5.95 

15.38 

11.57 

- 

11.25 

5.70 

32.90 

4.58 

6.53 

6.28 

5.91 

1.41 

2.42 

10.25 

5.05 

6.00 

2.70 

2.28 

3.88 

8.90 

7.90 

28.83 

3.17 

26.32 

2.83 

6.00 

1,06 

n c r 
P O 


52.87' 

65.63 

69.40 

35.40 
44.57 
47.81 
17.19 


3 

P 


10.40 

11.78 

11.72 

9.20 

12.32 

10.85 

72.00 


►i 

o 


n> 


3 


^ p 

>1  O1 

Po 


2 

o1 

n 


11.55 

9.42 

10.11 

27.00 

3.17 

2.36 

1.10 


34.89 

56.82 

65.16 

32.00 
28.97 
27.73 

13.00 


3.3S 

2.92 

1.11 

2.00 

16.14 

13.16 

2.00 


3.63 

1.89 

3.01 

7.10 

1.81 

1.42 

.70 


Station  Annual  Report  for  1893;  using  the  eo-efficient  from 
“hay  of  mixed  grasses  low  in  nitrogen,”  for  the  prairie  hay 
For  ensilage  and  linseed  meal  those  used  in  the  Annual  Re- 
port of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  for  1892  were  em- 
ployed. 


FEED  CONSUMED  AND  MILK  AND  BUTTER  FAT 
PRODUCED  BY  LOTS  1 and  2. 


The  following  tables  give  the  amount  of  grain  and  hay 
eaten  and  pounds  of  milk  and  butter  fat  produced  by  each 
cow  in  Lots  1 and  2 during  the  four  periods-  ' 


TABLE  XXIV.  Lot  1. 


Period  I.  Feb.  12—25. 

Period  II.  Mch.  5—18. 

Grain 

Prairie 

hay 

Milk 

Fat 

Grain 

Timo- 

thy 

Milk 

Fat 

Bettie 

Fancy 

Gertie 

lbs. 

196 

196 

196 

— 

lbs. 

194 
196 

195 

lbs. 

117.8 

129.4 

223.6 

lbs. 

7.52 

6.50 

11.67 

lbs. 

196 

196 

196 

lbs. 

140 

196 

196 

lbs. 

124.0 

138.2 

213.8 

lbs. 

7.72 

5.89 

10.33 

Total 

j 588 

585 

470.8 

25.69 

588 

532 

476.0 

23.94 

Period  III.  Mch.  26— April  8. 

Period  IV.  April  16 

—29. 

Grain 

Prairie 

hay 

Milk 

P'at  | 

Grain  | 

Timo- 

thy 

Milk 

Fat 

Bettie 

Fancy 

Gertie 

lbs. 

196 

196 

196 

lbs. 

196 

196 

196 

lbs. 

129.9 

137.1 

214.1 

lbs.  1 
8.61  | 
6.02  1 
10.70 

lbs. 

196 

196 

196 

lbs. 

181.5 
196 

182.5 

lbs. 

133.5 

120.9 

207.8 

lbs. 

9.11 

5.53 

10.64 

T o tell 

588 

588 

481.1 

25.33  ! 

II 

588 

560 

462.2 

25.28 

70 


It  will  be  observed  that  Bettie  gained  in  Period  II.  6.2 
pounds  of  milk  and  .2  of  a pound  fat  over  that  given  by  her 
during  Period  I.  During  Period  III.  she  gained  5.9  pounds  of 
milk  and  .89  of  a pound  of  fat  over  Period  II,  and  during 
Period  IV.  3.6  pounds  of  milk  and  .5  of  a pound  of  fat  over 
Period  III.  In  Period  II.  Fancy  gained,  while  on  timothy, 
8.8  pounds  of  milk  and  lost  .61  of  a pound  of  fat  as  com- 
pared with  Period  I.,  while  in  Period  III.  on  prairie  hay  she 
lost  1.1  pounds  of  milk  and  gained  .13  of  a pound  of  fat, 
and  in  Period  IV,  on  timothy  she  lost  16.2  pounds  of  milk 
and  .49  of  a pound  of  fat.  Gertie  lost  in  yield  of  fat  during 
both  periods  when  fed  on  timothy,  and  regained  a trifle 
when  on  praire  hay  in  Period  III. 

TABLE  XXV.  Lot  2. 


Period  I.  Feb.  12 — 25. 

Period  II.  Mch.  15 — 18. 

Grain 

Timo- 
thy 
_ lbs' 
193 
196 
196 

Milk 

lbs. 

281.0 

213.9 

238.2 

Fat 

Grain 

Prairie 

hay 

Milk 

Fat 

Houston 

Roxy 

Sully 

lbs. 

196 

196 

196 

lbs. 

15.15 

10.38 

11.25 

lbs. 

196 

196 

196 

lbs. 

196 

196 

996 

lbs. 

312.6 

221.4 

257.8 

lbs. 

14.66 

11.04 

11.06 

588 

585  [ 

733.1 

36.78 

588 

588 

791.8 

36.76 

Period  III.  Mch.  26 — Apr.  8. 

1 

1 

1 

1 

| Period.  IV.  Apr.  16—29. 

Grain 

Timo- 

thy 

Milk 

Fat 

lbs. 

14.83 

10.86 

11.16 

| Grain 

| Prairie 
1 hay 

Milk 

Fat 

Houston 

Roxy 

Sullv 

Total 

lbs. 

196 

196 

196 

lbs. 

196 

196 

196 

lbs. 

299.3 
209.9 

242.3 

1 lbs. 
196 
196 
196 

lbs. 

196 

196 

196 

lbs. 
295  4 
209.3 
259.7 

lbs. 

15.02 

11.51 

12.05 

588 

588 

764.4 

36.85 

538 

588  1 764.4 

38.58 

In  the  above  table  is  given  the  amount  of  grain  and  hay 
eaten  and  milk  and  fat  produced  by  each  cow  during  the  four 
periods,  and  also  the  totalpounds  of  feed  eaten  and  milk  and 
butter  fat  produced  by  Lot  2 during  the  four  periods.  During 
the  first  three  periods  there  was  scarcely  any  variation  in  the 
total  amount  of  butter  fat  produced  by  the  three  cows.  Dur- 
ing the  fourth  period  while  the  cows  received  prairie  hay 
they  gained  1.76  pounds  fat. 


71 


With  one  exception  Lot  2 ate  all  the  feed  given  during 
the  four  periods,  Houston  on  a single  occasion  refused  to  eat 
all  the  hay.  The  hay  left  was  weighed  and  deducted,  making 
the  amount  of  hay  consumed  193  pounds,  being  3 pounds 
less  than  that  eaten  by  the  other  cows  in  the  group. 

Comparing  the  yields  of  milk  and  butter  fat  during  the 
first  period  with  that  of  the  fourth  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
cows  gained  both  in  yield  of  milk  and  of  fat  during  the  trial, 
showing  that  the  cows  were  in  excellent  working  condition 
and  responded  well  to  the  care  bestowed  in  feeding  and  milk- 
ing. 

SUMMARY  OF  RESULTS  WITH  LOTS  1 AND  2. 

By  adding  the  total  amount  of  milk  yielded  by  Lot  1 
during  Periods  I.  and  III.  and  Lot  2 during  Periods  II.  and 
IV.  we  find  the  number  of  pounds  of  milk  and  butter  fat 
yielded  when  feeding  prairie  hay.  The  total  amount  of  milk 
and  butter  fat  produced  by  Lot  1.  during  Periods  II.  and  IV., 
and  by  Lot  2 during  Periods  I.  and  III.  gives  the  number  of 
pounds  of  milk  and  fat  yielded  when  feeding  on  timothy  hay. 

The  following  table  gives  the  total  quantity  of  grain, 
timothy  hay  and  prairie  hay  eaten  and  milk  and  butter  fat 
produced  by  Lots  1 and  2 during  each  of  the  four  periods: 

TABLE  XXVI.  Comparing  Prairie  Hay  With  Timothy  for  Milk  and 
Butter  Fat. 


Timothy  Hay.  Prairie  Hay. 


1 

Grain 

Tim- 

othy 

hay 

Milk 

Fat 

1 

Grain 

Prai- 

rie 

hay 

Milk 

Fat 

Lot 

1 

Period 
I [ 

588 

532 

476.0 

23.94 

Lot 

i 1 

Period 

I 

588 

585 

470.8 

25.69 

1 

IV 

588 

560 

462.2 

25.28 

! i 

III 

588  | 

, 588 

481.1 

25.33 

2 

I 

588 

585 

733.1 

36.78 

2 

II 

588 

588 

791.8 

36.76 

2 

III 

588 

588 

751.5 

36.85 

2 

IV 

588  i 

588 

764.4 

38.58 

2352  2265 

2422.8 

122.85 

2352 

2349 

2508.1 

126.36 

During  the  four  periods  the  cows  when  fed  on  prairie  hay 
consumed  as  much  grain  as  they  did  when  fed  on  timothy. 
Eiiminatingthis  commonfactor  we  have  the  following  result: 
2,265  pounds  of  timothy  hay  with  grain  produced 
2,422.8  pounds  of  milk  containing  122.85  pounds  of  fat. 


72 


2,349  pounds  of  prairie  hay  with  a similar  amount  of 
grain  produced  2,508.1  pounds  of  milk  containing  126.36 
pounds  of  fat. 

During  the  periods  when  prairie  hay  was  fed,  the  cows  in 
Lots  1 and  2 produced  85.3  pounds  more  milk  and  3.51 
pounds  more  butter  fat  than  they  did  during  the  periods 
when  timothy  hay  was  fed. 

Applying  the  standard  of  values  for  the  two  kinds  of  hay 
adopted  on  page  39  of  this  report,  being  $5.60  per  ton  for 
timothy  and  $3.20  for  prairie  hay,  it  is  found  that  the  cost 
of  the  daily  ration  fed  to  Lot  1,  during  Periods  I and  III  and 
to  Lot  2,  during  Periods  II  and  IV,  when  fed  on  grain  and 
prairie  hay,  was  12.1  cents,  and  the  cost  of  the  daily  ration 
fed  to  Lot  1 during  Periods  II  and  IV  and  to  Lot  2 during 
Periods  I and  III,  when  fed  on  timothy  hay,  was  13.8  cents. 
During  the  28  days  when  the  cows  were  fed  on  grain  and  tim- 
othy hay  they  consumed  $23.18  worth  of  feed  and  produced 

2.422.8  pounds  of  milk  and  122.85  pounds  of  butter  fat;  the 
milk  costing  95  cents  per  hundred  pounds  and  the  butter  fat 

18.8  cents  per  pound. 

During  the  28  days  when  fed  on  grain  and  prairie  hay, 
they  consumed  $20.33  worth  of  feed  and  produced  2,508.1 
pounds  of  milk  and  126.36  pounds  of  butter  fat;  the  milk 
costing  81  cents  per  hundred  pounds  and  the  butter  fat  16 
cents  per  pound,  being  a difference  of  14  cents  per  hundred 
pounds  of  milk  and  2.8  cents  per  pound  of  butter  fat,  in  favor 
of  prairie  hay. 


FEED  CONSUMED  AND  MILK  AND  BUTTER  FAT 
PRODUCED  BY  LOTS  3 AND  4. 

Twelve  cows  were  in  the  experiment  proper.  Six,  as  we 
have  seen,  were  fed  a fundamental  grain  ration  of  14  pounds 
each  daily  with  14  pounds  of  timothy  or  prairie  hay,  three 
receiving  prairie  hay  and  three  timothy  in  alternation  during 
the  four  periods.  The  other  six  were  divided  into  two  groups 
designated  as  Lot  3 and  Lot  4,  and  received  a fundamental 
ration  of  12  lbs.  of  grain  and  ten  pounds  of  ensilage  with 


73 


11  lbs.  of  timothy  or  prairie  hay,  the  hay  being  fed  in  al 
ternation  during  the  four  periods  the  same  as  with  Lots  1 
and  2,  mentioned  above.  While  there  is  a slight  variation 
m the  amount  of  milk  and  fat  produced  by  each  cow  during 
the  four  periods  the  amount  produced  by  each 'group  show! 
lemarkable  uniformity  and  persistency  in  vield.  Pride  dur- 

“ 7ebrUary  gaVe  21<l7  lbs‘  of  ™pk  and 
11.44  bs  of  butter  fat  and  during  the  fourth  period  she 

gave  215.1  lbs.  milk  and  11.80  lbs.  of  fat  showing  that  she 

gained  both  m flow  of  milk  and  in  yield  of  fat  during  the  ex 

penment.  By  examining  the  records  of  the  other  cows  in 

the  group  it  will  be  seen  that  there  was  a gradual  increase 

in  the  yield  of  butter  fat  as  the  experiment  progressed  Dur- 

rng  the  first  period  the  three  cows  yielded  26.67  lbs.  of  fat 

LneofU28V,be  bn"'thpcn'od  they  Produced  29.48  lbs.  a 
gam  of  2.81  lbs.  fat.  During  Periods  I and  III  when  the 

cows  were  fed  on  grain,  ensilage  and  prairie  hay  the  yield  of 
milk  was  1,081.9  lbs.  and  butter  fat  55.53  lbs;  and  during 
enods  II  and  IV  when  timothy  was  substituted  they  gave 

o w'  °fmiIk  and  5754  lbS'  bUttCr  fat’  bei"g  an  excess 
of  41.2  lbs.  of  milk  and  2.01  lbs.  of  fat  when  timothy  hay 

was  fed.  J 

Results  in  feeding  experiments  with  dairy  cows  are  at 
best  a mystery.  There  are  so  many  things,  other  than  feed, 
that  will  cause  a change  in  the  flow  of  milk  and  its  fat  con- 
ent  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  account,  always,  for  such 
c anges.  With  all  the  close  attention  and  care  that  was  be- 
stowed upon  the  cows  during  the  trial  we  failed  to  find  the 
cause  of  the  steady  increase  in  yield  of  fat  by  Nora.  Neither 
can  it  be  explained  why  Molly  should  gain  23  pounds  in 
mi  k m the  second  period  when  on  timothy  and  not  gain 
but  give  less,  m the  fourth  period  when  on  timothy  In  the 
second  period  she  gave  180.9  pounds  of  milk,  containing 
• pounds  of  fat,  whflem  the  fourth,  148.2  pounds  con- 
tained 8.08  pounds  of  fat,  a marked  increase  in  the  per  cent 
ot  iat  without  any  apparent  cause. 


74 


The  following  tables  give  the  number  of  pounds  of  grain, 
ensilage  and  hay  eaten  and  the  amount  of  milk  and  butter 
fat  produced  by  each  cow  in  Lots  3 and  4 during  the  four 
periods: 


TABLE  XXVII.  Lot  3. 


Period  I.  Feby.  12 — 25. 

Period  II.  March  5 — 18. 

O 

n 

P 

S’ 

P« 

3-5  g 

P P M. 

^ s:  ^ 

1 o 

7J 

P 

ct- 

0 

'-t 

p 

S’ ! 

lbs. 

168 

168 

168 

K 
P 3 

Jp  2 
a 3. 

vll 

71 

P 

Mollie 

Nora 

Pride 

Total 

lbs. 

168 

165 

168 

lbs.  i lbs. 
140  | 152 
140  i 148 
140  154 

157.6 
150  1 

210.7 

7.39 
7.84 
1 1 .44 

lbs. 

140 

140 

140 

lbs. 

154 

154 

154 

180.9 

166.3 

246.1 

7.57 

8.30 

12.19 

501  | 420  454 

518.4 

26.67 

504 

420 

462 

593.3 

28.06 

Period  III.  Mch.  26 — Apr.  8. 

Period  IV.  Apr.  16 — 29. 

O 

i-t 

p 

S’ 

p a 

s- 

*5 

p 2. 

^ 3. 

<T> 

g 

P? 

% 

P 

rt- 

9 

3 

S’ 

Grp  m 
n p; 

3 
S 3 
^ c 

g 

P 

Mollie .. 

Nora 

Pride 

Total 

lbs. 

168 

168 

168 

lbs. 

140 

140 

140 

lbs. 

154 

154 

154 

152.7 

169.9 

240.9 

7.23 

9.22 

12.41 

lbs. 

168 

168 

168 

lbs. 

140 

140 

140 

lbs. 

154 

154 

154 

148.2 
166  5 
215.1 

8.08 

9.60 

11.80 

504 

420 

462 

563.5 

28.86 

504 

420 

462  j 

1 

i 529.8 

1 

29.48 

TABLE  XXVIII.  LOT  4. 


Period  I.  Feb.  12— 

-25. 

Period  II. 

Mch.  5- 

-18. 

Grain 

Ensil- 

age 

Timo- 

thy 

Milk 

Fat 

Grain 

Ensil- 

age 

Prairie 

hay 

Milk 

Fat 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbr. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Rossie 

168 

140 

149 

213.9 

9.20 

168 

140 

154 

226.1 

9.10 

Sweet  Briar 

168 

140 

154 

194.6 

10.76 

168 

140 

154 

197.6 

10.00 

Topsv 

168 

140 

151 

306.5 

12.82 

168 

140 

1 54 

325.9 

13.02 

Total 

504 

420 

454 

715.0  j 

32.78  | 

504 

420 

462 

749.6 

32.12 

Period  III.  Mch.  26 — Apr.  8. 


Period.  TV.  Apr.  16 — 29. 


Rossie 

Sweet  Briar. 
Topsy 


Grain 

ts 

ca  3 
Grp  2. 

rt  — 

Timo- 

thy 

Milk 

Fat 

1 

1 Grain 

gS1 

fD  wu. 

Prairie 

hay 

1 Milk 

1 

j Fat 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

168 

140 

154 

232-5 

9.61 

168 

140 

154 

245.8 

10.14 

168 

140 

154 

197.0 

10.06 

I 68 

140 

154 

218.8 

11.06 

168 

140 

| 154 

279.7 

11.32 

168 

140 

154 

290.2 

11.89 

504 

420 

262 

709.2  1 

1 

30.99 

1 

504 

420 

462 

i 1 

754.8 

I 

33.09 

Total 


75 


During  period  I Rossie  in  Lot  4 refused  5 lbs.  of  timothy, 
and  Topsy  refused  3 lbs  of  timothy  which  were  weighed 
back.  During  the  other  periods  all  the  grain,  ensilage  and 
hay  offered  was  eaten.  In  yield  of  milk  Rossie  gained  gradu- 
ally during  the  experiment  giving  213.9  lbs.  in  the  first 
period  and  245.8  in  the  fourth.  In  fat  she  lost  .1  lb.  in  the 
second,  gained  .51  of  a pound  in  the  third  and  .53  of 
a pound  in  the  fourth.  Sweet  Brier  gave  almost  exactly  the 
same  amount  of  milk  during  the  first  three  periods  and  in 
the  fourth,  on  prairie  hay,  gained  21.8  lbs.  Her  variation 
in  yield  of  butter  fat  was  slight;  losing  .76  of  a pound  in  the 
second  period  and  gaining  1 lb.  in  the  fourth,  both  on  prairie 
hay.  Topsy  gained  in  milk  and  fat  in  the  second  while  on 
prairie  hay,  lost  in  milk  and  fat,  while  in  the  third  on  timo- 
thy and  gained  in  both  milk  and  fat  during  the  fourth  on 
prairie  hay.  Comparing  the  yield  of  milk  and  fat  during  the 
first  period  with  that  of  the  fourth  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
lot  gained  both  in  milk  and  fat  during  the  experiment  giving 
39.8  lbs.  more  milk  and  .31  of  a pound  more  fat  the  last 
period  than  the  first. 


SUMMARY  OF  RESULTS  WITH  LOTS  3 AND  4. 

Adding  the  yield  of  milk  and  butter  fat  of  Lot  3 during 
Periods  I and  III  with  that  of  Lot  4 during  Periods  II  and 
IV  we  find  the  number  of  pounds  of  milk  and  butter  fat  pro- 
duced while  fed  on  prairie  hay.  And  adding  the  total 
amount  of  milk  and  fat  produced  by  Lot  3 during  Periods  II. 
and  IV.,  and  by  Lot  4 during  Periods  I.  and  III.  gives  the 
amount  of  milk  and  butter  fat  yielded  by  the  cows  when  fed 
on  timothy  hay. 

The  following  table  gives  the  amount  of  grain,  ensilage, 
timothy  and  prairie  hay  eaten  and  milk  and  butter  fat  pro- 
duced by  Lots  3 and  4,  during  each  of  the  four  periods: 


76 


TABLE  xxix— Comparing  Prairie  Hay  with  Timothy  for  Milk  and 
Butter  Fat. 


Prairie  Hay. 


Grain 

Ensilage 

Hay 

Milk 

Fat 

Lot  3 

Period  I 

501 

420 

454 

518.4 

26.67 

“ 3 

“ III 

504 

420 

462 

563.5 

28.86 

“ 4 

“ II 

504 

420 

462 

749.6 

32.12 

“ 4 

“ IV 

504 

420 

462 

754.8 

33.09 

j 2013 

| 1680 

1840 

2586.3 

120.74 

Timothy 

Hay. 

1 

Grain 

Ensilage 

Hay 

Milk 

Fat 

Lot  3 

Period  II 

504 

420 

462 

593.3  1 

28.06 

“ 3 

“ IV 

504 

420 

462 

529.8 

29.48 

“ 4 

“ I 

504 

420 

454 

715.0 

32,78 

“ 4 

“ III 

504 

420 

462 

709.2 

1 30.99 

2016 

! 1680 

1 1840 

2547.3 

121.31 

The  amount  of  grain,  ensilage  and  hay  eaten  by  the 
cows  in  Lots  3 and  4 was  practically  the  same  We  have 
therefore  the  following  result: 

The  cows  fed  on  prairie  hay , grain  and  ensilage  produced 
during  the  experiment  2,586.3  lbs.  of  milk  containing  120.74 
lbs.  of  butter  fat. 

The  cows  fed  on  timothy  hay}  grain  and  ensilage  pro- 
duced 2,547.3  lbs.  of  milk  containing  121.31  lbs.  of  butter 
fat.  The  difference  being  39  lbs.  of  milk  in  favor  of  prairie 
hay  and  5.7  of  a pound  of  butter  fat  in  favor  of  timothy. 

During  the  periods  when  prairie  hay  was  fed  the  cows  in 
Lots  3 and  4 produced  39  lbs.  more  milk  and  .57  of  a pound 
less  butter  fat  than  they  did  during  the  periods  when  timo- 
thy hay  was  fed. 

Applying  the  standard  of  values  for  the  two  kinds  of 
hay  used  in  the  first  part  of  this  report,  being  $5.60  per  ton 
for  timothy  and  $3.20  for  prairie  hay,  the  cost  of  the  daily 
ration  fed  to  Lot  3 during  Periods  I.  and  III.  and  to  Lot  4 
during  Periods  II.  and  IV.  when  fed  on  grain,  ensilage  and 
prairie  hay  was  11.1  cents.  And  the  cost  of  the  daily  ration 
fed  to  Lot  3 during  Periods  II.  and  IV.  and  to  Lot  4 during 
Periods  I.  and  III.  when  fed  on  timothy  hay  was  12.4  cents. 


During  the  28  days  when  the  cows  were  fed  on  grain,  ensil- 
age and  prairie  hay  they  consumed  $18.64  worth  of  feed  and 
produced  2,586.3  lbs.  of  milk  and  120.74  lbs.  of  butter  fat; 
the  milk  costing  72  cents  per  hundrek  pounds  and  the 
butter  fat  15.4  cent  per  pound. 

During  the  periods  when  they  were  fed  on  grain,  ensilage 
and  timothy  hay  they  consumed  $20.83  worth  of  feed  and 
produced  2,547.3  lbs.  of  milk  and  121.31  lbs.  of  butter  fat; 
the  milk  costing  81.7  cents  per  hundred  lbs.  and  the  butter  fat 
17.1  cents  per  pound,  being  a difference  of  9.7  cents  per 
hundred  pounds  of  milk  and  1.7  cents  per  pound  of  butter 
fat  in  favor  of  the  ration  when  prairie  hay  was  fed. 

Taking  the  results  of  the  four  lots  of  cows  we  find  that 
when  timothy  was  fed  the  average  cost  of  a hundred  pounds 
of  milk  was  88.3  cents  and  the  average  cost  of  a pound  of 
butter  fat  was  17.9  cents,  and  during  the  periods  when 
prairie  hay  was  fed  the  average  cost  of  a hundred  pounds  of 
milk  was  76.5  cents,  and  the  cost  of  pound  of  butter  fat  was 
15.7  cents,  being  11.8  cents  less  per  hundred  pounds  of  milk 
and  2.2  cents  less  per  pound  of  butter  fat  when  prairie  hay 
was  fed. 


GENERAL  SUMMARY. 

As  the  results  of  two  experiments  conducted  with  twelve 
cows  comparing  the  nutritive  value  of  timothy  and  prairie 
hay  for  milk  and  butter  fat  production  we  have  the  follow- 
ing testimony: 

First:  As  between  early  cut  and  well  cured  timothy  hay 
and  fine  well  cured  upland  prairie  hay,  cows  prefered  the 
prairie  hay. 

Second:  Prairie  hay  was  at  least  equal  to  timothy  for  the 
production  of  milk  and  butter  fat. 

Third:  At  the  present  price  of  the  two  kinds  of  hay,  milk 
was  produced  at  thirteen  per  cent,  less  cost,  and  butter  fat 
at  twelve  per  cent,  less  cost  when  prairie  hay  was  fed. 

Fourth:  With  dairy  cows  fresh  in  milk  in  the  fall  or  early 
winter,  comfortably  housed,  well  and  regularly  fed  and 
milked,  there  will  belittle  if  any  shrinkage  in  the  flow  of  milk 
and  yield  of  butter  fat  during  the  winter  months. 


78 


DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  THE  RATIONS. 


In  planning  this  experiment  no  note  was  taken  as  to  the 
amount  of  the  different  nutrients  contained  in  the  rations 
selected.  The  kind  and  quantity  of  feed  stuff  was  made  up 
from  a dairyman's  standpoint  and  the  amount  of  protein 
and  carbohydrates  and  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  four  rations 
used  was  not  calculated  until  several  months  after  the  ex- 
periments closed.  The  remarkable  results  obtained  in  this 
experiment  in  regard  to  the  uniform  and  persistent  flow  of 
milk  and  yield  of  butter  fat  during  so  long  a trial,  makes  the 
nutritive  ratio  of  the  rations  and  the  amount  of  protein, 
carbohydrates  and  fat  they  contained  a matter  of  consider- 
able interest. 

The  experiment  commenced  on  the  12th  of  Februan^ 
and  closed  with  the  29th  day  of  April,  being  a period  of  77 
days.  During  the  first  period  of  the  experiment  commencing 
the  12th  and  closing  the  25th  of  February  the  twelve  cows 
gave  2,8628.2  lbs.  of  milk  and  139.74  lbs.  butter  fat  and 
during  the  last  period  commencing  the  16th  of  April  and 
ending  with  the  29th  of  April  they  gave  2,922.6  lbs.  of  milk 
and  142.371bs.  of  butter  fat  being  60.4  lbs.  more  of  milk  and 
2.63  lbs.  more  butter  fat  than  they  gave  the  first  period. 

In  the  following  table  is  given  the  the  dry  organic  matter 
and  the  digestable  nutrients  in  the  rations  fed  to  lots  1 and 
2;  to  lot  1 during  periods  I.  and  III.  and  to  lot  2 during 
periods  II.  and  IV. 

TABLE  XXX.— Digestible  Nutrients  in  Ration  when  Grain  and  Prairie  Hay 

were  Fed. 


Kind  of  Feed 

Lbs  of 
Feed 

Dry  Organ-i 
ic  Matter 

DfGESTIBLE 

Digestible 

Nutrients 

Lbs 

Nutri- 

tive 

ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy- 

drates 

Fat 

Bran 

6.17 

5.53 

.71 

2.36 

.22 

3.29 

Barley 

i 3.08 

2.72 

.29 

1 84 

.06 

2.19 

Corn 

I 3 08 

2.72 

.31 

2.04 

.09 

2.44 

Linseed  Meal... 

1.65 

1.50 

.45 

.52 

.12 

1.09 

Prairie  Hay 

14.00 

1 2.48 

.33 

5.72 

.20 

6.25 

Total 

27.98 

24.95 

2.09 

12.48 

.69 

15.26 

1:6.7 

The  six  cows  in  lots  1 and  2,  during  the  periods  when 
prairie  hay  was  fed  took  24.95  lbs.  of  dry  matter  containing 


79 


2.09  lbs.  protein,  12.48  lbs.  carbohydrates  and  .69  lbs.  of 
fat  making  15.26  lbs.  digestible  nutrients  daily;  during 
which  periods  they  ate  2,563.68  lbs.  of  digestible  dry 
matter.  By  referring  to  table  XXVI.  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  cows  in  lot  1,  periods  I.  and  III.  and  lot  2,  periods  II. 
and  IV.  gave  2,508.1  lbs.  of  milk  containing  126.36  lbs.  of 
butter  fat,  which  is  equivalent  to  97.83  lbs.  of  milk  contain- 
ing 4.92  lbs.  of  butter  fat  for  every  100  lbs.  of  digestible 
nutrients. 

In  the  following  table  is  given  the  dry  organic  matter 
and  the  digestible  nutrients  in  the  rations  fed  to  lots  1 and 
2;  to  lot  1 during  periods  II.  and  IV.  and  to  lot  2 duiing 
periods  I.  and  III. 


TABLE  XXXI— Digestible  Nutrients  in  Ration  when  Grain  and  Timothy  Hay 

were  Fed. 


Kind  of  Feed 

Lbs  of 
Feed 

Dry  Organ- 
! ic  Matter 

DIGESTIBLE 

Digestible  Nutri- 
Nutrients  tive 

ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy- 

drates 

Fat 

Bran 

6.17 

5.53 

.71 

2.36 

.22 

3.29 

Barley 

3.08 

2,72 

.29 

1.84 

.06 

2.19 

Corn 

3.08 

2 72 

.31 

2.04 

.09 

2.44 

Linseed  Meal... 

1.65 

1.50 

.45 

.52 

.12 

1.09 

Timothy  Hav.. 

14.00 

12.28 

.44 

6.32 

.25 

7.01 

24.75 

2.20 

13  08 

.74 

16.02  1:6.7 

The  six  cows  in  lots  1 and  2 while  on  timothy  hay  ate 
24.75  lbs.  dry  matter  per  day  during  the  four  periods  con- 
taining 2.2  lb.  protein,  13.08  lbs.  carbohydrates,  .74  of 
pound  of  fat.  The  total  digestible  nutrients  taken  by  each 
cow  per  day  was  16.02  lbs.  Deducting  the  amount  refused 
makes  a total  for  the  six  cows  during  the  two  periods  of 
2,649.36  lbs.  By  referring  to  table  XXVI.  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  cows  in  lots  1 and  2 while  on  timothy  hay  yielded 
2,422.8  lbs.  of  milk  and  122.85  lbs.  of  butter  fat,  which 
is  equivalent  to  91.50  lbs.  of  milk  containing  4.63  lbs.  of 
butter  fat  for  every  100  lbs.  digestible  nutrients. 

Summing  the  results  of  the  two  lots  during  the  four 
periods  we  have  the  following: 


80 


Milk  produced  per  100 
lbs.  of  digestible 
matter 

Fat  produced  per  100- 
lbs.  of  digestible 
matter 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

With  Grain  and  Prairie  Hay 

97.83 

4.92 

With  Grain  and  Timothy  Hay 

91.50 

4.63 

In  favor  of  Prairie  Hay '....| 

6.33 

| .29 

Per  cent 

| 6.9 

| 6.2 

Lots  3 and  4 were  fed  ensilage  in  addition  to  hay  and 
grain.  The  results  obtained  by  the  cows  in  these  lots  are 
therefor  considered  seperately.  The  rations  fed  to  lot  3 
during  periods  I.  and  III.  and  to  lot  4 during  periods  II.  and 
IV.  is  given  in  the  following  table: 

TABLE  XXXII— Digestible  Nutrients  in  Ration  when  Grain  Ensilage  and 
Prairie  Hay  were  Fed. 


Feed 

Lbs 

Feed 

Lbs  Dry 
Matter 

DIGESTIBLE 

Total  Di- 
gestible dry 
matter 

Nutri- 

tive 

ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy- 

drates 

Fat 

Bran 

5.29 

4.74 

.61 

2.02 

.19 

2.82 

Barley 

2.64 

2.33 

.25 

1.58 

.05 

1.88 

Corn 

2.64 

2.33 

.27 

1.75 

.08 

2.10 

Linseed  Meal... 

1.41 

1.28 

.38 

.45 

.10 

.93 

Prairie  H ay. .... 

11.00 

9.81 

.26 

4.50 

.14 

4.90 

Ensilage 

10.00 

2.80 

.11 

1.32 

.07 

1.50 

32.98 

23.29 

1.88 

11.62 

.63 

14.13 

1:6.8 

The  six  cows  in  lots  3 and  4 during  the  periods  when 
prairie  hay  was  fed  received  23.29  lbs.  of  dry  matter  daily 
containing  1.88  lbs.  protein,  11.62  lbs.  carbohydrates  and 
.63  of  a pound  of  fat,  making  14.13  lbs.  digestible  nutrients. 
During  thefour  periods  when  on  prairie  hay  they  ate  2,373.- 
84  lbs.  digestible  dry  matter,  and  produced  2,586.3  lbs.  of 
milk  containing  120.74  lbs.  of  butter  fat  which  is  equivalent 
to  108.95  lbs.  of  milk  and  5.08  lbs.  butter  fat  for  every  100 
lbs.  digestible  dry  matter  taken. 

The  ration  fed  to  lots  3 and  4 during  periods  when 
timothy  was  fed,  is  given  in  the  following  table: 


TABLE  XXXIII.— Digestible  Nutrients  in  Ration  when  Grain,  Ensilage  and 
Timothy  Hay  were  Fed. 


| 

Lbs 

Feed 

Lbs  Dry 
Matter 

DIGESTIBLE 

Total  Di- 
gestible dry 
matter 

Nutri- 

tive 

ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy-  I 
diates 

Fat 

Bran 

5.29 

4.74 

.61 

2.02 

.19 

2.82 

Barley 

2.64 

2.33 

.25 

1.58 

.05 

1.88 

Corn.. 

2.64 

2.33 

.27 

1.75 

.08 

2.10 

Linseed  Meal... 

1.41 

1.28 

.38 

.45 

.10 

.93 

Ti m o thy  H ay. . 

11.00 

9.64 

.35 

4.96 

.20 

5.51 

Ensilage 

10.00 

2.80 

.11 

1.32 

.07 

1.50 

32.98 

23.12 

1.97 

12.08 

.69 

14.14 

1:6.9 

81 


The  six  cows  in  lots  3 and  4 during  the  periods  when 
timothy  hay  was  fed  received  23.12  lbs.  of  dry  matter  daily 
containing  1.97  lbs,  protein,  12.08  lbs.  of  carbohydrates 
and  .69  of  a pound  of  fat  making  14.74  pounds  of  digestible 
nutrients.  During  the  periods  when  fed  on  timothy  hay  they 
ate  2,476.32  lbs.  digestible  nutrients  and  produced  2,547.3 
lbs.  of  milk  containing  121.31  lbs.  of  butter  fat  which  is 
equivalent  to  102.86  lbs.  of  milk  containing  4.89  lbs.  of 
butter  fat  for  every  100  lbs.  of  digestible  dry  matter  eaten. 

Comparing  the  results  obtained  when  the  two  groups 
were  fed  on  prairie  hay  with  that  when  fed  on  timothy  hay 
we  have  the  following: 


Milk  produced  per  100 

Butter  fat  produced 

lbs.  digestible  dry 

per  100  lbs.  digestible 

matter 

dry  matter 

Lbs 

Lbs 

With  grain,  ensilage  and  prairie  hay 
With  grain,  ensilage  and  timothy  hay 

108.95 

5,08 

102.86 

4.89 

In  favor  of  Prairie  Hay 

6.09 

.19 

Per  cent 1 

5.9 

3.9 

While  the  results  obtained  with  the  two  different  groups 
of  cows  are  not  comparable  for  the  reason  that  the  last  two 
groups  received  ensilage  in  addition  to  grain  and  hay,  yet  it 
is  interesting  to  note  that  the  cows  receiving  ensilage  pro- 
duced 11.24  pounds  more  milk  and  .21  of  a pound  more  fat 
from  100  pounds  digestible  dry  matter  than  was  given  by 
the  cows  in  lots  one  and  two,  fed  on  grain  and  hay;  also 
that  the  cows  receiving  ensilage  had  a ration  having  a 
nutrition  ratio  of  1 : 6.9,  while  groups  one  and  two  were  fed 
on  a ration  having  a nutrition  ratio  of  1 : 67. 

The  fact  that  the  cows  in  this  trial  maintained  a uniform 
flow  of  milk  and  slightly  increased  the  yield  of  fat  during  the 
progress  of  the  experiment  suggests  that  a ration  of  1:69 
gives  satisfactory  results. 


RAISING  DAIRY  BRED  CALVES. 


T.  L.  HJECKER. 

Minnesota  is  destined  to  become  one  of  the  greatest 
dairy  states  in  the  Union,  and  since  the  dairy  industry  can 
be  developed  only  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  the  num- 
ber of  cows,  the  rearing  of  calves  for  the  dairy  is  a matter  of 
vital  importance.  In  all  that  vast  territory  north  and  west 
of  the  twin  cities,  there  are  but  few  localities  within  a radius 
of  four  miles  where  there  are  enough  cows  to  warrant  the 
organization  of  a co-operative  creamery  or  cheese  factory 
association.  In  such  an  extent  of  country  where  there  is 
a demand  for  cows  in  nearly  every  neighborhood,  the 
attempt  to  supply  this  demand  by  purchase  is  out  of  the 
question  and  our  only  remedy  is  to  breed  and  rear  the  calves 
and  in  this  way  the  demand  for  dairy  stock  can  be  gradually 
supplied.  It  is  therefore  to  the  interest  of  farmers  of  Minnesota 
to  breed  their  cows  to  dairy  sires  and  rear  the  heifer  calves. 
The  importance  of  having  stock  intended  for  the  dairy  pro- 
duced by  dairy  sires  is  forcibly  illustrated  in  another  part 
of  this  bulletin,  where  it  is  shown  by  actual  experiment  wiih 
twenty-three  cows,  on  a years*  trial,  that  the  dairy  bred 
cows  produced  on  an  average  337  pounds  of  butter  iat  at  a 
cost  of  11.6  cents  per  pound,  while  the  cows  having  a ten- 
dency to  convert  feed  into  beef  on  practically  the  same  ration 
gave,  on  an  average,  only  267  pounds  of  butter  fat,  costing 
13.8  cents  per  pound.  There  are  now  and  then  good  dairy 
animals  produced  by  sires  belonging  to  beef  or  general-pur- 
pose breeds,  but  they  are  exceptional  cases.  The  great  ma- 
jority of  the  offspring  will  be  a failure  in  the  dairy. 

The  calves  reared  in  this  trial  were  all  of  the  dairy  type 
and  with  three  exceptions  converted  all  of  their  feed  into 
growth.  The  object  of  the  experiment  was  to  compare 


No.  6.  YOUNG  HOUSTON. 


the  cost  of  raising  calves  on  whole  milk  and  on  skim  milk 
supplemented  with  a feed  of  flax  seed  meal — ground  flax, 
and  to  note  the  thriftiness  of  the  calves  raised  on  the 
two  kinds  of  feed.  This  experiment  was  undertaken  after 
fifteen  years’  experience  in  raising  dairy  calves  as  a business 
and  therefore  not  without  certain  settled  convictions  as  to 
the  best  methods  of  procedure. 

The  calf  was  allowed  to  suckle  the  dam  once  and  in 
some  instances  twice.  It  was  then  taken  from  the  dam 
and  one  feeding  period  allowed  to  pass  without  offering  the 
Ccdf  any  milk.  The  object  in  doing  this  was  to  get  the  calf 
to  drink  readily  without  the  finger.  During  the  first  week 
the  calf  was  fed  twice  a day  as  much  of  the  dam’s  milk  as 
was  considered  sufficient  to  keep  it  in  a thrifty  condition. 
To  insure  uniform  feeding  the  milk  was  weighed  as  soon  as 
drawn  from  the  cow  and  given  to  the  calf  at  once.  During 
the  second  week  the  feed  was  half  whole  milk  from  the  dam 
and  half  fresh  separator  skim  milk.  The  third  week,  if  in  a 
thrifty  condition,  it  received  separator  skim  milk  with  a 
table-spoonful  of  ground  flax.  If  a little  delicate  it  received 
one-third  whole  and  two-thirds  skim  milk.  The  ration  of 
skim  milk  and  ground  flax  seed  was  gradually  increased  ac- 
cording to  the  growth  of  the  calf. 


84 


Nine  calves  were  in  the  trial,  one  was  fed  on  whole  milk 
during  a period  of  61  days  while  eight  were  changed  to  skim 
milk  as  indicated  above. 


TABLE  XXX VI.— Record  of  Calf  No.  1. 


Period  of  Four  Weeks. 

FEED. 

Cost  for  per- 
iod  

Weight 

Gain  in 
weight 

Average  dai- 
ly gain 

Cost  of  1 lb. 
gain 

Milk  

First  

Lbs. 

364 

504 

520 

$ 

3.64 

5.04 

5.20 

Lbs. 

115 

190 

245 

Lbs. 

30 

75 

55 

Lbs. 

1.07 

2.68 

1.96 

Cts. 

12.15 

6.71 

10  20 

Second  

* Third  

Total 

1388 

13.88 

245 

160 

Average 

1.96 

9.69 

*Last  period  only  three  weeks  and  five  days. 


The  time  is  divided  into  periods  of  four  weeks  each.  Dur- 
ing the  first,  second  and  third  week  of  the  first  period  the 
calf  received  12  pounds  of  milk  daily  and  during  the  fourth 
week  it  received  16  pounds  of  milk  each  day.  During 
four  weeks  it  took  364  pounds  of  whole  milk  and  gained 
thirty  pounds  in  growth,  being  an  average  daily  gain  in 
weight  of  1.07  pounds;  each  pound  of  gain  costing  12.15 
cents,  estimating  milk  at  $1  per  100  pounds.  During  the 
first  week  of  the  second  period  it  received  sixteen  pounds  of 
milk  daily,  during  the  second  and  third  week  eighteen 
pounds,  and  during  the  fourth  week  twenty  pounds.  During 
the  four  weeks  it  received  504  pounds  of  milk  and  gained  75 
pounds,  being  an  average  daily  gain  of  2.68  pounds,  at  a 
cost  of  6.71  cents  per  pound.  During  the  third  period  which 
covered  only  twenty-six  days,  it  received  twenty  pounds 
of  milk  daily,  gained  55  pounds  at  a cost  of  10.2  cents  per 
pound  ; the  average  daily  gain  being  1.96  pounds. 

The  total  amount  of  whole  milk  taken  was  1,388  pounds, 
total  gain  160  pounds  and  the  average  cost  per  .pound  gain 
was  9.69  cents.  The  calf  consumed  $13.88  worth  of  milk 
and  was  then  sold  for  veal  bringing  $7.20,  being  a loss  of 
$6.68. 


85 


During  a year’s  trial,  in  which  every  cow  in  the  station 
herd  was  included,  it  was  found  that  the  average  cost  for 
producing  a hundred  pounds  of  milk  was  61  cents.  Apply- 
ing this  cost  to  the  amount  of  milk  taken  by  the  calf  instead 
of  the  value  of  a hundred  pounds  of  milk,  we  find  that  the 
calf  took  $9.79  worth  of  milk  leaving  a net  loss  of  $2.40. 

TABLE  XXXVII.  Record  of  Calf  No.  2. 


Period  of  four 
weeks 

Feed 

Cost  for 
period 

| Weight  

Gain  in 
weight  

Average 
daily  gain 

Cost  of  1 lb. 
gain 

Milk... 

Skim 

milk.... 

Flax 
meal ... 

Oats ... 

w 

p 

First 

lbs. 

88 

lbs. 

310 

462 

504 

lbs. 

1.96 

1 

J lbs. 

lbs. 

$ 

1.40 

.81 

1.27 

lbs. 

1(»3 

127 

160 

lbs. 

43 

24 

33 

lbs. 

1.53 

.86 

1.18 

cents 

3.27 

3.36 

3.84 

Second 

4.41 

8.26 

1 

1 

Third 

21 

42 

Total 

88 

1276 

14.63  21 

42 

3.48 

160 

100 

Averaga 

1.19 

3.49 

1 i 1 

Calf  No.  2 was  a full  blood  Jersey.  During  the  first  two 
days  it  received  10  pounds  whole  milk  daily.  During  the  other 
five  days  it  received  8 pounds  whole  milk  and  4 pounds  skim 
milk.  During  the  first  two  days  of  the  second  week  it  re- 
ceived 4 pounds  of  whole  milk  and  8 pounds  of  skim  milk 
daily  and  during  the  balance  of  the  week  it  received  4 pounds 
whole  milk  and  10  pounds  skim  milk.  During  the  second 
and  third  weeks  it  received  16  pounds  of  skim  milk  per  day 
and  1 pound  of  flax  seed  meal  per  week.  It  gained  43 
pounds  in  weight  during  the  period,  being  an  average  daily 
gain  of  1.53  pounds  at  a cost  of  3.27  cents  per  pound  of 
gain.  During  the  second  period  it  received  462  pounds  of 
skim  milk,  4.41  pounds  of  flax  seed  meal,  gained  24  pounds 
in  weight  being  an  average  daily  gain  of  .86  of  a pound  at 
a cost  of  3.36  cents  per  pound  of  gain.  During  the  third 
period  it  received  504  pounds  of  skim  milk,  8.26  pounds  of 
flax  seed  meal,  gaining  1.18  pounds  per  day  at  a cost  3.84 
cents  per  pound.  The  total  gain  during  the  three  periods 
was  100  pounds,  being  an  average  daily  gain  of  1.19 
pounds.  The  total  cost  for  feed  during  the  84  days  was 
$3.49. 


86 


TABLE  XXXVIII. -Record  of  Calf  No.  3. 


Period  of  four 
weeks. 

Feed. 

Cost  for 
' period 

1 

Weight 

Gain  in 
weight 

Average 
daily  gain 

Cost  of  1 
lb,  gain 

Milk.. 

Skim 

milk.... 

Flax  1 
seed  ....1 

Oats.. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs 

lbs. 

cents 

First 

126 

182 

.98 

1.49 

.95 

40 

1.43 

3.72 

Second 

462 

5.53 

1.40 

.85 

127 

32 

1.14 

2.66 

Third 

462 

6.72 

4.62 

.90 

163 

36 

1.18 

2.51 

Fourth  ...  ...  .. 

448 

7.70 

7.28 

.90 

207 

44 

1.57 

2.04 

Fifth 

448 

5.88 

11.90 

.93 

234 

27 

.96 

3.46 

Total 

: ten 

200? 

26.81 

25.20 

5.07 

234 

179 

Average 

1.28 

2.88 

1 

1 

Calf  No.  3 was  a cross  bred  Jersey-shorthorn.  It  was 
changed  gradually  from  whole  milk  to  skim  milk.  Duringthe 
first  week  it  received  eight  pounds  whole  milk  per  day,  dur- 
ing the  second  six  pounds  whole  milk  and  six  pounds  skim 
milk,  during  the  third  week  four  pounds  whole  milk  and 
eight  pounds  skim  milk,  and  during  the  fourth  week  it  re- 
ceived twelve  pounds  skim  milk  per  day.  The  gain  in  weight 
during  the  first  period  of  four  weeks  was  48  pounds,  being 
an  average  gain  of  1.43  pounds  per  day  at  a cost  of  3.72 
cents  per  pound.  During  the  first  two  weeks  of  the  second 
period  it  received  sixteen  pounds  of  skim  milk  daily  and  from 
.17  to  .20  of  a pound  of  flax  seed  and  during  the  third  week 
it  received  daily  sixteen  pounds  skim  milk  and  .20  of  a pound 
of  flax  seed  meal,  and  during  the  fourth  week  eighteen 
pounds  skim  milk  and  .2  pounds  flax  seed  meal.  During  the 
second  period  it  received  462  pounds  skim  milk,  5.53  pounds 
flax  seed  and  1.4  pounds  of  whole  oats,  gaining  during  the 
four  weeks  32  pounds,  at  a cost  of  2.04  cents  per  pound. 
During  the  third  period  the  milk  was  gradually  increased  to 
18  pounds  and  the  flax  meal  to  .25  of  a pound,  aggregating 
during  the  period  462  pounds  skim  milk,  6.72  pounds  ground 
flax  and  4.62  pounds  oats,  the  calf  averaging  a daily  gain  of 
1.28  pounds  at  a cost  of  2.51  cents  per  pound.  During  the 
fourth  period  it  received  448  pounds  of  milk,  7.70  pounds 
flax  meal  and  7.28  pounds  oats,  making  a gain  of  44  pounds 


87 


at  a cost  of  2.04  cents  per  pound.  During  the  fifth  period 
the  ground  flax  was  decreased  to  5.88  pounds  and  the  oats 
increased  to  11.9  pounds  and  it  gained  only  27  pounds  at  a 
cost  of  3.46  cents  per  pound.  During  this  period  it  had 
an  attack  of  scours  brought  about  possibly  by  feeding  too 
much  flax  meal.  This  calf  made  good  growth  and  laied  on 
some  flesh.  With  a single  exception  it  made  a greater  aver- 
age gain  than  the  other  calves  fed  on  skim  milk,  and  the  cost 
of  growth  was  only  2.88  cents  per  pound. 


TABLE  XXXIX— Record  of  Calf  No,  4. 


FEED. 

Cost  for  Per- 
iod  

Weight 

Gain  in 
Weight  

Average  dai- 
ly gain 

Cost  of  1 lb. 
gain 

Period  of  Four  Weeks. 

Milk  

Skim  milk 

Flax  Seed 
meal  

Oats 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

$ 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Cts. 

First 

84 

252 

2.17 

1.20 

105 

33 

1.18 

3.63 

Second 

4G2 

5.88 

2.45 

.87 

127 

22 

.78 

3.98 

Third 

462 

7.00 

5.11 

.91 

157 

30 

1.07 

3.04 

Fourth 

448 

7.98 

8.54 

.95 

189 

32 

1.14 

2.97 

Fifth  

j 

448 

4.20 

12.25 

.89 

205 

16 

.57 

5.58 

Total ! 

84 

2072 

27.23 

28.35 

4.82 

1 

[ 205 

133 

Average 

.95i 



3.84 

Calf  No.  4 was  a grade  Guernsey.  During  the  first  week 
it  received  8 pounds  of  whole  milk  daily,  during  the  second 
week  4 pounds  of  whole  milk  and  8 pounds  of  skim  milk, 
during  the  third  week  12  pounds  skim  milk  and  during  the 
fourth  week  16  pounds,  aggregating  during  the  first  period 
84  pounds  whole  and  252  pounds  skim  milk,  and  2.17 
pounds  ground  flax,  and  it  gained  33  pounds  in  weight  at  a 
cost  of  3.68  cents  per  pound.  During  the  second  period  it 
received  462  pounds  of  skim  milk,  5.88  pounds  ground  flax 
and  gained  22  pounds,  costing  3.98  cents  per  pound  of  gain. 
During  the  third  period  with  the  same  amount  of  skim  milk 
and  a slight  increase  in  the  meal  it  gained  30  pounds  at  a 
cost  of  3 cents  per  pound  while  during  the  fourth  period  it 
gained  only  16  pounds  at  a cost  of  a trifle  over  5.5  cents  per 
pound  of  gain.  The  calf  during  the  second  and  fifth  periods 


88 


had  an  attack  of  scours  which  accounts  for  the  small  gain 
made.  The  cost  of  growth  during  the  twenty  weeks  was  25 
cents  less  than  calf  No.  3.  but  the  cost  per  pound  of  growth 
was  about  one  cent  more. 


TABLE  XL.  Record  of  Calf  No.  5. 


Period  of  Four 
Weeks. 

P'eed. 

Cost  for 
period 

Weight 

Gain  in 
weight 

Average 
daily  gain 

Cost  of  1 
lb.  gain 

Milk.. 

Skim 

milk.... 

Flax 
seed .... 

Oats.. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

First 

112 

252 

2.17 

1.48 

115 

30 

1.07 

4.94 

Second  

462 

5.88 

2.45 

.87 

144 

29 

1.03 

3.02 

Third 

462 

7.00 

5.11 

.90 

165 

21 

.75 

4.33 

Fourth 

448 

7.98 

8.54 

.95 

203 

38 

1.36 

2.49 

Fifth 

448 

4.20 

12.25 

.89 

235 

32 

1.14 

2.79 

Total 

112 

2072 

27.23 

28.35 

5.10 

235 

150 

A c rp 

1.07 

3-51 

•1 

Calf  No.  5 was  a grade  Holstein  and  was  fed  the  same  as 
No.  3 with  the  exception  that  it  received  12  pounds  of  whole 
milk  the  first  week.  It  made  moderate  growth  during  the 
twenty  weeks  of  the  trial  except  a few  days  during  the  third 
period  when  digestion  was  impaired  by  feeding  the  milk  at 
too  low  a temperature.  The  calf  was  fat  when  it  was 
dropped  and  continued  to  lay  on  flesh  during  the  experiment. 
It  was  heavy  in  shoulders  and  full  in  thighs. 

TABLE  XLI— Record  of  Calf  No.  6. 


Period  of  Four  Weeks. 

FEED. 

Cost  for  per- 
iod  

1 

Weight 

Gain  in 
Weight  

Average  dai- 
ly gain 

Cost  of  1 lb. 
gain  

g 

s* 

Skim  milk 

Flax  Seed 
meal  

Oats 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

$ 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Cts. 

First  

182 

168 

.98 

2.10 

110 

45 

1.60 

4.79 

Second  

448 

5.53 

.81 

145 

35 

1.25 

2.31 

Third 

476 

6.72 

4.62 

.92 

160 

15 

.54 

6.08 

Fourth 

462 

7.70 

6.30 

.94 

196 

36 

1.29 

2.61 

Fifth  

448 

7.84 

11.20 

.96 

231 

35 

1.25 

2.74 

Sixth  

448 

1.96 

14.70 

.85 

257 

26 

.93 

3.26 

Total 

182 

2450 

30.73 

36.82 

6.58 

257 

192 

Average 

1.14 

! 3.47 

89 


Calf  No.  6 was  a cross-bred  Jersey-Guernsey.  It  was  a 
model  in  form  from  a dairy  standpoint,  being  spare;  deep 
through  the  middle  and  flank,  light  in  the  fore  quarters  and 
unusually  large  in  hind  quarters.  To  show  the  condition 
of  the  calf  at  the  close  of  the  experiment  and  its  conforma- 
tion, an  illustration  is  given  at  the  head  of  this  article 
Its  dam  is  Houston,  see  page  61  of  this  bulletin.  The 
calf  made  rapid  growth  during  the  experiment  except  in 
the  third  period  when  its  was  checked  by  taking  too 
much  skim  milk  during  the  second  week.  During  the  first,  it 
received  10  pounds  whole  milk,  during  the  second  week  12 
pounds  and  during  the  third  4 pounds  whole  milk  and  8 
pounds  skim  milk.  During  the  remainder  of  the  trial  it  re- 
ceived 16  pounds  skim  milk  daily  except  in  the  first  and  sec- 
ond week  of  the  third  period  when  it  received  18  pounds  daily 
which  proved  a little  too  much.  It  received  ground  flax 
and  oats  the  same  as  did  the  othej  calves  in  the  trial.  Dur- 
ing the  six  periods  the  feed  cost  on  an  average  $1.10  for  a 
period  being  a trifle  over  25  cents  per  week.  It  gained  on 
an  average  1.14  pounds  per  day  at  a cost  of  3.47  cents  per 
pound  of  growth. 

TABLE  XLII.— Record  of  Calf  No  7. 


Period  of  Four 
Weeks 

Milk... 

Skim 

milk.... 

% Flax 

« seed.... 

pH 

Bran... 

Oats ... 

Cost  of 
period 

Weight 

Grain  in 
weight 

Average 
daily  gain.... 

j Cost  of  1 
lb.  gain 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

$ 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

First 

154 

196 

1.68 

1.87 

131 

49 

1.75 

3.82 

Second 

112 

280 

1.54 

197 

66 

2.34 

2.35 

Third 

490 

.78 

250 

53 

1.89 

1.48 

Fourth 

546 

10.5 

.96 

330 

80 

2.86 

1.20 

Fifth 

560 

14 

1.01 

390 

60 

2.14 

1.68 

Sixth 

560 

14 

1.16 

420 

30 

1.07 

3.87 

Total 

266 

2632 

1.68 

24.5 

14 

$7.32 

420 

338 

Average 

2.01 

2.40 

| 

1 

Calf  No.  7 was  a full  blood  Holestein-Friesian,  it  was 
large  and  in  good  condition  when  it  was  dropped,  was  a 


90 


hearty  feeder  and  showed  strong  digestive  powers.  During 
the  first  week  it  received  12  pounds  of  milk  daily,  during  the 
second  10  pounds  of  whole  milk  and  4 pounds  of  skim  milk, 
and  during  the  third  and  fourth  12  pounds  of  skim  milk  and 
some  flax  meal.  During  the  period  of  four  weeks  it  gained 
49  pounds,  being  an  average  daily  gain  of  1%  pounds  at 
a cost  of  3.82  cents  per  pound.  During  the  second  period  it 
received  4 pounds  whole  milk  and  10 pounds  skim  milk  daily 
and  gained  66  pounds,  being  an  average  daily  gain  of  2.34 
pounds  at  a cost  of  2.35  per  pound.  During  this  period  it 
gained  in  flesh  and  to  prevent  this  in  the  third  period  no 
whole  milk  was  given.  It  made  an  average  gain  of  1.89 
pounds  per  day  at  an  average  cost  of  a trifle  less  than  1.5 
cents  per  day.  The  fourth  period  it  received  546  pounds  of 
skim  milk  and  10.5  pounds  of  bran  and  an  equal  amount  of 
corn  meal  gaining  80  pounds  at  a cost  of  1.2  cents  per 
pound.  The  average  gain  during  the  six  periods  was  a trifle 
over  2 pounds  per  day  at  an  average  cost  of  2.4  cent  per 
pound. 

TABLE  XLIII. -Record  of  Calf  No.  8. 


Period  of  Four 
Weeks 

Feed 

Cost  for 
period 

Weight 

Gain  in 
weight 

I 

Average 
daily  gain.... 

Cost  of  1 
lb.  gain 

Milk... 

Skim 

milk... 

Flax 

meal.. 

Bran.. 

Corn 

meal.. 

It'S. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

$ 

lbs 

lbs. 

lbs. 

cents 

First  

98 

238 

.84 

1 .36 

100 

40 

1.41 

3.44 

Second 

350 

4.13 

.64 

127 

27 

.96 

2.37 

Third 

350 

.53 

154 

27 

.96 

1.96 

Fourth 

504 

.81 

195 

41 

1.46 

1.98 

Fifth  

560 

14 

14 

1.02 

240 

45 

1.61 

2.26 

Sixth 

560 

10.5 

10.5 

.97 

270 

30 

1.07 

3.23 

Total 

98 

2562 

1 

4.97 

24.5 

24.5 

5.33 

270 

210 

Averaere 

| 

1.25 

2.54 

1 

1 

Calf  No.  8 was  a full  blood  Jersey.  During  the  first 
week  it  received  10  pounds  of  whole  milk  daily,  but  not  be- 
ing weighed  this  week  is  not  included  in  the  above  record. 
During  the  second  week,  which  is  the  first  week  it  was  in 


91 


the  experiment,  it  received  8 pounds  of  whole  milk  and  4 
pounds  of  skim  milk  with  the  usual  amount  of  flax  seed 
meal.  It  made  rapid  growth  and  laid  on  some  flesh.  Dur- 
ing the  second  period  it  received  350  pounds  of  skim  milk 
and  4.13  pounds  of  ground  flax.  It  still  continued  to  lay  on 
flesh  so  the  ground  flax  was  discontinued  in  the  third  and 
fourth  periods.  It  made  excellent  growth  during  the  eighth 
week  gaining  68  pounds  at  an  average  cost  of  1.97  cents  per 
pound.  The  average  daily  gain  during  the  trial  was  114 
pounds  per  day  at  a trifle  over  2.5  cents  per  pound. 

TABLE  XLIV.— Record  of  Calf  No.  9. 


Calf  No.  9 was  out  of  grade  shorthorn  cow  by  a Jersey 
sire.  In  conformation  it  resembled  the  sire,  and  showed 
little,  if  any,  tendency  to  lay  on  flesh.  During  the  first 
period  it  received  98  pounds  of  whole  milk,  182  pounds  of 
skim  milk  and  1.68  pounds  of  ground  flax  and  gained  1.71 
pounds  per  day  at  a cost  of  2.71  per  pound.  During  the 
fifth  and  sixth  periods  it  received  in  addition  to  the  feed 
stuffs  recorded  in  the  table,  50  pounds  of  corn  meal  and  44 
pounds  of  linseed  meal  which  is  included  in  the  cost  for 
feed.  The  calf  made  satisfactory  growth  except  in  the 
last  two  periods,  when  the  skim  milk  was  gradually 
withdrawn.  During  the  time  when  no  skim  milk  was  fed 
the  average  cost  of  a pound  of  gain  was  5.5  cents.  The 


92 


cost  of  a pound  of  growth  when  whole  milk  was  fed  was 
9.69  cents,  while  the  average  cost  of  a pound  of  growth 
of  the  calves  fed  on  skim  milk  and  ground  flax  was  3.23 
cents. 

The  following  table  gives  a general  summary  of  results: 

TABLE  XLV— Summary. 


Days  in 
trial 

Cost 

Weight 

2 O 
0Q*g 

£2 
: 5 

Average 
daily  gain... 

Cost  of  1 
lb.  gain 

$ 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

cents 

Calf  No.  l 

61 

13.88 

245 

160 

1.90 

9.69 

“ “ 2 

84 

3.48 

160 

100 

1.19 

3.49 

“ “ 3 

140 

' 5.07 

234 

179 

1.28 

2.88 

“ “ 4 

140 

4.82 

205 

133 

.95 

3.84 

“ “ 5 

140 

5.10 

235 

150 

1.07 

3.51 

“ “ 6 

168 

6.58 

257 

192 

1.14 

3.47 

“ “ 7 

168 

7.32 

420 

338 

2.01 

2.40 

“ “ 8 

168 

5.33 

270 

210 

1.25 

2.54 

“ “ 9 

168 

6.55 

265 

193 

1.14 

3.71 

Average  for  calves  fed  on  skim  milk 

1.25 

3.23 

The  flax  seed  meal  was  analyzed  with  following  results: 
Water  6.11  per  cent;  dry  matter  93.89  per  cent.  Composition 
of  dry  matter: 

Ash 4.03  Ether  extract 40.56 

Crude  Proetin.. ..23.12  Crude  Fiber 8.02 

Nitrogen  free  ex 24.27 

While  the  experiment  was  fairly  satisfactory  as  to  the 
general  growth  of  t<he  calves,  the  details  in  feeding  were  not 
as  carefully  carried  out  as  the  importance  of  the  word  re- 
quired. It  is  therefore  being  repeated  with  a view  of  obtain- 
ing more  accurate  data,  though  it  can  hardly  be  expected 
that  our  efforts  will  result  in  growing  a finer  lot  of  calves. 


CO-OPERATIVE  CREAMERIES. 


T.  L.  HJECKER. 

The  great  interest  that  has  been  awakened  in  the  minds 
of  farmers  of  Minnesota  on  the  subject  of  diversified  farming 
brings  so  many  letters  making  inquiry  as  to  best  methods 
of  organizing  co-operative  creamery  associations  that  it  is 
found  impracticable  to  answer  them  all  in  detail  by  letter. 
It  is  therefore  thought  best  to  offer  such  suggestions  and 
give  such  information  as  will  place  this  industry  on  a firm 
basis.  That  intelligent  dairying  is  a profitable  business 
needs  no  argument;  demonstrated  results  are  more  convinc- 
ing than  words;  the  results  in  Freeborn  and  Steele  counties 
have  settled  this  question  for  all  time  so  far  as  our  state  is 
concerned.  It  should,  however,  be  remembered  that  there  are 
creameries  and  cheese  factories  idle  in  Minnesota,  which  is  also 
conclusive  proof  that  such  enterprises  are  not  always  a suc- 
cess, a id  that  the  causes  of  such  failures  should  be  considered, 
After  a thorough  canvass  of  the  state  it  was  found 
that  about  half  of  the  vacant  factories  are  in  localities  where 
there  are  not  a sufficient  number  of  cows;  others  failed  be- 
cause they  were  owned  by  individuals  who  did  not  pay 
enough  for  cream  to  make  it  an  object  for  the  farmers  to 
patronize  them.  As  a rule  the  gathered  cream  plan,  where 
old  methods  of  setting  milk  were  used,  did  not  give  satis- 
factory returns  to  farmers  ; but  whenever  separator  cream- 
eries have  been  established  on  the  co-operative  plan,  in  lo- 
calities where  there  are  a sufficient  number  of  cows  within 
a radius  of  four  miles,  they  have  in  every  instance  secured 
highly  satisfactory  results.  Therefore  when  considering  the 
advisability  of  starting  a creamery  in  any  locality,  the 
first  thing  to  do  is  to  ascertain  if  the  required  number  of 
cows  can  be  secured  within  a radius  of  four  or  five  miles, 
which  is  about  as  far  as  milk  can  profitably  be  hauled.  If 
less  than  four  hundred  cows  are  secured  we  would  advise 
that  the  project  be  dropped,  as  it  is  difficult  to  make  it  a 
success  with  less. 


94 


ORGANIZATION. 

If  the  required  number  of  cows  can  be  pledged  within  the 
limits  prescribed  the  next  thing  is  the  organization.  In  this 
matter  as  in  most  all  other  enterprises  it  is  well  to  follow 
the  course  pursued  by  the  successful  creameries.  One  of  the 
chief  agencies  of  success  in  the  Freeborn  county  creameries 
is  their  method  of  organization.  They  do  their  own  ogan- 
izing  and  have  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  agents  who  are 
going  through  the  country  offering  to  work  up  a creamery 
company  in  any  neighborhood,  soliciting  the  stock  and 
getting  out  the  articles  of  incorporation,  building  the 
creamery  and  equipping  it  and  turning  it  over  to  an  associ- 
ation of  farmers  at  a given  price.  This  of  course  seems  like 
a very  nice  way,  as  it  relieves  the  members  of  the  creamery 
association  of  all  the  preliminary  work  in  the  organization 
of  the  creamery,  but  it  is  expensive  as  outside  parties  can 
not  do  it  so  cheaply  and  effectively  as  it  can  be  done  by  the 
farmers  living  in  the  neighborhood.  In  the  long  run  it  is 
not  to  the  interest  of  supply  houses  to  do  this  part  of  the 
work,  for  in  every  case  where  these  ready  built  and  equipped 
creameries  have  been  turned  over  to  the  farmers  they  soon 
discovered  that  they  paid  from  $500  to  $2,000  more  for  the 
plant  than  it  was  worth,  which  creates  dissatisfaction  with 
the  house  they  dealt  with  and  it  loses  their  trade. 

HOW  TO  RAISE  THE  MONEY. 

The  old  plan  of  providing  funds  for  building  creameries 
was  for  each  patron  to  take  one  or  more  shares  of  stock, 
paying  the  cash  for  them.  In  many  communities  it  has  been 
found  difficult  to  raise  the  money  under  this  plan,  as  many 
desirable  patrons  were  unable  to  raise  the  amount  of  cash 
required  to  build  and  equip  a creamery. 

To  overcome  this  difficulty  let  each  patron  of  the  pro- 
posed creamery  sign  an  agreement  drawn  after  the  form 
given  below  marked  “Organization  Agreement, ” signing  his 
name,  and  the  number  of  cows  he  will  agree  to  furnish  milk 
from,  to  the  creamery. 

You  will  notice  this  agreement  provides  for  borrowing 
the  amount  of  money  necessary  to  build  the  creamery,  and 


95 


that  each  person  signing  the  agreement,  agrees  to  be  respon- 
sible for  the  payment  of  the  sum  borrowed.  There  is  hardly 
a community  in  the  state  in  which  some  one  cannot  be  found 
who  would  be  willing  to  loan  $2,000,  more  or  less,  to  an 
association  of  twenty-five,  or  fifty,  or  more,  farmers,  each 
one  of  whom  agrees  to  be  personally  responsible  for  the 
loan. 

When  the  required  number  of  patrons  and  cows  have 
been  secured,  call  a meeting  of  the  patrons  and  perfect  the 
organization  by  adopting  and  signing  articles  of  agreement. 
We  give  below  articles  af  agreement  and  by  laws,  which  are 
in  use  by  the  Freeborn  county  creameries,  and  have  been 
found  to  be  very  satisfactory.  Of  course  such  changes  could 
be  made  in  these  as  might  be  desired.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
article  two  of  the  by  laws,  provides  that  five  cents  on  each 
one  hundred  pounds  of  milk  received  at  the  creamery  shall 
be  retained  to  form  a sinking  fund,  to  be  used  to  pay  off  the 
money  borrowed.  And,  that  article  four  of  the  agreement 
authorizes  the  Board  of  Directors  to  borrow  the  sum  re- 
quired, the  loan  to  be  paid  back  out  of  the  sinking  fund  as 
fast  as  it  is  accumulated. 

This  plan  enables  the  creamery  association  to  start  with- 
out the  individual  patrons  being  required  to  raise  the  cash, 
and  at  the  same  time  it  gives  the  creamery  the  ready  cash 
to  buy  their  lumber,  materials  and  machinery,  so  as  to  ob- 
tain the  benefit  of  the  lowest  cash  prices. 

The  five  cents  per  hundred  pounds  that  is  deducted  from 
the  amount  of  milk  taken  to  the  creamery  is  not  felt  by  the 
patrons,  as  even  after  this  is  taken  out  they  will  get  more 
out  of  their  milk  than  they  have  been  getting  by  making  it 
into  butter  themselves,  so  that  the  creamery  is  gradually 
patdng  for  itself,  without  expense  to  the  patrons. 

Under  this  plan,  a creamery  that  is  receiving  milk  from 
five  hundred  cows  should  be  getting  ten  thousand  pounds  ol 
milk  a day,  if  five  cents  per  hundred  of  this  went  into  the 
sinking  fund,  it  would  be  five  dollars  a day;  so  that  it  would 
require  from  a year  to  a year  and  a half  to  pay  off  the  loan, 
and  have  the  creamery  clear  under  this  plan,  on  a creamery 
receiving  the  amount  of  milk  stated  above. 


96 


The  following  agreement  of  organization,  articles  of  asso- 
ciation and  by  laws  are  used  by  the  Freeborn  county 
creameries : 

ORGANIZATION  AGREEMENT. 

We,  the  undersigned  citizens  of comity,  state  of  Minne- 

sota, do  hereby  agree  to  form  oui selves  into  an  Association  to  be  known 


by  the  name  of  the Association,  and  we  agree  to  borrow 

the  sum  of dollars,  or  less,  to  put  up  a building  and  equip 


it  with  the  necessary  machinery,  and  jointly,  to  become  personally  respon- 
sible for  the  sum  borrowed  including  interest.  The  money  to  be  raised  in 
the  manner  agreed  upon  by  the  Association.  We  also  agree  to  furnish  the 
milk  from  the  number  of  cows  opposite  our  names. 

NAME.  COWS. 


ARTICLES  OF  AGREEMENT  OF  THE ASSOCIATION. 


We,  wlioss  names  are  hereunto  subscribed,  and  whose  residences  are 

within  the  county  of in  the  state  of  Minnesota,  do  hereby 

associate  ourselves  together  as  a co-operative  association  under  the  laws 
of  the  state  of  Minnesota,  and  have  adopted  the  following  constitution, 
viz: — 

ARTICLE  I. 

The  name  of  the  Association  shall  be  the Association 

and  its  place  of  business  shah  be  at  or  near  Section in  the  Town  of 

in  said county. 

ARTICLE  II. 

The  object  of  this  Association  shall  be  the  manufacture  of  butter  or 
cheese  or  both  from  whole  milk,  at  actual  cost. 

ARTICLE  III. 

The  officers  of  this  Association  shall  be  a President,  Vice-President, 
Secretary,  Treasurer  and  three  Trustees,  who  shall  be  elected  annually  at 
the  regular  annual  meeting  of  the  Association  to  be  held  on  the  first  Mon- 
day of  January  of  each  year  and  their  term  of  office  shall  be  one  }rear  and 
until  their  successor  shall  have  been  duly  elected  and  qualified. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

The  duties  of  the  respective  officers  shall  be  as  follows: — The  President 
shall  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the  Association,  sign  all  drafts  and  pay 
over  to  the  Treasurer  all  moneys  which  shall  have  come  into  his  possession 
by  virtue  of  his  official  position,  taking  the  treasurer’s  receipts  therefor. 


97 


He  shall  have  power  to  call  special  meetings  of  the  Association  whenever  in 
his  judgment  the  business  of  the  Association  shall  require  it. 

The  Vice  President  shall  perform  the  duties  of  the  President  when  he  is 
absent  or  otherwise  unable  to  attend  to  them. 

The  Secretary  shall  keep  a record  of  all  the  meetings  of  the  Association, 
and  make  and  sign  all  orders  upon  the  Treasurer. 

The  Treasurer  shall  receive  and  receipt  for  all  moneys  belonging  to  the 
Association  and  pay  out  the  same  only  upon  orders  which  shall  be  signed 
by  the  Secretary;  he  shall  give  bonds  in  such  amount  as  the  Association 
shall  provide. 

The  President,  Vice  President,  Secretary  and  Treasurer  and  three 
Trustees  shall  constitute  a Board  of  Directors,  whose  duties  shall  be  to 
audit  and  allow  all  just  claims  against  the  Association.  They  shall  com- 
pute the  amount  of  milk  receipts,  the  amount  of  product  sold  and  the 
moneys  received  therefor,  and,  after  deducting  from  the  total  receipts  the 
percentage  herein  provided  for  as  a sinking  fund  and  also  the  running  ex- 
penses, on  the  20th  day  of  each  month,  divide  the  remaining  receipts  of  the 
preceding  month  among  the  members  and  patrons  of  the  Association,  pro- 
portionally to  the  amount  of  whole  milk  or  fat  furnished  by  each.  Pro- 
vided, however,  that  incase  of  the  withdrawal  of  any  member  from  this 
Association  before  the  moneys  herein  provided  to  be  borrowed  shall  have 
been  paid  in  full,  principal  and  interest,  all  product  from  milk  iurnished  by 
such  withdrawing  members  then  on  hand,  and  any  moneys  received  from 
such  product  then  in  the  possession  of  the  Association  shall  be  retained  un- 
til all  such  moneys  so  borrowed  shall  have  been  fully  repaid,  and  thereafter 
said  moneys,  or  any  remainder  thereof  after  applying  the  just  share  of  such 
withdrawing  members  therefrom  to  the  repayment  of  any  balance  of  such 
indebtedness  not  paid  from  the  sinking  fund,  shall  be  paid  over  to  him  or 
his  assigns. 

The  Board  of  Directors  shall  cause  the  Secretary  to  make,  in  writing  a 
report  to  the  annual  meeting  to  the  Association,  setting  forth  in  detail  the 
gross  amount  of  milk  receipts,  the  net  amount  of  receipts  from  product 
sold  and  all  other  receipts,  the  amount  paid  oiit  for  running  expenses,  the 
sums,  if  any,  paid  out  for  milk,  and  all  other  matters  pertaining  to  the 
business  of  the  Association.  A like  statement,  containing  the  gross  amount 
of  milk  receipts,  the  net  receipts  from  product  sold  and  all  running  expenses 
of  the  creamery  shall  be  made  and  posted  conspicuously  in  the  creamery 
building  at  the  time  of  the  division  of  the  prior  month’s  receipts  as  afore- 
said. 

The  Board  of  Directors  shall  borrow  a sum  of  money  not  exceeding 

Thousand  Dollars,  to  be  used  by  them  in  the  erection, 

completion  and  furnishing  of  the  creamery  building  and  for  no  other 
purpose.  Said  members  of  said  board  may  borrow  said  money  on  their 
individual  responsibility,  and  in  case  they  shall  do  so,  then  the  sinking  fund 
h:rein  provided  for  shall  by  them  be  applied  in  payment  of  such  borrowed 
moneys  as  the  same  fall  due  in  the  same  manner  as  though  said  moneys 
had  been  borrowed  by  the  Association.  Said  members  of  the  board  in 


98 


tsuch  case  shall  be  held  to  be  the  creditors  of  the  Association  to  the  amount 
of  such  moneys  unpaid,  and  the  several  members  of  said  Association  shall 
be  personally  responsible,  jointly  and  severally,  for  the  same.  Provided, 
however,  that  prior  to  any  legal  assertion  of  such  individual  responsibility, 
the  entire  sinking  fund  then  accrued  and  on  hand  shall  be  applied  upon  such 
indebtedness:  And,  provided  further,  that  said  members  so  borrowing  said 
moneys  may  if  they  so  elect,  demand  and  receive  any  part  or  all  of  the 
moneys  receiyed  from  product  sold,  then  in  the  possession  of  the  Associ- 
ation, upon  such  indebtedness  before  enforcing  such  personal  responsibility. 
In  which  case  only  that  part  of  such  indebtedness  remaining  after  apply- 
ing thereon  all  sums  so  received  shall  be  recovered  or  demanded  from  the 
members  of  the  Association. 

ARTICLE  V. 

The  several  members  shall  furnish  all  the  milk  from  all  the  cows  sub- 
scribed b\r  each,  all  milk  to  be  sound,  fresh,  unadulterated,  pure  and  un- 
skimmed, and  patrons  of  the  Association  not  members,  may  by  agreement 
with  the  Board  of  Trustees  furnish  such  amounts  of  milk  as  may  be 
agreed  upon.  The  Association  shall  receive  all  such  milk  so  furnished, 
manufacture  the  same  into  butter,  cheese  or  both  and  sell  and  receive  all 
moneys  from  the  product;  and  from  the  moneys  so  received  deduct  such  a 
percentage  thereof,  or  such  a number  of  cents  per  one  hundred  pounds  of 
milk  as  shall  have  been  agreed  upon  by  the  Association  in  the  by-laws  or 
otherwise,  and  also  deduct  the  running  expenses  of  the  creamery,  the 
.remainder  thereof  to  be  distributed  as  provided  in  Article  IV.  hereof. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

Each  member  shall  be  entitled  to  one  vote  only  at  any  meeting  of  the 
Association.  New  members  may  be  admitted  as  provided  in  the  By-laws. 
Members  shall  be  permitted  to  withdraw  only  as  provided  in  the  By-laws. 

ARTICLE  VII. 

The  first  officers  and  Board  of  Trustees  shall  be  as  follows:  

President ; Vice  President ; Secretary ; 

Treasurer;  

Trustees. 


AR  TICLE  VIII. 


The  constitution  may  be  amended  at  any  annual  meeting,  or  at  any 
special  meeting  called  for  that  purpose,  provided  that  two-thirds  of  all 
members  present  vote  in  favor  of  such  change ; and  provided  further,  that 
at  least  one  month’s  notice  of  such  proposed  amendment  shall  have  been 
given  in  such  manner  as  may  be  provided  in  the  By-laws,  or  otherwise  by 
the  Associations. 


NAMES. 


99 


BY-LAWS  OF  THE ASSOCIATION. 


I. 

The  Treasurer  shall  give  bonds  in  the  sum  of. dollars  the 

bond  to  be  approved  by  the  Board  of  Directors. 

II. 

Five  cents  on  each  one  hundred  pounds  of  milk  received  at  the  creamery 
shall  be  reserved  to  form  a sinking  fund. 

III. 

No  milk  shall  be  received  or  business  of  any  kind  transacted  at  the 
creamery  on  Sundays. 

IV. 

During  the  interval  between  the  twentieth  day  of  May  and  the 
twentieth  da}r  of  September  of  each  season  all  milk  shall  be  delivered  at  the 
creamery  as  early  at  least  as  nine  o’clock  a.m.;  during  the  remaining  por- 
tion of  the  season  as  early  as  ten  o’clock  a.m. 

V. 

All  milk  delivered  shall  be  sweet  and  in  good  condition;  if  any  be  found 
otherwise,  the  operator  may  condemn  the  same,  and  in  such  case  he  shall 
notify  the  President  thereof.  The  operator  shall  test  the  milk  of  each  mem- 
ber and  patron  at  least  three  times  a week. 

VI. 

Any  member  or  patron  of  the  Association  found  skimming,  watering  or 
in  any  manner  adulterating  his  milk  offered  at  the  creamery  shall  forfeit  to 
the  Association  as  follows:  For  the  first  offense  ten  dollars;  for  the  second 
offense,  twenty-five  dollars ; for  the  third  offense  he  or  she  shall  forfeit  all 
interest  in  the  Association  and  also  all  claims  for  milk  theretofore  delivered 
to  the  Association.  But  no  such  forfeiture  shall  be  adjudged  without  first 
affording  to  the  member  or  patron  charged  with  having  so  skimmed, 
watered  or  adulterated  his  milk,  full  opportunity  to  defend  himself  from 
such  charge.  Any  member  sending  to  the  creamery  any  bloody  or  un- 
healthy milk,  or  any  milk  from  any  cow  within  four  days  after  calving, 
shall,  if  convicted  of  having  so  done  knowingly,  forfeit  as  prescribed  above 
in  this  section. 

VII. 

Members  and  patrons  furnishing  whole  milk  may  take  from  the  separ- 
ator or  the  tank  at  the  creamery  four-fifths  of  the  quantity  of  milk  (in 


100 


pounds  or  quantity)  delivered  at  the  creamery  by  them  on  that  day.  Any 
member  taking  therefrom  more  than  such  amount  shall  forfeit  to  the  Asso- 
ciation the  sum  of  five  dollars  for  ehch  such  taking. 

VIII. 

Withdrawals  from  the  Association  shall  be  allowed  only  as  follows: — 
The  member  desiring  to  withdraw  shall  give  at  least  one  month’s  notice  of 
his  application  therefor.  Such  application  shall  only  be  allowed  on  a vote 
of  two-thirds  of  all  members  present  and  voting  at  any  meeting' for  hearing 
at  which  such  application  shall  have  been  noticed.  Provided,  however:  — 
That  any  member  living  more  than  three  miles  by  the  nearest  road  from 
the  creamery  building,  may  make  application  to  the  Board  of  Directors, 
who  in  their  discretion  may  grant  permission  to  such  member  to  withdraw 
from  the  Association. 

IX. 

Any  member  refusing  to  deliver  at  the  creamery  the  milk  agreed  to  be 
there  lelivered,  shall,  without  reasons  satisfactory  therefor  to  the  Associ- 
ation, forfeit  all  interest  in  the  product  on  hand. 

X. 

Notice  of  any  proposed  amendment  to  the  Constitution  shall  be  in  writ- 
ing or  printing  and  shall  be  kept  posted  prominently  in  the  creamery  build- 
ing and  also  on  the  walls  of  the  delivery  department  for  the  reception  of 
milk. 


101 


THE  CREAMERY  BUILDING 

After  the  organization  of  a creamery  association  the  uni- 
versal inquiry  is:  “What  kind  of  a building  is  it  necessary  to 
construct  and  can  you  furnish  us  plans  for  same?”  In  order 
that  we  may  be  able  to  intelligently  answer  these  inquiries 
we  requested  the  creamery  supply  houses  in  the  state  to 
furnish  us  with  a plan  of  a model  creamery  building;  in  re- 
ply to  this  request  two  of  the  firms  have  kindly  responded 
and  the  plans  are  given  below. 


CREAMERY  PACKAOE  M FG.  CO 


MANKATO  MINN. 


102 


Plan  No.  1,  which  is  furnished  by  the  Creamery  Package 
Company,  of  Mankato,  provides  for  a creamery  20x38  with 
an  engine  and  boiler  and  coal  room  16x22  and  will  cost 
from  $600  to  $800  according  to  location  and  if  stone  and 
lumber  is  brought  to  the  creamery  site  by  the  members  of 
the  association.  The  equipments  of  the  creamery  will  cost 
from  $1500  to  $2000  according  to  the  number  of  separa- 
tors. 


Plan  No.  2 is  furnished  by  F.  B.  Fargo  & Co.,  of  St  Paul. 
The  building  is  44  feet  long  by  22  feet  wide  and  12  feet  to  the 
ceiling.  Boiler,  coal  and  engine  room  on  side  of  building  20x 
20  feet,  equipped  with  separator  capacity  of  20,000  lbs. 
of  milk  daily,  and  all  other  machinery  with  capacity 
of  20,000  lbs.  milk  daily  or  butter  capacity  of  800  lbs.  daily. 


103 


ESTIMATE  OF  COST. 


Foundation  (mason, brick  and  cement) $ 60  00 

Lumber  (delivered  on  ground) 570  00 

Hardware 35  00 

Carpenter  work 175  00 

Grading  for  drive  way  (estimate  level 

ground) 20  00 

Painting  40  00 

Machinery,  including  all  steam  and 
water  pipe  and  fitting,  and  all  belt- 
ing as  per  usual  lists  of  one  separator 

outfit 1,500  00 

Freight  on  same  (estimate  100  miles) 50  00 

Dray  age  (in  town) 10  00 

Machinest  to  set  up  all  machines  (estimate 

10  days) 30  00 

Brick,  lime  and  cement  to  set  boiler  and 

engine  in  boiler  room 115  00 

Mason  work  to  set  boiler  and  engine 35  00 

Extra  labor  handling  boiler  and  engine 10  00 

Iron  roof  for  boiler  room 20  00 

Butter  milk  tank  and  drain 20  00 

Waste  water  drain  (estimate  10  rods) 10  00 

Galvanized  iron  for  ice  box  in  refrigerator 

and  icebox 20  00 

Radiating  steam  pipe  put  in  place  suffici- 
ent to  heat  entire  building  .... 85  00 

Incidental  expenses 75  00 


$2,880  00 

The  above  estimate  does  not  include  well,  but  it  includes 
pump  and  pipe. 

The  farmers  in  the  neighborhood  of  Geneva,  Freeborn 
county  have  what  they  consider  a model  creamery.  It  has 
two  good  separators  and  is  in  every  respect  equipped  with 
the  best  apparatus  and  cost  $2,800  when  ready  for  receiving 
milk.  There  will  be  many  new  creameries  built  the  coming; 
season  and  it  is  of  great  importance  that  farmers  inform 
themselves  as  to  the  size  and  kind  of  building  best  adapted 
for  their  purpose  as  well  as  to  what  the  necessary  cost  will 
be. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  SWEET  CURD  CHEESE. 


T.  L.  HACKER. 

One  of  the  objects  of  the  Division  of  Dairy  Husbandry 
is  to  develop  new  avenues  for  this  industry.  Noting  the 
great  demand  in  the  larger  cities  in  the  state  for  some  foreign 
brands  of  cheese  at  highly  remunerative  prices  it  was  deemed 
of  sufficient  interest  to  offer  instruction  in  the  manufacture  of 
a few  of  the  most  popular  kinds  at  the  Minnesota  Dairy 
School.  The  plan  received  the  hearty  approval  of  the  re- 
gents of  the  university  and  Hon.  JohnLuchsinger  of  Monroe, 
Wis.,  was  engaged  to  take  charge  of  the  manufacture  of  Em- 
menthaler,  brick  and  Limburger,  and  J.  H.  Hecker  of  Neenah, 
Wis.,  to  give  instruction  in  the  manufacture  of  Gouda  and 
Edam  cheese.  During  the  entire  work  a careful  record  was 
kept  of  the  amount  of  milk  used,  the  per  cent  of  fat  and  other 
solids  contained  in  the  milk  and  the  amount  of  green  cheese 
obtained.  Some  difficulty  was  experienced  in  securing  the 
apparatus  necessary  for  the  work  and  also  in  properly  curing 
the  cheese.  The  Dairy  Hall  is  not  supplied  with  curing  rooms 
where  either  the  temperature  or  moisture  is  under  control  to 
theextent  that  is  necessary  for  best  results.  Notwithstanding 
these  unfavorable  conditions  the  cheese  manufactured  under 
the  supervision  of  the  instructors  were  uniformly  of  good 
quality  and  received  high  commendation  from  those  best 
qualified  to  pass  upon  their  merits.  The  result  obtained  seem 
to  warrant  a continuation  of  the  work  and  the  publication 
of  the  process  of  their  manufacture  with  tables  showing  the 
composition  of  the  milk  and  whey,  the  loss  of  fat  and  other 
solids  in  the  whey  and  the  relation  existing  between  the  per 
cent  fat  in  the  milk  and  the  yield  of  green  cheese.  The  milk 
and  whey  of  each  make  was  examined  by  chemical  analysis 


105 


and  from  the  data  thus  obtained  the  recovery  of  solids  in 
the  cheese  was  calculated.  No  effort  was  made jto  ascertain 
the  composition  of  the  cured  cheese  by  actual  analysis  for 
the  reason  that  the  want  of  sufficient  space  and  accommo- 
dations in  the  curing  room  made  it  impracticable  to  keep 
each  day’s  make  separate.  The  process  of  dressing-  also,  in 
all  but  two  instances,  rendered  it  impossible  to  ascertain 
the  exact  amount  of  cured  cheese  obtained  from  a hundred 
pounds  of  milk.  From  the  two  exceptions  noted  it  was 
found  that  the  shrinkage  which  takes  place  during  the  pro- 
cess of  curing  is  much  greater  than  is  generally  supposed. 
In  one  case  it  was  twenty-five  and  in  another  twenty-six  per 
cent.  The  cheese  from  these  two  makes  were  salted  in  brine 
five  days,  at  a temperature  of  70  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and 
cured  in  a room  held  at  a temperature  of  sixty  degrees.  The 
moisture  in  the  air  of  the  room  ranged  from  75  to  90  per 
cent  of  total  saturation.  These  are  as  favorable  conditions 
as  can  be  reached  ordinarily  and  the  loss  of  weight  may 
reasonably  be  expected  to  be  as  great  as  shown  in  these  two 
trials. 


Fig.  1.  Form  of  Edam  Cheese. 

The  qualitjq  size,  form  and  general  appearance  of  Edam 
cheese  is  a matter  of  considerable  importance.  Gcods  fault- 
less in  these  respects  will  sell  in  our  markets  at  top  prices, 
while  an  article  excellent  in  quality  but  undersized  and  de- 
fective in  form  will  be  shaded  from  two  to  three  dollars  per 
dozen.  The  term  quality  here,  does  not  mean  that  the 
cheese  must  be  made  from  milk  containing  a high  percentage 


106 


of  fat;  but  has  reference  to  salt,  flavor  and  texture.  It  is 
therefore  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  milk  should  be 
fresh,  clean  and  perfectly  sweet. 


METHOD  OF  MANUFACTURING  EDAM  CHEESE. 

Edam  cheese  is  made  from  warm  milk  fresh  from  the 
cow,  though  sometimes  it  is  made  by  mixing  the  evening's 
milk,  after  it  is  skimmed,  with  the  morning's  milk.  If  the 
evening's  milk  is  used  it  must  be  set  over  night  in  ice  water 
to  hold  in  check  the  process  of  ripening.  In  the  morning  it 
is  skimmed  and  warmed  to  86  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  then 
the  morning's  milk  is  added.  The  mixed  milk  should  be  at 
a temperature  of  86  degrees  Fahrenheit,  when  the  rennet  is 
put  in.  If  whole  milk  is  used  it  is  generally  raised  to  90 
degrees  before  adding  the  rennet.  In  winter  it  is  set  at  a 
little  higher  temperature.  When  the  milk  is  warmed  to  the 
temperature  desired,  color  is  added  at  the  rate  of  one  or  one 
and  a half  ounces  of  color  to  one  thousand  pounds  of  milk. 
We  used  from  one  and  a half  to  two  ounces  of  Hansen’s 
cheese  color  to  a thousand  pounds,  but  this  gave  too  high  a 
color  in  the  opinion  of  some  who  use  and  handle  the  best 
grade  of  imported  Edam.  Color  should  be  thoroughly  in- 
corporated with  the  milk  before  rennet  is  added.  It  is  not 
possible  to  state  the  exact  amount  of  rennet  that  should  be 
used  as  it  varies  in  strength,  but  enough  should  be  taken  so 
the  milk  will  commence  to  coagulate  in  five  to  seven  minutes 
and  should  be  ready  for  the  knife  in  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
minutes.  We  used  from  eight  to  ten  ounces  of  Hansen’s 
rennet  extract  per  thousand  pounds  of  milk.  Dilute  the  reir 
net  with  about  five  times  its  volume  of  tepid  water  and  in 
pouring  it  into  the  milk,  pass  over  the  whole  length  of  the 
vat  so  that  the  rennet  will  not  all  be  putin  one  end.  Stir 
the  milk  with  a large  inverted  dipper  by  moving  it  slowly 
through  the  milk  the  whole  length  of  the  vat  so  as  not  to 
give  the  milk  a tide  motion.  Stir  about  one  minute,  then 
set  the  dipper  on  the  surface  of  the  milk  a moment  to  check 
the  agitation,  then  cover  the  vat  until  the  curd  is  ready  to 


107 


cut.  To  ascertain  this  insert  the  index  finger  into  the  milk 
at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  with  the  thumb  slightly  break 
the  curd  laying  over  it,  gently  raise  the  finger  and  if  the  curd 
breaks  clean  leaving  but  few  or  no  flakes  it  is  ready  to  cut. 
A little  practice  will  soon  teach  one  when  the  curd  cuts  to 
best  advantage.  It  should  not  be  so  firm  that  it  will  cut 
hard,  neither  should  it  be  cut  when  it  is  too  soft,  as  this  oc- 
casions great  loss  of  solids  in  the  whey,  yet  the  general 
tendency  of  the  curd  should  be  towards  softness.  The 
American  curd  knife  is  recommended  as  its  use  occasions 
less  loss  of  fat  and  other  solids.  First  cut  with  the  horizon- 
tal knife  lengthwise  with  the  vat,  then  follow  with  the  ver- 
tical knife  as  soon  as  the  whey  begins  to  appear  between 
the  layers  of  curd.  Cut  lengthwise  of  the  vat  with  the  ver- 
tical knife,  then  cut  cross  wise  and  lengthwise  until  the  curd  is 
cut  into  pieces  the  size  of  wheat  kernels.  The  particles  of 
curd  adhering  to  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  vat  are  now 
carefully  rubbed  loose. 

After  cutting,  the  curd  should  be  allowed  to  settle  a few 
moments  ; stir  gently  for  five  minutes  then  apply  heat, 
gradually  raising  the  temperature  to  98,  though  sometimes 
when  the  curd  has  not  been  cut  finely  or  uniformly  it  is 
necessary  to  raise  it  to  102  deg.  Fahrenheit.  The  curd  is 
sufficiently  cobked  when  it  is  firm  and  elastic,  when  the 
larger  particles  of  curd  are  not  soft  and  contain  no  free 
whey  inside.  It  is  difficult  to  give  a full  description  of  all  the 
conditions  bearing  upon  this  part  of  the  work;  there  should, 
however,  be  no  unnecessary  delay  in  getting  the  curd  under 
pressure  as  the  ripening  process  at  this  stage  of  the  work  is 
very  rapid.  When  the  curd  is  sufficiently  firm  it  is  allowed 
to  settle,  when  the  whey  is  drawn  off  until  the  upper  surface 
of  the  curd  begins  to  appear. 

FILLING  THE  EDAM  MOLDS. 

Before  the  molds  are  filled  they  should  be  put  in  warm 
water  so  the  curd  will  not  be  cooled  during  the  process  of 
filling.  As  soon  as  the  whey  is  drawn  fill  the  molds  at  once 
by  taking  a double  handful  of  curd  and  pressing  gently  but 
firmly  into  the. mold ; as  the  filling  progresses  pour  the  whey 
out  of  the  mold.  Care  should  be  taken  to  put  the  same 


108 


quantity  into  each  mold  to  make  the  cheese  perfectly  spheri- 
cal and  of  uniform  size  when  pressed. 


Fig.  2.  Edam  Molds. 

The  molds  used  at  this  Station  are  of  cast  iron^  the  pat- 
tern being  made  from  an  imported  cheese  of  proper  form. 
Figure  1 gives  an  illustration  of  some  of  the  cheese  made  in 
these  molds.  The  photograph  was  taken  before  they  were 
dressed,  so  it  gives  the  form  of  the  cheese  when  first  taken 
from  the  mold.  They  have  a flattened  surface  on  each  end 
so  they  will  set  on  the  shelf  without  rolling.  When  the 
molds  are  filled,  put  under  gentle,  continued  pressure  for  a 
sufficient  length  of  time  to  make  the  cheese  firm  enough  to 
retain  its  form  while  it  is  being  dressed,  which  may  require 
from  fifteen  to  sixty  minutes,  according  to  condition  of  curd. 
When  they  are  ready  to  dress  set  the  molds  containing  the 
cheese  into  a vat  of  sweet  whey  or  water  at  a temperature 
between:  120  and  130  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Let  stand  fora 
minute  before  moving  from  the  mold.  Then  take  the  cheese 
out  place  it  in  the  warm  water  for  one  or  two  minutes  then 
wrap  a linen  cloth  around  it,  folding  the  edges  carefully  over 
on  each  side  forming  small  pleats  at  regular  intervals ; put  a 
linen  cap  on  each  end,  replace  in  mold  and  put  under  pres- 
sure. The  cloths  and  caps  must  be  thoroughly  soaked  in  the 
warm  whey  or  water  before  applying  to  the  cheese  and  care 
should  be  exercised  that  no  part  of  the  cheese  remains  un- 


109 


covered  and  that  in  returning  it  to  the  mold  the  bandage 
does  not  get  displaced.  If  from  any  cause  the  curd  seems  to 
be  tainted,  washing  in  water  at  a temperature  of  100  de- 
grees Fahrenheit,  before  putting  it  in  the  mold  will  assist  in 
freeing  it  from  taint.  Edam  cheese  does  not  require  as  much 
pressure  as  cheddar,  60  to  120  pounds  will  under  ordinary 
conditions  be  sufficient.  They  should  remain  under  pres- 
sure from  six  to  twelve  hours  though  no  harm  will  be 
done  if  they  are  not  taken  out  until  the  day  following. 

SALTING  AND  CURING. 

When  the  cheese  is  taken  from  the  press  the  molds  are 
set  in  water  at  a temperature  of  120  degrees  Fahrenheit  and 
allowed  to  stand  for  a few  minutes.  The  cheese  is  then 
taken  out  and  the  bandage  carefully  removed,  using  care  not 
to  tear  off  any  of  the  rind.  The  cheese  is  now  ready  for  salt- 
ing and  for  this,  two  methods  may  be  employed,  dry  or  wet 
salting.  In  dry  salting  it  is  necessary  to  have  six  salting 
molds  to  every  press  mold,  these  are  made  of  wood,  are 
quite  similar  in  form  to  the  press  molds  but  require  no  cover. 
The  inner  surface  of  the  salting  mold  is  completely  covered 
with  a coating  of  salt,  the  cheese  is  then  placed  in  the  mold 
with  a little  sprinkling  of  salt  on  the  upper  part  exposed  to 
the  air.  This  is  repeated  for  five  or  six  days  turning  them 
each  day  so  they  will  settle  into  the  proper  shape. 

If  iron  molds  of  the  Minnesota  Dairy  School  pattern  are 
used,  wet  salting  will  be  preferable,  the  cheese  will  have  the 
proper  form  when  taken  out  of  the  press,  thus  requiring  less 
labor.  In  wet  salting  the  cheese  is  placed  in  a tank  of  brine 
as  strong  as  it  can  be  made,  a little  salt  is  sprinkled  on  the 
upper  end  exposed  to  the  air.  The  cheese  should  be  turned 
each  day  and  left  in  the  brine  five  to  eight  days.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  brine  may  range  from  60  to  70  degrees. 
Surface  salting  makes  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  obtain  uni- 
formity, some  day's  make  will  take  salt  more  readily  than 
others,  owing  to  the  variation  in  the  percentage  of  moisture 
in  the  curd.  It  is  therefore  especially  important  that  the 
milk  worked  is  fresh  and  that  the  cutting  and  cooking  be  as 
uniform  as  possible.  When  the  cheese  is  sufficiently  salted  it 
is  taken  out  of  the  brine  and  placed  on  a board  to  drain,  for 


110 


twenty-four  hours.  It  is  then  washed  in  warm  water  wiped 
dr}r  and  placed  on  the  shelf  for  curing,  leaving  a little  space 
between  the  cheese.  Always  set  the  cheese  on  the  flattened 
end,  turn  and  rub  with  the  hand  each  day  the  first  month, 
twice  a week  the  second  month  and  once  a week  the  third 
month.  The  curing  room  should  be  cool  and  moist,  the 
temperature  should  be  held  between  55  and  65  degrees,  and 
there  should  be  no  sudden  changes  even  within  the  tempera- 
tures given.  Fresh  air  is  also  of  prime  importance  though 
strong  currents  should  not  be  allowed  to  come  in  contact 
with  the  cheese  as  it  will  cause  cracking.  If  the  air  in  a 
curing  room  becomes  foul  the  cheese  will  become  slimy  or 
pasty  and  injurious  fungi  will  soon  develop.  It  the  room  is 
too  damp  bluish-yellow  or  red  spots  will  appear  which  in- 
jure the  quality  of  the  goods  and  in  extreme  cases  render  it 
worthless. 

PREPARING  EDAM  CHEESE  FOR  MARKET. 

When  the  cheese  is  two  or  three  months  old  it  is  pre- 
pared for  market  by  turning  it  in  a lathe  until  it  is  smooth 
and  round,  then  colored  with  analine.  The  dye  is  made  by 
dissolving  a little  analine  or  carmine  ifi  alcohol  or  ammonia. 
Take  a two  or  three  gallon  jar,  fill  two-thirds  full  of  water 
and  add  enough  of  the  coloring  matter  to  secure  the  desired 
shade.  In  this  bath  put  the  cheese  for  a minute  or  two  then 
place  on  a shelf  to  dry  and  when  dry  give  a light  coating  of 
boiled  linseed  oil.  When  in  the  coloring  bath  the  cheese  can 
be  conveniently  graded;  the  solid  cheese  will  drop  to  the 
bottom,  these  are  good  keepers  and  belong  to  the  best 
grade;  those  more  open  and  of  poorer  quality  will  barely 
sink,  while  the  ones  that  float  are  inferior  goods.  Cheese 
for  export  are  wrapped  with  tinfoil  in  much  the  same  way 
as  in  dressing;  they  are  placed  in  boxes,  each  containing 
twelve  cheese,  in  two  layers  of  six  each,  the  cheese  being 
partitioned  off  with  narrow  boards. 

The  milk  used  in  these  experiments  from  Feb.  7th  to  the 
15th  was  purchased  from  dealers  and  that  used  from  the 
19th  of  February  to  the  9th  of  May  was  from  the  station 
herd.  That  used  during  the  latter  period  was  not  the  mixed 
milk  of  the  whole  herd,  but  each  make  of  cheese  was  from  a 


Ill 


certain  number,  though  not  always  the  same  cows,  which 
accounts  for  the  variation  in  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  milk. 
The  milk  worked  on  the  7th  of  March,  the  3rd,  5th  and  7th 
of  April  and  the  8th  and  9th  of  May  was  two  thirds  whole 
and  one-third  skim  milk.  On  and  after  the  10th  of  February 
fresh  rennet  extract  was  used,  which  will  account  for  the 
change  which  took  place  as  to  the  time  of  coagulation  with 
the  rennet  test.  The  table  is  submitted  simply  to  show  the 
process  of  the  make  each  day.  There  are  a number  of  points 
which  suggest  further  experiments  and,  if  possible,  more 
careful  work.  In  Mann’s  acid  test  50ccis  the  amount  of  milk 
used  with  one-tenth  normal  standard  alkali.  Comparing 
the  figures  in  the  fourth  column  with  those  in  the  fifth  and 
taking  those  into  account  the  temperature  of  the  milk,  it 
appears  that  the  degree  of  acidity  of  the  milk  and  the  degree 
of  the  ripeness  do  not  always  run  parallel.  The  degree  of 
ripeness  was  ascertained  by  Monrad’s  modification  of 
Harris’  rennet  test,  as  by  this  method  more  exact  data  can 
be  obtained.  It  consists  in  diluting  the  rennet  extract  hy 
putting  5cc  (cubic  centimeters)  of  rennet  extract  with  a pi- 
pette into  a flask  measuring  5cc.  then  filling  with  cool  water. 
Of  this  diluted  rennet  5 cc.  is  added  to  160  cc.  of  milk  in  a 
tin  cup,  at  86  degrees  Fahr.,  the  exact  time  elapsing  between 
putting  in  the  diluted  rennet  and  when  the  milk  commences 
to  coagulate,  indicates  its  degree  of  ripeness.  In  these  ex- 
periments the  aim  was  to  have  the  milk  in  the  vat  commence 
to  coagulate  in  seven  minutes,  excepting  one  vat  on  the  20th 
of  February. 

The  morning’s  milk  used  the  3rd  of  April  was  tainted,  so 
it  was  bailed  occasionally  for  about  an  hour  and  a half  and 
there  being  no  improvement  it  was  raised  to  a temperature 
of  158  degrees,  then  immediately  cooled  to  86  degrees,  and 
some  of  Hansen’s  lactic  ferment  added,  allowed  to  stand  un- 
til evening,  when  the  rennet  test  showed  20  sec.,  only  2 1-10 
extract  per  1,000  lbs.  of  milk  was  used;  coagulation  com- 
menced in  five  minutes  and  it  was  ready  for  the  knife  in  ten. 

Comparing  +he  time  required  until  coagulation  com- 
mences with  that  when  ready  for  the  knife  the  latter  time 
will  be  found  double  the  former.  There  in  more  regularity  in 


112 


the  figures  indicating  when  coagulation  commenced  than  in 
the  time  required  for  the  curd  to  form  sufficiently  for  cutting; 
this  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  impossible  to  fix  upon 
a uniform  degree  of  firmness  of  the  curd.  By  comparing  the 
figures  showing  the  amount  of  alkali  required  to  neutralize 
the  acidity  in  the  milk  with  that  required  for  the  whey,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  acidity  in  the  whey  was  some  40  per 
cent  less  than  in  the  milk. 


Fig.  3.  Comparative  Size  of  Edam  and  Gouda  Cheese. 


Fig.  4.  Sectional  view  Fig.  5.  Sectional  view 

of  Edam  cheese  made  from  of  Edam  cheese  made  from 

good  milk.  tainted  milk. 


TABLE  XLVI.— Processes  and  Principal  Conditions  in  the  Manufacture  of  Edam  Cheese. 


113 


Lbs.  of  milk  to  1 
lb.  of  cheese 

OOHONCJNM®^O^lCOaOM'nHri«MOlCO 
q q q h o h h oo  h q in  o o o o in  q q q ^ q co  ^ q q 
d d d i>  i>  t>  i>  d d d d d oc  05  oo  x d i>  i>  x 6 x x d d 

H ri 

Weight  of  green 
cheese 

comi>  oioiin  o*  mxx 

x q x h h q q in  in  q in  q q q q x x q q q 

ri  h o*  d <m  -H  d b-V  h cc  cc  n mV  i>  oo  i>  t>  o oo  o o d 

CO  CO  CO  H 01  CO  H H ■Hr-i'HHH 

Time  from  adding 
rennet  to  putting 
to  press 

SoiocooiNoow^HWioHOcowoTjioiot-i-t-t-o 

.DHHXOHot-oxoi>NxiocDi>coio<D<oij<t^ooo 

gnH  H H 

Amount  of  alkali 
necessary  to 
neutralize  acidity 
of  whev.... 

. N q q : : q q q q aq  6q  q q rf  q q : q q 

a X X d : :xxbbNbVbN^l>i>d  1>V-  ixt^dd 

Time  required  to 
cook  the  curd 

SHONo^m^xcoxHXOoiHioio^co^  ixooo 

•S^OlHiJiOCOCOCO^-JiCOCOCOOlOlCOClOlCOCl  ! CO  01  ^ rf< 

S : 

Temp,  to  which 
curd  was  heated.. 

ooooooooooooooooooooooooo 
TjaOOOfflOOrlOOOOtO^OOOMOtD^^lDXX 
0505005050500000000000000)0X050505 
rH  HHrlHHH  HHrlrlrl 

Time  required  un- 
til ready  for  knife. 

W CD 

.2  o o x o»  co  co  in  <o  x co  w in  ^ co  o co  w ^ oi  o i*  oi  in 

gHOlTHrlMTHHCOrlrlrlnTHHHHiHrfHHrlrlrlTHrl 

Time  required  un- 
til coagulation 
begins 

C in  q q q q q 

•nt'-t^din<owiD>nd<ot-i>i><ocoind<od<oint^ddi> 

2 rH 

Amount  of 
extract  used  per 
1000  pounds  of 
milk 

o 

.CDOCDOHOOOOOIOHCOCDHr-IHH^t-HHXXX 
NdXHHHH  O5X05XXl>ddl>l>l>t^Xl'-0it-XXX 
CHHHHH  H rH 

Temp,  of  milk  when 
test  was  taken.... 

• oooocoooooooooooooooooooo 
XXXt^XO^XXXOOCD^OOOOOOCCDCOXX 
XXX  XX  XOXXXOOXXOOOOOOXXXXX 

Rennet  test  for 
ripeness 

95  o o o o m o ominin  in  o o o o o o o o m o o o o in 

^Tf<XOl>Xt-Ot-t-Xt-CDOOCDOCDOt-CDC^CDl>^t^ 

tn  H ri  H 

Amount  of  alkali 
necessary  to 
neutralize  acidity 
of  milk 

q q iq  : q ^j^q^  q cm q q 

:co  : : oi  co  co  h co  d oi  co*  oi  oroi  o Tf<  oi  oi  oi 

yHHHHH  C r*t  , C IririrlrirlrlriTHrlrliHOlrlrtWH 

Per  cent  fat  in 
milk 

in  : 

o x o q q x q h ri  q q q q q q q q q : conqo 

t}I  tj!  d in rji  in  d ^ -*  in  ^ co  ^ co  •<$  t*  rfl  co  : co  co  d d 

Lbs.  of  milk  in 
vat 

moo  m 

q q q q q 

inxdrHCDx'inood^oooooooooooooin 

XMXOnnOlHininXCDCDCDin«DCDCDCDCDOOOO^CD 

01  01  01  H H 01  H HH 

Date. 

1894 

NXOO^mOOOXMinONXOOHNHMin^XO 

ri  r1  H ri  N N N H 0*  01  CO 

•S:  : : - - ? ; : : «:  ::::::  : - fc  : *: 

Pp  A < A 

114 


TABLE  XLVII.  -Analysis  of  Milk,  Whey  and  Edam  Cheese. 


Percentage 

composition 

From  100  lbs.  milk. 

Date 

Solids 

Fat 

Lbs. 

Solids 

! 

Fat 

{ 

Milk 

13.65 

1 

4.9 

100.00 

1 

13.65 

4.90 

Feb.  7 < 

Whey 

6.75 

.41 

86.82 

5.86 

36 

\ 

Gr.  cheese 

59.10 

34.48 

13.18 

7.79 

4.54 

\ 

Milk 

13.82 

4.8 

100  00 

13.82 

4.80 

Feb.  8 S 

Whey 

7.11 

.57 

86.88 

6.18 

.50 

I 

Gr.  cheese 

58.24 

32.81 

13.12 

7.64 

4.30 

l 

Milk 

13.69 

5.0 

100.00 

13.69 

5.00 

Feb.  9 < 

Whey 

6.93 

.5 

86.84 

5.92 

.43 

( 

Gr.  cheese 

58.31 

34.70 

13.16 

7.77 

4.57 

l 

Milk 

14  J 7 

5.2 

100.00 

14.17 

5.20 

Feb.  10 ■< 

Whey 

7.30 

.79 

86.06 

6.28 

.68 

( 

Gr.  cheese 

56.61 

32.42 

13.94 

7.89 

4.52 

Milk 

12  2 

Whey 

Gr.  cheese 

l 

Milk 

13.65 

4.7 

100.00 

13.65 

4.70 

Feb.  14 2 

Whey 

7.20 

.58 

85.90 

6.18 

.50 

( 

Gr.  cheese 

52.91 

•29.77 

14.10 

7.47 

4.20 

[ 

Milk 

14.02 

4.8 

100.00 

14.02 

4.80 

Feb.  15 2 

Whey 

7 28 

.54 

86.09 

6.27 

.46 

\ 

Gr.  cheese 

55.75 

31.17 

13.91 

7.75 

4.34 

1 

Milk 

14.00 

4.9 

100.00 

14.00 

4.90 

Feb.  19  .2 

Whey 

7.00 

.59 

85.98 

6.02 

.51 

j 

Gr.  cheese 

56.94 

31.39 

14.02 

7.98 

4.39 

Milk 

14.10 

5.1 

100.00 

14.10 

5.10 

Feb.  20 2 

Whey 

7.15 

.72 

86.00 

6.15 

.62 

l 

Gr.  cheese 

56.86 

32.00 

14.00 

7.95 

4.48 

l 

Milk 

14.10 

5.1 

100.00 

14.10 

5.10 

Feb.  20  2 

Whey 

7.35 

.82 

85.50 

6.28 

.70 

j 

Gr.  cheese 

53.93 

30.34 

14.50 

7.82 

4.40 

i 

Milk 

13.24 

4.7 

100.00 

13.24 

4.70 

Feb.  28  2 

Whey 

6.95 

.50 

86.83 

6.02 

.43 

Gr.  cheese 

54.73 

32.36 

13.17 

7.22 

4.27 

i 

Milk 

13.93 

4.4 

100.00 

13.93 

4.40 

March  3 2 

Whey 

7.24 

.45 

86.53 

6.26 

.39 

) 

Gr.  cheese 

56.96 

29.81 

13.47 

7.67 

4.01 

i 

Milk 

13,99 

5. 

100.00 

13.99 

5.00 

March  5 J 

Whey 

7.48 

.58 

85.83 

6.42 

.50 

\ 

Gr.  cheese 

53,41 

31.76 

14.17 

7.57 

4.50 

l 

Milk 

12.78 

4. 

100.00 

12.78 

4.00 

March  6 2 

Whey 

7.31 

.51 

87.50 

6.40 

.45 

} 

Gr.  cheese 

51.07 

28  40 

12.50 

6.38 

3.55 

l 

Milk 

10.84 

3. 

100.00 

10.84 

3.00 

March  7 ■< 

Whey 

6.36 

.34 

89.00 

5.66 

.30 

} 

Gr.  cheese 

47.09 

24.55 

11.00 

5.18 

2.70 

( 

Milk 

13.13 

4.5 

100.00 

13.13 

4.50 

March  8 2 

Whey 

6.98 

.52 

87.50 

6.11 

.46 

\ 

Gr.  cheese 

56.27 

32.40 

12.50 

7.02 

4.04 

i 

Milk 

12.28 

3.5 

100.00 

12.28 

3.50 

March  9 2 

Whey 

7.30 

.70 

88.33 

6.45 

.62 

( 

Gr.  cheese 

50.00 

24.71 

11.67 

5.83 

2.88 

Milk 

12.30 

4.5 

100.00 

12.30 

4.50 

March  10  ■< 

Whey 

7.20 

.73 

86.25 

6.21 

.63 

( 

Gr.  cheese 

44.24 

28.12 

13.75 

6.09 

3.87 

Milk 

13.59 

4.7 

100.00 

13.59 

4.70 

March  21  2 

Whey 

7.53 

1.0 

87.03 

6.55 

.87 

) 

Gr.  cheese 

54.24 

29.56 

12.97 

7.04 

3.83 

Milk 

13.24 

4.7 

100.00 

13.24 

4.70 

March  22  2 

Whey 

7.44 

.88 

87.03 

6.48 

.77 

i 

; Gr.  cheese 

54.76 

29.82 

12.97 

6.76 

3.93 

115 


TABLE  XLVIII.— Analysis  of  Milk,  Whey  and  Edam  Cheese. 


Percentage  Composition. 

Date 

Solids .... 

Water.... 

Fat 

Solids 
not  fat.. 

Ash 

.. 

Protein.. 

Lactose . 

Milk 

1 

12.30  87.70 

3.35 

8.95 

.73 

3.30 

4.90 

March  31 -J 

Whey 

7.04  92.96 

.67 

6.37 

.42 

.84 

5.05 

1 

Gr  Cheese 

51.31 

48.69 

23.21 

28.10 

3.02 

21.49 

3.83 

( 

Milk 

12.68 

87.32 

3.43 

9.25 

.70 

3.57 

4.91 

Apr.  5 

Whey 

6.83 

93.17 

.41 

6.39 

.44 

.96 

5.05 

I 

Gr  Cheese 

55.56 

44.44 

25.37 

30.19 

2.59 

22.69 

3.79 

Milk 

12.32 

87.68 

3.15 

9.17 

.76 

3.68 

4.80 

l 

Whey 

6.87 

93.13 

.46 

6.41 

.36 

.93 

5.05 

Apr.  7 -j 

Gr  Cheese 

53.20 

46  80 

23.30 

29.90 

3.68 

24.24 

2.92 

From  100  lbs.  of  Milk. 


Date 

Pounds.. 

jsolids .... 

I 

Water.... 

P 

«■+■ 

Solids 
not  fat... 

Ash 

Protein.. 

Lactose. 

( 

Milk 

100.00 

12.30 

87.70 

3.35 

8.95 

.73 

3.30 

4.90 

March  31 < 

Whey 

88.11 

6.10 

81.91 

.59 

5.61 

.37 

1 .74 

4.45 

( 

Gr  Cheese 

11.89 

6.20 

5.79 

2.76 

3.34 

.36 

2.56 

.45 

\ 

Milk 

100.00 

12.68 

87.32 

3.43 

9.25 

.70 

3.57 

4.91 

April  5 < 

Whey 

88.00 

6.01 

81.99 

.39 

5.63 

.39 

.85 

4.45 

\ 

Gr  Cheese 

12.00 

6.67 

5.33 

3.04 

3.62 

.31 

2.72 

.46 

( 

Milk 

100.00 

12.32 

87.68 

3.15 

9.17 

.76 

3.68 

4.80 

April  7 s 

Whey 

88.22 

6.06 

82.16 

.41 

5.65 

.32 

.82 

4.46 

\ 

Gr  Cheese 

11.78 

6.26 

5,52 

2.74 

3.52 

.44 

2.86 

.34 

116 


METHOD  OF  MANUFACTURING  GOUDA  CHEESE. 

For  a number  of  years  there  have  been  numerous  inquir- 
ies as  to  the  best  method  of  manufacturing  cheese  in  the 
home  dairy.  The  answers  to  these  inquiries  have  uniformly 
been  a lengthy  description  of  the  cheddar  process,  which  is 
noUat  all  adapted  to  home  work.  By  this  process  a whole 
day  is  required,  even  when  a single  cheese  is  made.  What 
the  isolated  farmer  needs  is  a short  process  which  requires 
afstnall  outlay  only,  for  apparatus.  After  a careful  study  of 
the  methods  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  the  numerous 
foreign  brands,  the  Gouda  has  been  selected  as  the  one  best 
adapted  for  the  home  dairy.  First,  the  milk  is  worked 
warm,  fresh  from  the  cow;  second,  it  requires  less  than  two 
hours  to  do  the  work;  third,  the  cheese  can  be  cured  in  a 
cellar  or  in  any  damp,  cool  place;  fourth,  it  is  a good  keeper; 
fifth,  it  is  nutritious  and  palatable. 


Fig.  6.  Self  Heating  Cheese  Vat. 


Gouda  cheese  is  largely  manufactured  in  Southern  Hol- 
land where  climatic  conditions  are  very  different  from  those 
which  exist  in  the  northwest.  We  are  subject  to  greater  and 
more  sudden  changes  in  temperature  and  a drier  atmos- 
phere. It  is  therefore  evident  that  the  control  of  tempera- 
ture and  moisture  must  be  provided  for.  In  Holland  the 
cheese  is  similar  in  form  to  the  American  cheddar,  except 
that  the  upper  and  lower  edges  are  rounded.  They  ordina- 
rily weigh  from  eight  to  sixteen  pounds.  The  cheese  made  in 


117 


the  Minnesota  Dairy  School  nmd  in  these  experiments  weigh- 
ed from  seven  to  eight  pounds  and  are  better  adapted  for 
family  use. 

Gouda  is  a sweet  curd  cheese  made  from  whole  milk 
fresh  from  the  cow,  preferably  before  it  cools  below  88 
degrees.  To  prevent  cooling  it  is  better  to  strain  at  once 
into  a wooden  vat  lined  with  tin  or  copper  which  prevents 
rapid  cooling;  or  into  a small  self  heating  vat.  If  color  is 
used  one  dram  to  150  pounds  of  milk  will  give  about  the 
proper  shade.  The  temperature  of  the  milk,  when  the  rennet 
is  added,  should  be  from  88  to  90  degrees.  Enough  rennet 
should  be  used  to  make  the  curd  ready  for  the  knife  in  fifteen 
to  twenty  minutes.  This  will  require  from  seven  to  twelve 
ounces  of  rennet  to  1000  pounds  of  milk,  according  to  the 
strength  of  the  rennet.  To  ascertain  when  it  is  ready  to  cut 
insert  the  finger  in  the  milk  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  until 
the  thumb  touches  the  milk,  gently  raise  the  finger  and  if  the 
curd  breaks  clean  across  it  leaving  but  few  or  no  flakes,  it  is 
ready.  A little  practice  will  soon  teach  one  when  the  curd 
cuts  to  best  advantage.  It  should  not  become  so  firm  that 
it  will  cut  hard  by  gathering  in  front  of  the  knife  or  swaying 
off  to  one  side,  as  this  causes  uneven  cutting.  Neither  should 
it  be  cut  when  it  is  too  soft,  as  this  occasions  great  loss  of 
curd  in  the  whey;  yet  the  general  tendency  of  the  curd  should 
be  toward  softness.  To  insure  even  cooking,  cut  fine — 
about  the  size  of  peas.  Stir  gently  for  about  five  minutes, 
then  apply  more  heat  until  the  curd  reaches  102  to  104  de- 
grees F.;  this  should  require  from  20  to  30  minutes.  The 
curd  should  be  stirred  during  the  whole  process,  and  when 
ready  for  the  mold  it  should  be  quite  firm  and  make  a 
squeaky  noise  when  chewed. 

FILLING  THE  GOUDA  MOLDS. 

Now  let  the  whey  run  off  or  dip  it  out,  then  fill  the  mold 
at  once  by  taking  a double  handful  of  curd  and  pressing  it 
gently  but  firmly  into  the  mold.  Care  should  be  taken  not 
to  allow  the  curd  to  drain  too  much  before  it  is  put  into  the 
mold,  as  it  will  then  be  too  dry  to  pack  readily.  When  the 
mold  is  full  take  the  cheese  out,  turn  it  and  replace  it  in  the 


118 


mold,  put  on  cover  and  put  it  under  press  for  an  hour.  The 
pressure  should  be  light  at  first. 


Fig.  7 Gouia  Molds. 

The  press  may  be  an  oak  stick  four  inches  square,  six- 
teen feet  long,  one  end  to  rest  under  a slat  nailed  against  the 
wall ; place  the  cheese  mold  under  the  stick  about  three 
feet  from  the  wall.  On  the  other  end  suspend  a pail  or  box 
containing  cobble  stones;  during  the  first  hour  the  pail 
should  hang  some  two  feet  from  the  outer  end  of  the  stick. 
The  cheese  should  then  be  taken  out  for  dressing,  which  is 
done  by  taking  a piece  of  cloth  about  six  inches  wide  and 
long  enough  to  go  around  the  cheese.  Dip  cheese  and  cloth 
into  whey  or  water  at  about  120  degrees  Fahrenheit,  wrap 
the  cloth  smoothly  around  the  cheese,  folding  the  edges  care- 
fully over  the  sides,  put  a linen  cap  on  each  side,  replace  in 
mold  and  again  put  it  under  the  press;  now  move  the  vessel 
containing  the  stones  or  other  weights  toward  the  end  of 
the  stick,  to  increase  the  pressure.  Leave  it  in  press  from 
eighteen  to  twenty-four  hours  at  which  time  it  will  be  ready 
for  salting. 

SALTING  AND  CURING  GOUDA  CHEESE. 

This  is  done  by  rubbing  the  cheese  all  over  with  salt, 
once  a day  for  six  to  ten  days,  according  to  temperature, 
moisture  and  desired  keeping  qualities.  The  cheese  should 
be  turned  every  day.  Sometimes  brine  salting  will  bring 
better  results.  Make  a brine  as  strong  as  possible,  let  the 
cheese  float  in  it  from  five  to  eight  days  turning  every  day 
and  sprinkling  a little  salt  on  top.  When  salted  they  should 


119 


be  washed  in  warm  water,  wiped  dry  and  placed  on  the 
shelf  for  curing.  Be  sure  to  rub  and  turn  them  at  least  once 
a day  the  first  month,  twice  a week  the  second  month,  and 
once  a week  the  third  month.  The  curing  room  should  be 
cool  and  rather  damp.  The  temperature  should  not  vary 
more  than  from  55  to  65  degrees. 

If  one  has  no  vat  for  the  milk,  weigh  it  and  put  it  fresh 
into  a boiler  or  tub.  When  the  milk  is  at  the  proper  tem- 
perature add  the  rennet  at  the  rate  of  three  small  tablets  to 
100  pounds  of  milk.  Dissolve  the  tablets  in  a teacup  of 
warm  water  (not  hot),  mix  thoroughly  in  the  milk  by  stir- 
ring carefully  with  an  inverted  dipper.  Cut  the  curd  very 
carefully  with  a wire  broiler  or  toaster,  such  as  is  used  in  the 
kitchen.  The  wires  should  not  be  more  than  14  to  % of  an 
inch  apart;  pass  the  broiler  through  the  curd  slowly  when  it 
is  quite  soft.  To  cook  the  curd  drawoff  about  half  the  whey 
and  warm  to  100  degrees  and  pour  into  the  vat,  gently  stir 
for  ten  or  twelve  minutes,  then  pour  off  the  whey  through 
a sieve  or  cloth  strainer;  quickly  pour  into  the  curd  enough 
water,  heated  to  104  degrees,  to  cover  it,  stir  gently  until 
sufficiently  cooked,  which  should  take  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
minutes.  If  the  curd  seems  to  firm  up  too  slowly,  raise  it  to 
105  or  106  degrees  by  adding  more  warm  water.  If  you 
have  no  mold  the  cheese  can  be  pressed  in  a sieve,  steamer  or 
four-quart  measure.  If  you  have  no  coarse  linen  use  cotton 
cheese  cloth  or  similar  fabric.  Scald  the  whey,  and  after 
cooling  skim  off  the  fat,  which  can  be  used  for  culinary  pur- 
poses. 

Only  absolutely  pure  milk  can  be  used  in  sweet  curd 
work.  If  any  cow  is  out  of  health,  off  her  feed,  feverish  or 
excited,  better  throw  her  milk  away  or  use  it  for  making 
butter.  If  there  is  danger  of  the  curd  being  tainted  or  gassy 
the  whey  should  be  let  off  at  once  and  the  curd  cooked  in 
water.  When  it  has  developed  firmness  the  water  should  be 
drawn  off  and  the  curd  thoroughly  worked  before  putting 
into  the  mold. 


TABLE  No.  XLIX.— Tabulated  Statement  of  Process  and  Principal  Conditions  in  the  Manufacture  of  Gouda. 


120 


Lbs.  of  milk  to  1 
lb.  cheese 

8.1 

8.33 
7.14 
7.14 
7.14 
7.14 
7.09 

7.33 
7.09 

Weight  of  green 
cheese 

8.5 

12 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14.1 

13.5 

14.1 

Time  from 
adding  rennet 
to  putting  to 
press 

mins. 

128 

76 

77 
80 
85 
51 
87 
99 
93 

Amount  of  alkali 
necessary  to 
neutralize  acidity 
of  whey 

c.c 

10 

7.4 

7.4 

7.2 

7 

7.6 

7 

| 

7 

7.4 

Time  required  to 
cook  the  curd 

mins. 

77 

45 

44 

39 

39 

18 

107 

60 

60 

Temp,  to  which 
curd  was  heated... 

ooooooooo 
^C^OOOOJXXX 
OOOOOOOOO 
H -H  H H H -H 

Time  required  until 
ready  for  knife 

mins. 

24 

18 

18 

21 

24 

18 

18 

1 9 

18 

Time  required  imtil 
coagulation  begins 

mins. 

9.38 

6 

6 

7 

8 
6 
6 
6 
6 

Amt.  extract  used 
per  1000  lbs.  milk. 

8.2 

7.1 

7.1 

7.1 

7.1 

7.1 

7.7 

8.5 

Temp,  of  milk  when 
test  was  taken... 

ooooooooo 

ooooooooo 

0000000X0 

Rennet  test  for 
ripeness 

secs. 

53 

70 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

65 

70 

Amount  of  alkali 
necessary  to 
neutralize  acidity 
of  Milk 

Per  cent  fat  in 
milk 

c.c. 

14.3 

12.4 
12.6 
13 
13 
13 
13 
12.4 
12.4 

5.00 

4.50 

4.20 

4.90 

5.00 

4.86 

4.22 

4.50 

Lbs.  of  milk  in 
vat 

OOOOOOOOO 

ooooooooo 

■HHr-IHHrHHH 

Date. 

1894 

Feb.  28 

March  12 

“ 13 

“ 14 

“ 15 

• 

“ 16 

April  9 

“ 11 

“ 12 

3 21 


TABLE  L.— Analyses  of  Milk,  Whey  and  Gouda  Cheese. 


Composition  From  100  lbs.  of  milk 


Date 

Solid  Fat 

Lbs. 

Solids 

Fat 

( 

Milk 

13.98  5.00 

100.00 

13.98 

5.00 

Feb.  28 < 

Whey 

7.16  .50 

87.68 

6.27 

.44 

\ 

Green  cheese 

62.59  36.71 

12.32 

7.71 

4.56 

\ 

Milk 

13.15  4.50 

100 

13.15 

4.50 

March  12 < 

Whey 

7.03  .46 

88 

6.19 

.40 

I 

Green  cheese 

58.00  34.17 

12 

6.96 

4.10 

\ 

Milk 

13.60  4.20 

100 

13.60 

4.20 

March  13 < 

W'hey 

7.23  .60 

86 

6.22 

.52 

I 

Green  cheese 

52.71  -U2f>.21 

14 

7.38 

3.68 

( 

Milk  • 

14.44  4.90 

100 

14.44 

4.90 

March  14 { 

Whey 

7.20  .65 

86 

6.19 

.56 

l 

Green  cheese 

58.93  31*.  00 

14 

8.25 

4.34 

\ 

Milk 

13.73  5.00 

100 

13.73 

5.00 

March  15 ■< 

Whey 

7.27  .67 

86 

6.25 

.58 

l 

Green  cheese 

53.43  31.57 

14 

7.48 

4.42 

TABLE  LI.— Amount  of  Solids  Lost  and  Recovered  in  Making  Gouda  Cheese. 


Date. 

Per  cent. 

solids 
in  milk. 

Pounds  of 
green 

cheese  from 
1<»0  lbs. 
milk. 

Pounds  of 
solids  lost 
in  whey 
from  100 
lbs.  milk. 

Pounds  of 
solids  re- 
covered in 
cheese  from 
100  lb.  milk 

Per  cent, 
of  solids 
in  milk 
lost 

in  whey. 

Per  cent,  of 
solids  in 
milk  re- 
covered in 
cheese. 

March  13.. 

13.60 

14.00 

6.22 

7.38 

45.74 

54.26 

April  11 

13.21 

13.50 

5.99 

7.22 

45.34 

54.66 

March  12.. 

13.15 

12.00 

6.19 

6.96 

47.07 

52.93 

April  12 

13.69 

14.10 

6.16 

7.53 

45.00 

55.00 

April  9 

13  80 

14.10 

6.19 

7.61 

44.86 

55.14 

March  14.. 

14.44 

14,00 

6.19 

8.25 

42.87 

57.13 

March  15.. 

13.73 

14.00 

6.25 

7.48 

45.52 

54.48 

Feb.  28 

13.98 

12.32 

6.27 

7.71 

44.85 

55.15 

122 


TABLE  LII.— Amount  of  Fat  Lost  and  Recovered  in  Making  Gouda  Cheese. 


Date 

Per  cent 
fat  in  milk 

Lbs.  of 
gr.  cheese 
from  100 
lbs.  of  milk 

Lbs.  of  fat 
lost  in 
whey  from 
100  lbs. 
of  milk 

Lbs.  of  fat 
recovered 
in  cheese 
from  100 
lbs  of  milk 

Per  cent  of 
fat  inmiik 
lost  in 
whey 

! 

Per  cent  of 
fat  in  milk 
recovered 
in  green 
cheese 

March  13.. 

4.20 

14.00 

.52 

3.68 

12.38 

87.62 

April  11 

4.22 

13.50 

.30 

3.92 

7.10 

92.90 

March  12.. 

4.50 

12.00 

.40 

4.10 

8.89 

91.11 

April  12 

4.50 

14.10 

.51 

3.99 

11.33 

88.67 

April  9 

4.86 

14.10 

.47 

4.39 

9.67 

90.33 

March  14.. 

4.90 

14.00 

.56 

4.34 

11.43 

88.57 

March  15.. 

5.00 

14.00 

.55 

4.42 

11.60 

88.40 

Feb.  28 

5.00 

12.32 

.44 

4.56 

8.80 

91.20 

TABLE  LIII.— Analyses  of  Milk,  Whey  and  Gouda  Cheese. 


Percentage  Compositian. 


Date 

' 

Solids.... 

Water  ... 

jFat 

Solids 
not  fat.. 

Ash 

Protein  . 

Lactose. 

Milk 

13.80 

86.20 

4.86 

8.94 

.71 

3.35 

4.85 

April  9 1 

Whey 

7.21 

92.79 

.55 

6.66 

.41 

.94 

5.15 

1 

Gr  Cheese 

53.97 

46.03 

31.13 

22.84 

2.55 

18.01 

3.04 

( 

Milk 

13.21 

86.79 

4.22 

8.99 

.75 

3.40 

4.88 

April  11 •< 

Whey 

6.93 

93.07 

.35 

6.58 

.42 

.92 

5.15 

\ 

Gr  Cheese 

53.48 

46.52 

29.04 

24.44 

2.88 

19.25 

3.18 

( 

Milk 

13.69 

86.31 

4.50 

9.19 

.78 

3.54 

4.90 

April  12 < 

Whey 

7.17 

92.83 

.59 

6.58 

.40 

! .90 

5.15 

( 

Gr  Cheese 

53.41 

46.59 

28.29 

25.16 

3.12 

|19.64 

i 

3.40 

From  100  lbs.  of  Milk. 


Date 

J i 

Pounds . 

Solids.... 

W ater . . 

jFat 

Solids 
not  fat.. 

Ash 

Protein  . 

Lactose. 

( 1 

Milk 

100.00 

13.80 

86.20 

4.86 

8.94 

71 

3.35 

4.85 

April  9 ■{ 

Whey 

85.90 

6.19 

79.71 

.47 

5.72 

.35 

.81 

4.42 

1 

Gr  Cheese 

14.10 

7.61 

6.49 

4.39 

3.22 

.36 

2.54 

.43 

{ 

Milk 

100.00 

13.21 

86.79 

4.22 

8.99 

.75 

3.40 

4.88 

April  11 1 

Whey 

86.50 

5.99 

80.51 

.30 

5.69 

.36 

.80 

4.45 

} 

Gr  Cheese 

13.50 

7.22 

6.28 

3.92 

3.30 

.39 

2.60 

.43 

Milk 

100.00 

13.69 

86.31 

4.50 

9.19 

.78 

3.54 

4.90 

April  12 ■< 

Whey 

85.90 

6.16 

79  74 

.51 

5.65 

.34 

.77 

4.42 

( 

Gr  Cheese 

14.10 

7.53 

6.57 

3.99 

3.54 

.44 

2.77 

.48 

TABLE  LIV. — Tabulated  Statement  of  Process  and  Principal  Conditions  in  the  Manufacture  of  Emmenthaler  (Swiss  Cheese.) 


123 


Lbs.  of  cured 
cheese 

I 

31.6 

30.9 

28.7 

27.3 
20. 

34.3 

Lbs.  of  milk  to  1 
lb.  of  cheese 

1 

9.41 
8.93 
10.14 
9.71 
9.32 
7.55 
9.01 
8.27 
! 8.82 
9. 

1 

Weight  of  green 
cheese 

39.3 
37. 

32.3 
38.5 
38.1 

24.  G 
41. 

30. 

34. 

25. 

1 

Time  from  adding 
rennet  to  putting 
to  press 

mins. 

106 

118 

122 

150 

138 

248 

264 

133 

127 

109 

Per  cent  fat 
in  whey 

1 ■ 

1.1 

.7 

.5 

.8 

.9 

.3 

.5 

.8 

.9 

1.3 

1 

Time  required  to 
cook  the  curd 

mins.  | 

55 

45 

75 

70 

42 

57 

56 
66 

58 

59 

Temp,  to  which 
curd  was  heated  .. 

oooooooooo 

OOC^tCiCOiflOCC 

NHi-'tht-'i-iiHNWOI 

T-'THHHri'HHTHT-iH 

Time  required 
until  ready  for 
breaking...'. 

mins.  | 

31 

29 
22 

32 

35 

30 
24 
30 

36 

33 

Time  required  until 
coagulation  begins 

mins. 

11 

9 

9 

13 

15 

11 

10 

10 

12 

11 

1 

Amount  of  extract 
used  per  10(h) 
pounds  of 
milk 

ozs. 

5.30 

6.50 
2.10 
5.98 

5.50 
8.54 
7.09 
4.03 
3.85 

3.50 

1 

Temp,  of  milk  when 
test  was  taken  .... 

O O O O O O 0 o o o 

oxxcooc^occ 

OXXOOCiOGiO'O 

Rennet  test  for 
ripeness 

secs. 

70 

75 

40 

99 

105 

120 

90 

60 

70 

60 

Amount  of  alkali 
necessary  to 
neutralize  acidity 
of  milk 

| cc. 

15.3 
14.5 

14. 

12.8 

12.4 
12.2 

Per  cent  of  fat 
in  milk 

1 

4.1 

4.2 

3.5 
4.0 
4.2 

4.6 
4.9 
4.5 
4.5 
4.4 

L_ 

Lbs.  of  milk  in 
vat 

(>•  C O cc  1C 

c o’  w ci  x o -+ 

t»coN-Niaxc^ON 

COCOCOCOWrHCONWCI 

Date. 

1894 

Jan.  16 

“ 17 

“ 20 

“ 22 

“ 23 

*Feb.  2 

“ 6 

Mch.  24  

“ 27 

“ 29 

*Curd  cut  with  American  knife. 


124 


The  foregoing  table  includes  the  cheese  made  under  the 
direction  of  Hon.  John  Luchsinger  during  the  session  of  the 
Dairy  School  in  January,  those  made  by  J.  H.  Hecker  in 
February  and  W.  P.  Simpson  in  March.  All  the  cheese  were 
made  of  whole  milk,  except  the  one  made  the  20th  of  Janu- 
ary which  consisted  of  two-thirds  whole  milk  and  one-third 
skim. 

The  milk  used  during  January  and  February  was  pur- 
chased from  a creamery  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  state 
and  from  dealers  in  the  city,  being  mixed  evening’s  and 
morning’s  milk  which  had  been  subjected  to  low  tempera- 
ture in  shipping;  while  that  worked  in  March  was  morn- 
ing’s milk.  The  mixed  milks  required  14cc  to  15.3cc  to 
neutralize  the  acid,  while  the  fresh  morning’s  milk  required 
12.2  to  12.8.  In  comparing  the  alkali  test  with  the  rennet 
test  it  will  be  observed  that  on  the  days  when  the  milk  re- 
quired from  14  to  15.3cc  alkali  to  neutralize  the  acid,  the 
rennet  test  required  from  90  to  105  seconds  before  coagula- 
tion commenced,  and  in  March  when  the  milk  required  from 
12.2  to  12.8cc  alkali,  coagulation  commenced  in  from  60  to 
70  seconds.  The  milk  worked  on  the  20th  of  January  com- 
menced to  coagulate  in  nine  minutes  with  only  two  ounces 
of  rennet  to  1000  pounds  of  milk  and  was  ready  for  break- 
ing in  twenty-two  minutes.  That  used  on  the  23rd  of  Janu- 
ary took  15  minutes  before  commencing  to  coagulate  and  it 
was  not  ready  for  breaking  until  after  the  expiration  of  35 
minutes.  With  ordinarily  sweet  milk  the  time  from  adding 
the  rennet  until  the  curd  is  ready  to  break  is  31  minutes* 
The  temperature  to  which  the  curd  was  raised  ranged  from 
110  to  120  degrees.  The  curd  of  January  17th  was  cooked 
at  110  degrees,  and  although  kept  under  exactly  the  same 
conditions  as  the  other  cheese  made  the  same  month,  it  was 
ready  for  the  market  early  in  May.  It  was  sold  to  a grocer 
and  retailed  readily  at  18  cents ; as  soon  as  it  was  sold  he 
called  at  the  Station  and  offered  15  cents  for  all  on  hand. 
The  cheese  made  on  the  23rd  of  January  was  ripe  in  six 
months,  while  none  of  the  others  appear  to  be  ripe  at  the 
close  of  the  seventh  month. 

The  cheese  made  from  whole  milk  and  the  curd  reduced 


125 


by  a curd  breaker  shrunk  in  the  process  of  curing  on  an  aver- 
age, 24.6  percent;  while  that  cut  with  an  American  curd 
knife  shrunk  18.7  percent.  When  the  curd  breaker  was  used 
to  reduce  the  curd,  it  required,  on  an  average  10.3  pounds  of 
milk  for  one  pound  of  cured  cheese  and  when  a knife  was  used 
a pound  of  cured  cheese  was  made  from  9.3  pounds  of  milk. 
The  average  loss  of  fat  in  the  whey  was  .83  of  one  per  cent, 
when  the  breaker  was  used  and  .30  with  the  curd  knife. 
With  whole  milk  and  using  the  breaker,  the  cheese  shrunk  in 
curing  26.1  per  cent ; using  the  knife  the  shrinkage  was  9.3 
per  cent. 

The  whey  from  the  Swiss  cheese  made  on  the  16th  of 
January  was  raised  to  150  degrees  F.,  the  butter  fat  skim- 
med and  two  pounds  of  butter  were  made  of  inferior  quality. 
On  the  17th  of  January  the  whey  was  run  through  a No.  3 
Alpha  Separator,  a good  sour  milk  starter  was  added  and 
the  cream  churned  the  day  following,  giving  a yield  of  2.1 
pounds  of  fair  butter,  the  flavor  being  much  better  than  that 
made  the  day  previous.  On  the  22nd  there  was  drawn  from 
the  Swiss  curd  322  pounds  of  whey  to  which  was  added  6.7 
pounds  butter  milk  and  7.6  pounds  of  cream  testing  25  per 
cent.  fat.  It  was  then  condensed  and  made  33  pounds 
Primost  of  the  finest  quality,  which  sold  for  12%  and  15 
cents  per  pound.  The  milk  from  which  the  cheese  was  made 
on  the  23rd  was  frozen  but  otherwise  was  in  good  condi- 
tion. It  required  14.5cc  alkali  to  neutralize  the  acid  but  the 
rennet  test  showed  105  seconds  when  coagulation  commen- 
ced. After  seven  months  this  was  the  best  cheese  in  the  lot 
but  hardly  ready  for  consumption. 

On  the  2nd  of  February  the  American  curd  knife  was 
used  to  note  the  effect,  if  any,  upon  the  curd,  loss  of  fat, 
flavor  and  texture;  fat  in  whey  .3  of  one  per  cent.  After 
seven  months  the  cheec^  was  tried  and  found  dry  and  almost 
closed,  the  Swiss  holes  were  few,  small  and  lacked  that  lively 
glossy  appearance  characteristic  of  good  Emmenthaler;  it 
also  lacked  the  proper  flavor. 

From  the  cheese  made  on  the  6th  of  February,  300 
pounds  of  whey  were  taken  and  run  through  a hand  separa- 
tor obtaining  9.3  pounds  of  cream  which  was  churned,  yield- 


126 


in g 3 pounds  of  unsalted  butter.  When  six  months  old  the 
cheese  was  in  fine  condition  but  was  far  from  being  ripe. 
Those  made  the  24th,  27th  and  29th  are  to  all  appearance 
in  fine  condition  and  promise  good  results  though  not 
mature  at  this  writing. 

The  whey  of  the  24th  was  separated,  giving  9 pounds  of 
cream,  which  was  cooled  to  45  degrees  F.,  and  after  two 
hours  raised  to  65  degrees  F.,  and  three  pounds  of  fresh  but- 
termilk added.  The  following  day  it  was  churned  at  62  de- 
grees F.,  washed  and  worked  at  56  degrees,  and  1.9  pounds 
of  butter  obtained,  which  scored : flavor  40,  grain  30,  color 
14,  salt  8 ; total  92.  It  was  cut  five  points  on  flavor,  June 
standard,  flavor  good  but  not  quick;  one  on  color,  being  a 
point  too  high  and  two  points  short  on  salt. 

On  the  29th  of  March  192  pounds  of  whey  were  drawn, 
testing  1.1  per  cent.  fat.  It  was  run  through  a hand  separ- 
ator, cooled  to  50  degrees,  in  a couple  of  hours  was  raised  to 
65  degrees,  twenty  per  cent,  starter  was  added  and  set  in  a 
B03M  vat.  The  following  day  it  was  churned  at  62  degrees 
F.,  washed  and  worked.  Weight  of  butter  2.3  pounds. 
Flavor  38,  grain  28,  color  15,  salt  10;  total  91. 

Whey  butter  as  usually  made  is  a very  low  grade  of 
goods,  selling  about  on  a par  with  the  grade  generally 
termed  “packing  stock,  poor,”  which  sells  for  10  cents  when 
extra  dairy  butter  sells  at  20  cents.  By  running  the  whey 
through  a separator  and  ripening  the  cream  with  good  lac- 
tic ferment,  the  quality  of  the  butter  can  be  improved  25  to 
50  per  cent. 


127 


TABLE  LV.— Analyses  of  Milk,  Whey  and  Swiss  Cheese. 


Percentage  Composition. 

Date. 

Solids. 

Water. 

Fat. 

Solids  J 
not 
fat.  t 

Ash.  Protein 

Lac- 

tose. 

j 

Milk 

13.35 

86.65 

4.51 

8.84 

.64 

3.48 

4.72 

March  24...  V 

Whey 

7.13 

92.87 

1.01 

6.12 

.27 

.90 

4.97 

\ 

Gr.  Cheese 

58,57 

41.43 

29.93 

28.60 

3.34 

22  13 

2.90 

) 

Milk 

13.68 

86.32 

4.50 

j 9.18 

.63 

3.63 

4.90 

March  27...  > 

Whey 

7.24 

! 92.76 

.83 

6 41 

.32 

.92 

5.10 

f 

Gr.  Cheese 

64.09 

35.91 

33.21 

| 30.85 

3.06 

24.82 

1 3.32 

) 

Milk 

13.34 

86.66 

4 Ao 

8.94 

.80 

3.32 

4.87 

March  29...  )- 

Whey 

7.27 

92.73 

.88 

I 6.39 

.46 

.86 

5.07 

f 

Gr.  Cheese 

61.64 

38.40 

1 

32.40 

29.44 

3.48 

22.88 

3.24 

From  100  lbs.  of  Milk. 


Date. 

Lbs. 

Solids 

W ater 

Fat 

Solids 
not  fat 

Ash 

Protein 

Lac- 

tose 

( 

Milk 

100.00 

13.35 

86.65 

4.51 

8.84 

.64 

3.48 

4.72 

March  24  a 

Whey 

87.90 

6.27 

81.64! 

.89 

5.38 

.24 

.79 

4.37 

( 

Gr.  Cheese 

12.10 

7.08 

5.01: 

3.62 

3.46 

.40 

2.68 

.35 

( 

Milk 

100.00 

13.68 

86.32! 

4.50 

9.18 

.63 

3.63 

4.90 

March  27  s 

Whey 

88.67 

| 6.42 

1 82.26 

.74 

5.68 

.28 

.82 

4.52 

1 

Gr.  Cheese 

11.33 

7.26 

4.06 1 

3.76 

3.50 

.35 

2.81 

.38 

( 

Milk 

100.00 

i 13.34 

86.66 

4.40 

8.94 

.80 

3.32 

4.87 

March  29-^ 

Whey 

88.84 

| 6.46 

i 82.38! 

.78 

5.67 

.41 

.77 

4.51 

f 

Gr.  Cheese 

11.16 

6.88 

| 4-28| 

3.62 

3.27 

.39 

2.55 

.36 

128 


TABLE  LVI.— Analyses  of  Milk,  Whey  and  Emmenthaler  Cheese. 


% Composition 

From  100  lbs.  of  milk 

Date 

Solids 

Fat 

Lbs. 

Solids 

Fat 

( 

Milk 

12.23 

4. 

100. 

12.23 

4,00 

Jan.  22 -j 

Whey 

7.07 

.93 

89.71 

6.34 

.82 

i 

Gr.  cheese 

57.22 

30.78 

10.29 

5.89 

3.18 

( 

Milk 

10.98 

4.2 

100. 

10  98 

4.20 

Jan.  23 < 

Whey 

7.37 

.80 

89.28 

6.58 

.72 

\ 

Gr.  cheese 

41.02 

32.49 

10.72 

4.40 

3.48 

TABLE  LVII.— Amount  of  Fat  Lost  and  Recovered  in  Making  Emmenthaler 

Cheese. 


Date. 

Per  cent 
fat  in 
milk 

I Lbs.  of 
greencheese 
from  100 
lbs.  of 
milk 

Lbs.  of  fat 
lost  in 
whey  from 
100  lbs. 
of  milk 

Lbs.  of  fat 
recovered 
in  cheese 
from  100 
lbs.  of  milk 

Per  cent  of 
fat  in 

milk  lost  in 
whey 

Per  cent  of 
fat  in  milk 
recovered 
in  cheese 

Jan.  22 

4.00 

10.29 

.82 

3.18 

20.50 

79.50 

Jan.  23 

4.20 

10.72 

.72 

3.48 

17.14 

82.86 

Mch.  29 

4.40 

11.16 

.78 

3.62 

17.73 

82.27 

Mch.  27 

4.50 

11.33 

.74 

3.76 

16.44 

83.56 

Mch.  24 

4.51 

12.10 

.89 

3.62 

19.73 

80.27  jj 

TABLE  LVIII.— Amount  of  Solids  Lost  and  Recovered  in  Making  Emmenthaler 

Cheese. 


Date 

Per  cent 
solids  in 
milk 

Lbs.  of 
green 

cheese  from 
100  lbs.  of 
milk 

Lbs.  of 
solids  lost 
in  whey 
from  100 
lbs.  of  milk 

Lbs.  of 
solids  re- 
covered in 
cheese  from 
100  lbs.  of 
milk 

Per  cent  of 
solids  in 
milk  lost 
in  whey 

Per  cent 
of  solids  in 
milk  re- 
covered in 
cheese 

Jan.  22 

12.23 

10.29 

6.34 

5.89 

51.84 

48.16 

Jan.  23 

10.98 

10.72 

6.58 

4.40 

59.93 

'40.07 

Mch.  29 

13.34 

11.16 

6.46 

6.88 

48.43 

51.57 

Mch.  27 

13.68 

11.33 

6.42 

7.26 

46.93 

53.07 

Mch.  24 

13.35 

12.10 

6.27 

7.08 

46.97 

53.63 

University  of  Minnesota. 


f 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  No.  36. 


CHEMICAL  DIVISION. 


HSTOTZ-IEIMIEEIR,  1894. 


MISCELLANEOUS  ANALYSES  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS. 
THE  DIGESTIBILITY  OF  WHEAT. 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK , RAMSEY  CO., 

MINNESOTA. 


EAGLE  JOB  PRINT,  DELANO,  MINN. 


University  of  Minnesota. 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis,  - 
The  HON.  GREENEEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul, 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul, 

The  HON.  WM.  H.  YALE,  Winona,  

The  HON.  IOEL  P.  HEATWOLE,  Northfield, 

The  HON.  O.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth,  - 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson, 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN,  Minneapolis, 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  B.  A.,  Minneapolis, 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  St.  Paul, 

The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PENDERGAST,  M.  A.,  Hutchinson, 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 
CYRUS  NORTHROP,  LL.  D.,  Minneapolis,  - 

The  President  of  the  University. 


- 1896 
1894 

1894 
1896 

- 1896 
1896 

- 1896 

1895 
1895 

Ex-Officio. 

Ex-Officio . 
Ex-Officio. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WILLI  M M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  J.  S.  PILLSBURY. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PENDERGAST. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION: 

WM.  M.  LIGGETT,  ----------  Chairman. 

WILLET  M.  HAYS,  B.  S.  A.,  - - Vice  Chairman  and  Agriculturist. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S.,  - - Horticulturist. 

OT  TO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  - - - - Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S.,  - Chemist. 

T.  L.  HH5CKER, Dairy  Husbandry. 

M.  H.  REYNOLDS,  M.  D.,  V.  M.,  -----  Veterinarian. 

THOS.  SHAW,  - --  --  --  --  Animal  Husbandry. 

J.  A.  VYE, Secretary. 

ANDREW  BOSS,  - --  --  --  --  Farm  Foreman. 


The  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the 
State  who  make  application  for  them. 


ERRATA. 


Page  134 — Read  : Blue  joint  hay,  digestible  protein  3.7  in  place  of  4.7. 

Page  135 — Read  : Barley,  digestible  nitrogen  free  extract  56.6,  in  place 
of  5.66. 

Page  138 — Read:  Nutrative  ratio  6.4  in  place  of  6.5  in  second  para- 
graph 6th  line. 

Page  138— Read  : (2.08  + 3.31  + 8.10)  X I860  = 25096 
.76  X 4225  = 3211 

Total  Calories,  28307 

(Minn.  Bulletin  No.  36,  Nov.  1894). 


MISCELLANEOUS  ANALYSES  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS. 


HARRY  SNYDER. 

On  account  of  the  prolonged  drouth  of  the  past  summer, 
the  question  of  fodder,  in  some  sections  of  the  state,  will  re- 
quire careful  consideration.  Many  inquiries  have  been  re- 
ceived from  farmers  regarding  the  comparative  cost  and 
composition  of  various  foods.  In  many  cases,  samples  of 
fodders  and  grains  have  been  sent  to  the  laboratory  for 
chemical  analyses.  These  analyses  are  published  at  this 
date,  so  that  all  who  have  occasion  to  either  purchase  or 
sell  fodder  during  the  coming  winter  may  profit  by  the  re- 
sults. 

The  chemical  analysis  of  a fodder,  as  ordinarily  made, 
does  not  give  all  the  information  that  a farmer  desires,  but 
for  general  comparative  purposes  the  analysis  gives  much 
valuable  information.  The  purchaser  can  judge  for  himself, 
as  to  the  quality  of  the  fodder  or  grain,  whether  it  is  musty 
or  otherwise  inferior.  The  analysis  tells,  practically,  what 
the  food  contains,  and  by  means  of  simple  calculations,  as 
will  be  explained  later,  the  comparative  amounts  of  muscle 
forming,  and  heat  producing  bodies  which  a given  sum  of 
money  will  purchase,  can  easily  and  readily  be  determined. 
Hence  the  analysis  may  serve  as  a guide  to  show  which  food 
will  be  the  most  economical  to  purchase  or  sell. 

The  important  compounds  present  in  fodders  and  food 
stuffs  have  been  discussed  in  previous  bulletins  of  this 
station.  A few  additional  facts,  however,  about  the  com- 
parative food  values  of  the  various  compounds  are  given  so 
as  to  aid  in  using  the  figures. 

The  analyses  recorded  in  this  bulletin  are  from  samples 
of  fodders  grown  under  the  conditions  of  climate  and  soil  of 
this  state ; hence  the  results  are  better  adopted  to  our  con- 


130 


ditions,  than  average  anatyses  of  materials  grown  else- 
where. 

EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS  USED. 

Water. — In  all  food  stuffs,  even  those  which  have  been 
thoroughly  sun  and  air  dried,  there  is  an  appreciable  amount 
of  water  present.  Substances  like  meal  and  flour  which  ap- 
pear perfectly  dry  to  the  “feel”  are  not  free  from  water.  In 
the  tables  of  analyses,  the  figures  for  water  represent  the 
amount  which  is  present  in  every  hundred  pounds  of  the 
material.  The  last  traces  of  water  are  removed  by  drying 
the  substance  in  an  oven  at  a temperature  of  212  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  when  all  of  the  water  in  the  material  is  con- 
verted into  steam  and  escapes. 

The  dry  substance  is  what  is  left  after  all  of  the  water 
has  been  removed  from  any  material.  Frequently  the  re- 
sults of  the  analyses  are  expressed  on  the  dry  substance  or 
water  free  material,  as  it  is  called.  In  this  bulletin  all  of  the 
results  are  given  as  they  are  present  in  the  original  material, 
or  as  ordinarily  used,  unless  otherwise  stated. 

The  Ash  is  what  is  left  after  the  dry  substance  is  burned. 
It  is  sometimes  called  the  mineral  or  inorganic  part.  The 
ash  is  important  inasmuch  as  it  furnishes  the  main  portion 
of  the  necessary  materials  for  bone  growth.  Too  much  ash 
especially  when  it  is  rich  in  silica  (sand),  or  of  strong  alka- 
lies, as  in  the  Russian  thistle,  is  objectionable.  The  ashes 
from  all  grains  are  usualty  the  richest  in  phosphates,  and 
hence  the  most  valuable  for  bone  growth.  In  nearly  all 
mature  agricultural  products  there  is  less  than  ten  per  cent, 
ash.  There  is  generally  a sufficient  amount  of  ash  in  all  food 
products  for  bone  growth. 

The  organic  matter  is  that  portion  which  is  converted  in- 
to smoke  and  volatile  products  when  the  dry  matter  is 
burned ; hence  the  organic  matter  is  readily  found  by  sub- 
tracting the  ash  from  the  dry  matter. 

From  the  feeder’s  point  of  view  the  organic  matter  is 
divided  into  two  large  classes  of  compounds:  (1)  The  non- 

nitrogenous  compounds,  and  (2)  the  nitrogenous  compounds. 
This  division  is  made  according  to  the  presence  or  absence 
of  the  element  nitrogen.  Starch  and  sugar  contain  no 


nitrogen,  hence  they  are  noii-nitrogenous  compounds,  while 
albumen,  the  white  of  the  egg,  contains  nitrogen,  and  hence 
is  a nitrogenous  compound. 

The  non-nitrogenous  compounds  include  cellulose  (main- 
ly woody  material),  starch,  sugar,  fats,  and  the  jellies  which 
are  known  as  pectose  substances.  In  some  fodders,  in  addition 
to  these,  there  is  a small  amount  of  non-nitrogenous  ma- 
terials, like  lignin,  and  the  pentoses,  which  possess  no  food 
value.  The  non-nitrogenous  compounds  make  up  by  far  the 
larger  portion  of  the  dry  matter  of  a fodder.  There  is  from 
four  to  ten  times  more  of  the  non-nitrogenous  compounds  in 
any  ordinary  food,  than  introgenous  compounds.  There  is 
usually  a sufficient  amount  of  non-nitrogenous  material  in 
all  foods,  but  the  nitrogenous  compounds  are  liable  to  be 
too  deficient. 

The  fats  and  other  bodies  soluble  in  ether,  known  as  the 
ether  extract , are  very  concentrated  forms  of  non-nitro- 
genous compounds.  In  the  grains  and  milled  products,  the 
ether  extract  is  nearly  pure  fat  while  in  the  grasses  and  hays 
it  is  from  50  to  65  per  cent.  pure.  All  fats  contain  about  one 
half  more  carbon,  the  charcoal  element,  than  is  found  in 
starch  or  sugar.  Hence  when  fats  are  digested  and  undergo 
oxidation,  and  combustion  within  the  body,  they  produce 
over  twice  as  much  heat  as  starch  or  sugar.  The  fat  in  the 
food  has  more  to  do  with  producing  heat  in  the  body,  and 
but  little  to  do,  directly,  with  furnishing  fat  for  the  produc- 
tion of  milk.  In  fact  any  good  cow  will  give  much  more  fat 
in  her  milk  for  a given  period  than  there  is  fat  in  her  food. 
A certain  amount  of  fat  in  a food  is  essential,  too  large  a 
a quantity  when  not  associated  with  a sufficient  amount  of 
protein  is  objectionable. 

The  fiber  constitutes  the  frame  work  of  the  plant,  and  is 
composed  mainly  of  cellulose  (woody  material).  The  fiber 
is  not  entirely  indigestible;  in  many  foods  it  is  about  half 
digestible.  Ordinary  amounts  of  fiber,  when  associated  with 
a sufficient  amount  of  digestible  materials  is  unobjectionable. 
The  fiber  and  ash,  in  the  foods  as  ordinarily  used,  ought  not 
to  exceed  forty-five  per  cent,  of  the  total  nutrients  because 
they  represent  too  much  inert  material  in  a fodder. 


132 


Nitrogen  free  extract.  In  the  analysis,  the  starch,  sugar 
and  jelly  (pectose)  substances  are  all  classed  together  under 
the  head  of  nitrogen  free  extract.  The  compound  word 
nitrogen-free,  means  free  from  nitrogen.  The  bodies  are  all 
easily  soluble  in  dilute  acids  and  alkaline  solutions.  The 
term  nitrogen-free  extract,  when  applied  to  the  fodder  is  a 
very  indefinite  one,  but  when  only  the  digestible  and  valu- 
able part  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract  is  considered,  and  not 
the  inidgestible  part,  which  possesses  no  value,  the  term  be- 
comes much  more  definite. 

The  Nitrogenous  Compounds.  The  characteristic  build- 
ing material  of  these  compounds  is  the  element  nitrogen. 
The  nitrogenous  compounds  are,  by  far,  the  most  expensive 
and  the  most  important  materials  found  in  food  stuffs.  Un- 
fortunately the  terms  employed  to  designate  these  bodies 
are  somewhat  confused.  By  many,  the  terms  nitrogenous 
compounds,  proteids  and  albuminoids  are  used  synony- 
mously. To  the  chemist  these  terms  all  have  different  mean- 
ings. Crude  protein  or  total  nitrogenous  compounds  is  the 
term  which  includes  and  designates  all  of  the  nitrogenous 
bodies.  The  term  protein  represents  only  a single  class  of 
the  total  nitrogenous  compounds.  The  crude  protein  or 
total  nitrogenous  compounds,  includes,  besides  protein, 
amides,  and  alkaloids,  bodies  which  possess  little  or  no  food 
value. 

Protein  is  the  largest  and  most  important  class  of  the 
nitrogenous  compounds.  The  proteids  are  the  materials  out 
of  which  the  muscles  are  formed,  they  enter  into  the  com- 
positon  of  the  tissue  of  the  nervous  system,  the  ligaments, 
bones,  hoofs,  hair,  and  all  of  the  vital  fluids.  The  protein 
compounds  supply  the  waste  materials,  and  keep  the  com- 
plicated machinery  of  the  body  in  repair.  A certain  amount 
of  protein  in  the  food  is  absolute^  necessary  to  repair  the 
waste  of  the  body,  and  this  necessary  protein  must  be  sup- 
plied before  growth  or  the  production  of  meat  or  milk  can 
take  place. 

When  an  animal  is  supplied  with  all  the  digestible  pro- 
tein necessary  to  maintain  the  body,  the  excess  is  either 
stored  up  in  the  body,  or  used  for  producing  fat  in  the  milk. 


133 


Hence  the  necessity  for  keeping  up  a good  supply  of  protein 
in  the  food.  In  fact,  the  chief  benefit  which  is  derived  from 
the  food  consumed  comes  from  the  small  amount  which  is 
in  excess  of  that  required  for  maintenance 

In  the  tables,  the  nitrogenous  material  in  the  form  of 
true  protein  is  indicated  in  the  column  headed  : “ Per  cent,  of 
total  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  true  protein/’ 

The  indigestible  part  of  fodders.  In  all  fodders  and 
grains  there  is  a certain  amount  of  each  of  the  food  nutrients 
which  is  indigestible  and  can  not  be  counted  upon  for  food 
purposes.  The  amounts  of  the  various  indigestible  nutrients 
in  fodders  have  been  determined  by  a number  of  American 
Experiment  Stations. 

In  the  tables  the  composition  of  every  hundred  pounds 
of  fodder  as  ordinarily  used,  is  given.  On  the  same  line 
under  the  head  of  parts  digestible,  is  given  the  pounds  of 
each  digestible  nutrient  in  the  hundred  pounds  of  fodder. 
Under  the  head  of  composition  is  given  what  is  in  the  fodder, 
and  under  parts  digestible,  is  given  the  amount  which  can 
be  counted  upon  for  actual  food  purposes.  The  results  under 
parts  digestible  are  calculated  from  the  average  results  of 
American  Digestion  Co-efficients,  and  from  the  composition 
of  the  materials  as  here  reported.  The  digestible  nutrients 
of  the  grains  and  milled  products  are  calculated  mainly  from 
our  own  results,  published  in  Bulletin  No.  26,  and  from  ex- 
periments conducted  for  this  purpose.  In  some  cases  where 
the  digestibility  of  the  food  had  not  been  determined,  the 
digestion  coefficients  of  other  foods  of  the  same  class,  and 
having  about  the  same  composition,  were  used. 

In  the  table  of  analyses,  the  composition  of  all  of  the 
field  cured  crops  show  a less  amount  of  hydroscopic  moist- 
ure than  is  usually  given  for  these  crops  or  is  present  in 
crops  grown  in  a climate  where  the  atmosphere  is  more 
moist.  This  difference  is  easily  accounted  for  by  the  fact 
that  the  atmosphere  of  this  state  is  usually  very  dry,  hence 
when  the  crops  are  air  dried,  they  contain  a correspondingly 
less  amount  of  moisture. 


MINNESOTA  ANALYSES. 


134 


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137 


The  term  nutritive  ratio  is  frequently  made  use  of  in 
connection  with  feeding  stuffs.  The  nutritive  ratio  is  the 
ratio  which  exists  between  the  digestible  protein  and  the 
digestible  non-nitrogenous  compounds.  A nutritive  ratio  of 
1 to  6.7  means  that  for  every  one  pound  of  digestible  crude 
protein  there  are  6.7  parts  of  digestible  non-nitrogenous 
compounds.  A wide  ration  means  a larger  amount  of  non- 
nitrogenous  compounds,  a narrow  ration  a eomparativehr 
less  amount. 

To  calculate  the  nutritive  ratio  first  determine  the 
pounds  of  digestible  protein  in  the  food  used.  Then  cal- 
culate the  pounds  of  digestible  fiber  and  nitrogen-free  extract. 
Multiply  the  pounds  of  digestible  fat  by  2.5,  because  the  fat 
produces  so  much  more  heat  and  is  considered  2.5  times  more 
concentrated  than  the  nitrogen-free  extract  compounds. 
Add  the  digestible  fiber,  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  corrected 
fat  together,  and  divide  the  sum  by  the  digestible  protein, 
the  result  is  the  nutritive  ratio. 

In  case  a cow  consumes  18  pounds  of  blue  grass  hay  and 
ten  pounds  of  bran  per  day  the  digestible  nutrients  and  nu- 
tritive ratio  are  found  as  follows : From  the  table  take  the 
number  of  pounds  of  each  digestible  nutrient  in  a hundred 
pounds  of  the  feed  used  Put  the  decimal  point  two  places  to 
the  left  so  as  to  represent  the  amounts  in  one  pound.  Mul- 
tiply the  pounds  of  fodder  used,  by  the  amount  of  each  sep- 
arate digestible  nutrient  in  one  pound  of  that  fodder. 

The  digestible  nutrients  in  every  hundred  pounds  of  the 
blue  grass  hay  and  wheat  bran  used  are : 


Ether 

Protein.  Extract. 

Blue  grass  hay  4.6  2.2 

Wheat  bran  12.5  3.6 


Nitrogen-free 
Fiber.  Extract. 

16.4  23.6 

3.6  38.5 


The  digestible  nutrients  in  one  pound  would  be  a hun- 
dredth part  of  each  amount  above.  In  eighteen  pounds  of 
blue  grass  hay,  there  are  the  following  amounts  of  each  di- 
gestible nutrient : Crude  protein  18  x .046=  .83  lbs.;  fiber 
.164  x 18  = 2.95  lbs.;  nitrogen-free  extract  18  x 236  = 4.25 
lbs.,  ether  extract  18  x .022  = .4  lbs.  In  ten  pounds  of 
bran  the  digestible  nutrients  are : Protein  10  x .125  = 1.25 


138 


lbs., fiber  10  x .036=  .36  lbs.,  nitrogen-free  extract  10  x .385 
= 3.85  lbs.,  ether  extract  10  x .036  = .36  lbs. 

Tabulating  the  total  pounds  of  each  nutrient  in  both  hay 
and  bran  we  have  : 

Nitrogen-free  Ether  Corrected 


18  lbs.  hay 
10  lbs.  bran 

Protein 

.83 

1.25 

Fiber 

2.95 

.36 

Extract 

4.25 

3.85 

Extract 

.40 

.36 

Ether  Extract. 

.76  x 2V2  = 1.90 

Total  nutrients 

2.08 

3.31 

8.10 

.76 

1.90 

Adding  the  digestible  fiber,  nitrogen-free  extract  and  cor- 
rect fat  togetner,  it  gives  13.31  pounds  of  digestible  non- 
nitrogenous  compounds.  3.31  + 8.10  + 1.90  ==  13.31.  Di- 
viding this  number,  which  is  the  total  digestible  non-nitro- 
genous  compounds,  by  the  digestible  protein,  it  gives  6.4. 
13.31  -A- 2.08  — 6.4.  The  nutritive  ratio  is  1 to  6.5.  There 
is  one  part  of  the  digestible  protein  to  6.4  parts  of  digestible 
non-nitrogenous  compounds. 

Heat  produced  by  foods.  When  the  food  is  digested  it 
produces  a definite  amount  of  heat  and  muscular  energy, 
which  can  be  measured  by  the  work  that  it  is  capable  of 
doing.  The  heat  produced  is  measured  in  calories.  A calorie 
is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a 
kilogram  of  water  from  0 to  1 degree  Centigrade,  or  2.2  lbs. 
of  water  1.8  degrees  Fahrenheit.  One  pound  of  digestible 
protein  yields  1860  calories,  a pound  of  digestible  fiber  or 
nitrogen-free  extract  compounds  yields  the  same  amount. 
One  pound  of  digestible  fat  yields  4225  calories.  The  heat 
units,  measured  in  calories,  produced  by  the  previous  ration 
are  found  by  adding  the  digestible  protein,  fiber,  and  nitro- 
gen-free extract  and  multiplying  the  sum  by  the  factor  1860. 
Then  multiply  the  digestible  fat  by  the  factor;  4525,  and 
add  the  two  results. 

(2.08  x 3.31  x 8.10)  x 1860  = 25096 

1.90x4225  = 8027 


Total  calories  33123 

The  amount  of  heat  produced  by  various  foods  is  an  im 
portant  factor,  especially  when  the  climate  is  very  severe ; 


139 


then  a larger  amount  of  heat  will  be  required  by  the  body. 
This  heat  must  be  supplied  by  the  food. 


NUTRIENTS  AND  HEAT  UNITS  BOUGHT  FOR  A 
DOLLAR 

The  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  and  heat  units  which 
can  be  purchased  for  a given  sum  of  money,  is  the  most  im- 
portant point  to  take  into  consideration  in  economic  feeding. 
The  prices  of  grain  and  milled  products  are  not  always  in 
proportion  to  their  actual  values.  A dollar  expended  in  one 
food  will  frequently  buy  more  digestible  nutrients  and  heat 
units  than  when  expended  in  other  foods. 

In  the  table  LX.  are  given  the  pounds  of  digestible  nu- 
trients and  of  heat  units  which  can  be  purchased  for  one  dol- 
lar, when  the  prices  are  as  stated. 

In  the  table  it  will  be  seen  that  when  corn  is  fifty  cents 
per  bushel  or  corn  meal  is  eighteen  dollars  per  ton,  one 
dollar  will  buy  more  digestible  protein  and  other  nutrients 
in  the  form  of  bran  or  shorts  at  fifteen  and  sixteen  dollars 
per  ton.  When  the  corn  meal  is  the  same  price  per  ton, 
twelve  dollars,  the  dollar  would  be  as  wisely  expended  in 
corn  meal  as  in  shorts. 

When  barley  is  selling  at  forty-eight  cents  per  bushel,  it 
will  pay  well  to  sell  some  of  the  barley,  and  even  buy  wheat 
at  fifty  cents  per  bushel,  or  corn  meal  at  eighteen  dollars  per 
ton.  Again,  when  oats  are  selling  at  twenty-eight  or  thirty 
cents  per  bushel,  it  will  pay  to  sell  part  of  the  oats  and  buy 
some  cheaper  grain  or  mixture. 

When  timothy  hay  is  selling  for  eight  dollars  per  ton, 
and  clover  hay  at  ten  dollars  per  ton  it  will  be  cheaper  to 
to  sell  the  timothy  and  keep  the  clover  or  buy  the  clover  in 
preference  to  the  timothy. 

When  the  differences  are  small  between  two  foods,  as  to 
the  amounts  of  digestible  nutrients  which  can  be  purchased 
for  one  dollar,  the  farmer  can  use  his  own  judgment,  and 
purchase  or  sell  as  best  suits  his  purpose.  The  table  is  to  be 
used  more  as  a guide.  When  the  differences  are  large,  and 
much  in  favor  of  one  food  at  a certain  price,  it  will  be  econo 


140 


my  to  purchase  the  food  which  will  give  the  larger  amount 
of  digestible  protein  and  other  nutrients  for  a given  sum  of 


money. 

TABLE  LX.— Digestible  Nutrients  and  Heat  Units  Bought  for  One  Dollar. 


Kind  of  fodder 
or  grain. 

Price  per 
ton 

Pounds  Digestible. 

Heat 

units 

Dry 

matter 

Protein 

Ether  ex- 
tract 
mainly 
fat 

Nitrogen 
Iree  ex-  1 
tract  and 
fiber 

Bran 

$12.00 

100 

20 

6 

1 71 

1 

194.610 

Bran 

15.00 

80 

16 

5 

56 

155.045 

Corn  meal 

18.00 

87 

10 

3 

74 

168.915 

Corn  meal 

12.00 

132 

15 

5 

112 

257.345 

Corn  and  cob  meal... 

15.00 

100 

10 

3 | 

86 

191.235 

Corn  shelled,  50c  bu 

87 

9 

3 

75 

168.915 

Wheat  shorts 

12.00 

111 

17 

4 i 

90 

216.029 

Wheat  shorts 

16.00 

85 

12 

3 

70 

165.195 

Oats  30c  per  bn 

72 

10 

4 

56 

139.760 

Linseed  meal 

28.00 

51 

19 

5 

i 24 

91.105 

Linseed  meal 

24.00 

59 

23 

6 

| 28 

120.210 

Barley,  48c  per  bu  .. 

71 

9 

2 

59 

134.930 

Peas,  $1  per  bu 

48 

12 

3 

36 

101.955 

Ppfis  70 c per  bu.  .. 

6S 

16 

4 

49 

137.900 

Gluten  meal 

22.00 

71 

22 

6 

43 

146.250 

Cotton  sead  meal 

28.00 

47 

23 

7 

14 

97.395 

Wheat,  50c  per  bu 

87 

14 

2 

70 

155.987 

Timothy  hay 

8.00 

127 

9 

3 

1 108 

230.295 

Prairie  hay 

6.00 

163 

11 

4 

138 

294.040 

Clover  hay 

10.00 

105 

15 

3 

82 

193.095 

Millet  hay 

8.00 

138 

10 

3 

121 

256.236 

Rve,  45c  per  bet 

88 

13 

2 

72 

166.550 

In  case  the  grains  or  fodders  are  at  different  prices  from 
those  stated  in  the  table,  either  add  or  subtract  the  pro- 
portional amount  of  each  nutrient,  or  calculate  from  the 
tables  the  amounts  purchasable  for  one  dollar.  In  order  to 
do  this,  first  find  how  many  pounds  of  fodder  or  grain  can 
be  purchased  for  the  dollar,  multiply  this  amount  by  the  per 
cent,  of  digestible  nutrients  contained  in  the  fodder,  which 


141 


will  give  the  pounds  oi  digestible  nutrients  that  can  be  pur- 
chased for  one  dollar. 

In  case  wheat  bran  is  eighteen  dollars  per  ton,  the  dollar 
will  purchase  111  pounds  of  bran,  each  pound  of  bran  con- 
tains 1.25  pounds  .digestible  protein,  hence  111  pounds  bran 
contain  about  14  lbs.  of  digestible  protein.  In  like  manner 
the  other  digestible  nutrients  are  determined.  In  the  table 
LX.  the  value  of  the  manure  is  not  taken  into  consideration. 
Inasmuch  as  all  grains  are  sold  by  weight  instead  of  the 
measured  bushel,  the  legal  weight  per  bushel,  of  the  various 
grains,  as  approved  by  the  Minnesota  Legislature,  April  17, 
1893,  are  given. 


Bariev 

Pounds  per  bushel, 

48. 

Millet  Seed 

Pounds  per  bushel 

48. 

Buckwheat 

50. 

Oats 

32. 

Corn,  shelled... 

56. 

Peas 

60. 

Corn  on  cob.... 

70. 

Potatoes 

60. 

Clover  seed 

60. 

Rve 

56. 

Wheat 

60. 

In  the  purchasing  of  foods  the  preference  should  be  given 
to  those  foods  which  contain  the  largest  amount  of  digest- 
ible protein,  because  the  protein  is,  by  far  the  most  expensive 
and  important  nutrient  in  foods.  In  case  the  difference  in  di- 
gestible protein  is  small,  the  one  having  the  largest  amount  of 
digestible  non-nitrogenous  compounds  should  be  purchased. 
When  oats  are  thirty  cents,  and  corn  is  fifty  cents  per  bushel, 
a dollar  will  purchase  nine  pounds  digestible  protein  in  the 
form  of  corn,  and  ten  pounds  in  the  form  of  oats,  but  in  the 
corn  there  is  nearly  twenty  pounds  more  of  starch,  etc.,  than 
in  the  oats,  which  more  than  makes  up  for  the  pound  less 
protein  in  the  corn. 

When  linseed  meal  is  twenty-eight  dollars  per  ton,  and 
and  corn  fifty  cents  per  bushel,  a dollar  will  buy  ninteen 
pounds  of  digestible  protein,  and  twenty-four  pounds  of 
digestible  carbohydrates  as  linseed  meal,  and  nine  ponnds 
of  protein  and  seventy-five  pounds  of  carbohydrates,  as  corn. 
Ten  pounds  of  protein  are  in  favor  of  the  linseed  meal, 
while  fifty-one  pounds  of  carbohydrates  are  in  favor  of  the 
corn.  The  additional  fat  in  linseed  meal,  will  bring  the  fifty- 


142 


one  pounds  of  carbohydrates  in  the  corn  down  to  forty-six. 
The  question  is : which  is  worth  more,  nine  pounds  of  pro- 
tein, or  forty-five  pounds  of  car  bohydrates?  This  depends 
upon  what  the  corn  or  linseed  meal  is  to  be  mixed  with  or 
fed  to.  When  the  linseed  meal  is  selling  at  the  lower  figure, 
twenty-four  dollars  per  ton,  the  nutrients  are  in  favor  of  the 
linseed  meal. 

When  corn  meal  is  selling  at  eighteen  dollars  per  ton, 
and  corn  and  cob  meal  at  fifteen  dollars  per  ton,  the  corn 
and  cob  meal  will  be  as  cheap  as  the  corn  meal,  provided 
that  only  those  cobs  are  present  which  actually  belong  to  the 
corn.  The  same  amount  of  digestible  protein  will  be  pur- 
chased in  each  case,  ten  pounds,  but  in  the  corn  and  cob 
meal  there  are  thirteen  pounds  more  of  the  digestible  car- 
bohydrates. In  purchasing  corn  and  cob  meal  there  is  some 
risk  of  getting  more  cobs  than  belong  in  the  meal,  which 
greatly  reduces  the  value.  When  there  is  only  two  dollars 
per  ton  difference  in  the  selling  price  of  the  two,  it  will  be 
cheaper  to  purchase  the  corn  meal,  because  the  manure  will 
be  worth  more,  and  the  cost  of  hauling  will  be  less  on  the 
more  concentrated  food. 

When  you  are  doing  your  own  grinding  it  will  be  cheaper 
to  feed  the  corn,  as  corn  and  cob  meal,  when  the  corn  is  sell- 
ing at  fifty  cents  per  bushel,  than  to  sell  the  corn  and  buy 
corn  meal  at  eighteen  dollars  per  ton.  Ten  bushels  of 
shelled  corn  corn  will  weigh  560  pounds,  and  with  the  cobs 
it  will  weight  700  pounds.  The  560  pounds  of  corn,  and  the 
140  pounds  of  cobs  will  contain  the  following  amounts  of 
digestible  nutrients : 

Dry  Nitrogen 

Matter.  Protein.  Fat.  Fiber.  free  extract. 


Corn 448  51  17  6.1  375 

Cobs 75  .3  .3  28.0  45 


The  corn  cobs  have  added  seventy-five  pounds  of  digest- 
ible dry  matter  composed  almost  entirely  of  fiber,  and  nitro- 
gen-free extract  compounds. 

When  co  tten  seed  meal  and  linseed  meal  are  selling  at  the 
same  price,  there  is  but  little  difference  between  the  feeding 
value  of  the  two.  Gluten  meal  at  twenty-two  dollars  per 
ton  compares  very  favorably  with  linseed  meal  at  twenty- 


143 


four  dollars  per  ton.  There  is  a pound  more  digestible  pro- 
tein in  the  linseed  meal,  but  in  the  gluten  meal  there  are  fif- 
teen pounds  more  of  digestible  carbohydrates,  which  more 
than  make  up  for  the  pound  less  of  protein. 

Gluten  meal  is  not  as  constant  in  its  composition  as  it 
should  be;  quite  frequently  it  is  mixed  with  the  germ  meal, 
which  is  a valuable  food,  but  not  so  valuable  as  the  gluten 
meal.  Hence  in  purchasing  gluten  meal,  as  well  as  some  of 
the  other  mill  products,  it  would  be  wise  to  send  a sample 
to  the  Experiment  Station  to  see  if  it  is  all  right. 


FACTORS  WHICH  INFLUENCE  THE  COMPOSITION 
OF  CROPS. 

The  factors  which  influence  the  composition  and  value  of 
fodders  are:  (1)  Stage  of  growth  at  which  a fodder  is  har- 
vested. (2)  Effects  of  climate  and  season.  (3)  The  time  re- 
quired for  maturing  the  crop.  (4)  The  protection  which  the 
crop  is  given  after  harvesting.  (5)  Quality  of  the  seeds  sown. 
(6)  Quality  and  condition  of  soil. 

The  stage  of  growth  at  which  a fodder  is  cut,  has  much 
to  do  with  its  composition.  In  the  case  of  timothy,  cut  at 
different  stages  of  growth,  there  is  a marked  difference  in 
composition.  In  the  year  1891  samples  of  timothy  were  cut 
at  three  different  stages  of  growth  and  analyzed.  The  com- 
position of  the  timothy  for  each  period  on  a uniform  basis  of 
ten  per  cent,  water,  was  : 


Before  Bloom.  In  Early  Bloom.  Ripe. 

Ash 7.09  per  ct.  6.32  per  ct  5.45  per  ct. 

Ether  Extract  2.87  “ 2.51  “ 2.22  “ 

Crude  Protein  9.84  “ 7.62  “ 6.42  “ 

Crude  Fiber 28.17  “ 31.12  “ 32.52  “ 


Nitrogen  Free  Extract,  42.02  “ 42.43  “ 43.39  “ 

The  largest  amount  of  dry  matter  is  obtained  when  the 
timothy  is  ripe,  while  the  largest  amount  of  protein  is  ob- 
tained from  early  to  late  bloom.  The  same  is”  true  with 
clover  and  nearly  all  agricultural  crops.  The  first  stages  of 
growth  are  devoted  mainly  to  the  formation  of  nitrogenous 


compounds,  while  the  materials  which  are  added  to  the 
crop  in  the  last  stages  of  growth  are  mainly  non-nitrogenous 
compounds.  Early  cutting  gives  a smaller  amount  of  a 
more  concentrated  fodder.  While  late  cutting  gives  a larger 
quantity,  and  a less  concentrated  fodder. 

Effects  of  Seasons.  When  the  growing  season  is  favor- 
ably prolonged,  larger  amounts  of  starch  and  other  non- 
nitrogenous  compounds  are  stored  up  in  the  plant  because 
the  conditions  are  more  favorable  for  this  kind  of  growth. 
It  seems  that  plants  devote  their  energy,  at  first,  more  to 
the  formation  of  the  nitrogenous  compounds,  than  to  the 
development  of  the  non-nitrogenous  compounds. 

In  early  and  late  varieties  of  any  kind  of  food  products, 
the  early  maturing  varieties  will  invariably  show  the 
larger  proportion  of  protein,  while  the  late  varieties  will 
show  the  larger  amount  of  starch  and  other  carbohydrates. 
Hence  in  aiming  to  secure  as  early  ripening  crops  as  possible 
by  means  of  selection  of  seeds  and  otherwise  forcing  tbe 
growth,  there  is  no  loss  of  food  value  with  the  early  matur- 
ing crops,  but  if  anything,  there  is  a gain  by  having  a larger 
proportion  of  nitrogenous  compounds  on  account  ot  the 
plant  being  forced  in  that  direction. 

Even  the  potato,  which  is  strictly  a starchy  food,  is  in- 
fluenced by  this  condition.  Early  varieeies  of  potatoes  con- 
tain more  protein  than  later  varieties  on  account  of  more 
starch  being  formed  in  the  later  varieties  during  their  pro- 
longed growth.  In  early  and  late  maturing  crops  of  the  same 
variety,  the  difference  in  composition  falls  on  the  protein, 
which  is  in  favor  of  the  early  maturing  varieties,  and  on  the 
starch,  which  is  in  favor  of  the  late  maturing  varieties.  The 
early  maturing  varieties  are  placed  at  a little  disadvantage 
on  account  of  a shorter  growing  period  and  a shorter  time  to 
procure  their  mineral  food  from  the  soil.  All  early  maturing 
crops  should  be  favored  with  thorough  cultivation  and  man- 
uring in  order  to  make  up  for  this  shorter  period  of  growth. 
Early  maturing  varieties  require  that  the  soil  should  be  in  its 
best  condition. 

The  effect  of  heavy  showers  and  prolonged  rains  on  hay 
after  it  is  cut,  and  when  it  is  in  stacks  which  are  uncovered 


145 


and  unprotected,  is  quite  noticeable.  In  the  season  of  1891, 
which  was  a very  rainy  one,  a sample  of  timothy  weighing 
twenty-five  pounds,  was  exposed  to  one  heavy  shower  and 
three  heavy  dew  falls.  The  sample  was  exposed  in  all  five 
days  and  at  the  close  weighed  21.5  pounds.  The  timothy 
was  spread  on  a canvas  cloth  over  a wire  screen  and  cov- 
ered with  a wire  screen,  so  as  to  prevent  any  of  the  hay  from 
blowing  away.  The  rain  removed  twelve  per  cent,  of  the 
best  part  of  the  dry  matter  of  the  hay.  The  sample  was  in 
early  bloom  when  cut. 

The  per  cent,  loss  of  each  nutrient  was  as  follows  : 


Ash 17.26 

Ether  Extract 7.47 

Crude  Protein 7.69 

Fiber 20 

Nitrogen-free  extract 25.78 


In  actual  hay  making  the  losses  would  have  been  even 
larger,  because  some  of  the  hay  would  have  been  lostmechan- 
ically. 


THE  DIGESTIBILITY  OF  WHEAT. 


HARRY  SNYDER. 

The  frequent  low  price  of  wheat  and  the  high  price  of 
corn  has  created  much  interest  in  regard  to  the  use  of  wheat 
as  an  animal  food.  The  usual  high  price  of  wheat  has  pre- 
vented its  extensive  use  as  an  animal  food,  and  hence  its 
digestibility  has  never  been  determined. 

The  digestibility  of  the  wheat  was  determined  mainly  to 
observe  the  difference  in  digestibility  between  the  whole 
grain  and  the  cracked  grain,  and  also  to  learn  how  the 
digestibility  of  wheat  compares  with  that  of  other  grains. 

The  wheat  was  fed  to  young  pigs  in  two  ways.  In  one 
case,  whole  wheat  and  coarsely  ground  (cracked)  corn  was 
fed,  half  and  half  by  weight ; in  the  other  case,  cracked 
wheat  and  corn  was  fed.  The  ration  was  the  same  in  each 
case,  except  as  to  the  difference  in  the  way  in  which  the 
wheat  was  fed.  The  results  were  duplicated,  and  those  for 
the  whole  wheat  were  duplicated  on  different  animals. 

TABLE  LXI.—  Digestibility  of  Wheat,  Whole  and  Cracked. 


Per  cent.  Digestible. 

1 

Whole 

Cracked 

Wheat. 

Wheat. 

Dry  matter  

72. 

82. 

44. 

50. 

Ether  extract  (fat)  

60. 

70. 

Protein  (gluten)  

70. 

80. 

Fiber  

30. 

60. 

Nitrogen-free  extract 

74. 

83. 

The  results  show  a diffence  of  ten  per  cent,  digestibility 
in  favor  of  the  cracked  wheat.  Had  the  wheat  formed  more 


147 


than  half  of  the  ration,  the  difference  in  digestibility  would 
have  undoubtedly  been  even  greater. 

When  the  wheat  was  fed  whole,  the  loss  consisted  main- 
ly of  undigested  kernels.  These  grains,  when  recovered  from 
the  dry  manure,  showed  but  little  of  the  effects  of  the 
digestive  organs.  They  were  coated  with  a covering  of 
mucus  material,  and  when  this  coat  was  removed  by  washing 
with  distilled  water,  the  recovered  wheat  grain  had  practic- 
ally the  same  composition  as  when  fed. 

TABLE  LXII.— Composition  of  Whole  Wheat  as  Fed  and  the  Whole  Wheat  in 

the  Manure. 


Whole  Wheat  as 
fed. 

The  whole  wheat 
in  manure. 

Water 

1 0.95  per  cent 
2.20 
2.17 
14.18 
2.83 

67.67  “ 

12.42  per  cent 
2.14 

2.10  “ 
13.75 
2.70 
66.89 

Ash 

Ether  extract  (fat) 

Protein  (gluten) 

Fiber 

Nitrogen-free  extract 

Total 

100. 

100 

The  only  noticeable  difference  is  about  two  and  one-half 
percent,  more  water  in  the  wheat  recovered  from  the  manure. 
When  the  results  are  compared  on  the  basis  of  the  dry 
matter,  the  difference  in  composition  between  the  two 
samples  is  very  slight. 

The  digestibility  of  cracked  wheat  compares  very  favor- 
ably with  other  grains.  It  does  not  appear  to  be  quite  as 
digestible  as  corn,  but  the  dry  matter  is  more  digestible  than 
that  of  barley,  shorts  or  bran.  For  comparison  the  digesti- 
bility of  a few  other  grains  and  products,  as  determined  at 
this  station,  is  given. 

TABLE  XLIII.— Digestion  Co-Efficients  of  Wheat  and  other  Grains. 


1 

Cracked  | 
wheat. 

Cracked 
| barley. 

Wheat 

shorts. 

Wheat 

bran. 

Cracked 

corn. 

Dry  matter.  

82. 

80. 

76. 

69. 

90. 

Ash 

50. 

6. 

5. 

6. 

1. 

Ether  extract 

70. 

79. 

70. 

75. 

78. 

Protein 

80. 

81. 

75. 

75. 

90. 

Fiber 

60. 

48. 

33. 

30. 

48. 

Nitrogen-free  extract.... 

83. 

86. 

86. 

70. 

94. 

148 


When  corn  and  wheat  are  both  selling  at  fifty  cents  per 
bushel,  the  fifty  cents  will  purchase  the  same  amount  of 
digestible  dry  matter  of  either  wheat  or  corn,  but  the  digest- 
ible dry  matter  in  the  bushel  of  wheat  contains  two  and  one 
half  pounds  more  of  digestible  protein,  while  the  bushel  of 
corn  contains  two  and  one  half  pounds  more  of  digestible 
carbohydrates.  The  amount  of  heat  units  produced  by  each 
grain  is  about  the  same. 

TABLE  LXIV.— Digestible  Nutrients  in  a Bushel  of  Wheat  and  Corn. 


1 Dry 

Fat. 

1 

| Protein. 

Carbo- 

Heat Units. 

| Matter. 

1 

hydrates. 

Wheat 

43.5 

1. 

! 7. 

35. 

82.345 

Corn...... 

43.5 

1.5 

4.5 

37.5 

84.407 

Inasmuch  as  the  bushel  of  wheat  contains  more  digestible 
protein,  this  food  is  better  suited  to  produce  pork  with 
more  lean  meat,  than  is  corn.  Furthermore  the  manure 
from  the  wheat  is  worth  about  twenty-five  per  cent,  more 
than  the  manure  from  the  corn. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


BULLETIN  NO.  37. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL  DIVISION. 


DECEMBER,  1894. 


THE  CHINCH  BCQ. 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK,  RAMSEY  CO., 

MINNESOTA. 

ST.  PAUL: 

Thb  Pionef.r  Press  Co., 

1895. 


UNIVERSITY  OR  MINNESOTA 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis, 1896 

The  HON.  GREENLEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul, 1894 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul, 1894 

The  HON.  WM.  H.  YALE,  Winona 1896 

The  HON.  JOEL  P.  HEATWOLE,  Northfield, 1896 

The  HON.  O.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth, 1896 

The  HON.  WM.  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson, 1896 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN,  Minneapolis,  . . ...  . . . 1895 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  B.  A.,  Minneapolis,  ....  1895 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  St.  Paul, Ex-Officio . 

The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PEN  DERG  AST,  M.  A.,  Hutchinson,  . . . Ex-Officio. 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHROP,  LL.D.,  Minneapolis, Ex-Officio. 

The  President  of  the  University. 


the  agricultural  committee. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  J.  S.  PILLSBURY. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PENDERGAST. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION: 

WM.  M.  LIGGETT, Chairman. 

WILLET  M.  HAYS,  B.  S.  A.,  . . . Vice  Chairman  and  Agriculturist. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S , Horticulturist. 

OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  . . . . . Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S., Chemist. 

T.  L.  HiECKER,  ........  Dairy  Husbandry. 

M.  H.  REYNOLDS,  M.  D.,  V.  M., Veterinarian. 

THOS.  SHAW, Animal  Husbandry. 

J.  A.  VYE,  ...........  Secretary. 

ANDREW  BOSS, Farm  Foreman. 


The  Bulletins  of  this  StaUon  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the  state 
who  make  application  for  them. 


THE  CHINCH-BUG. 


OTTO  LUGGER. 

There  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  this  pest  will  greatly 
injure  our  crops  of  cereals  in  1895.  During  the  last  year  these  in- 
sects have  become  very  numerous  and  have  migrated  to  many  parts 
of  the  state  where  formerly  they  could  not  be  found.  As  these  in- 
sects use  their  wings  much  more  freely  when  leaving  their  hiber- 
nating quarters  in  the  spring,  the  probability  exists  that  a still 
greater  part  of  the  state  will  be  invaded.  At  present  they  are  found 
in  nearly  all  the  more  wooded  districts  of  the  southern  and  central 
parts  of  Minnesota,  and  only  the  open  prairies  have  escaped.  In  the 
northern  part  of  the  state  they  have  invaded  many  portions  of  Otter 
Tail,  Wadena,  Crow  Wing  and  Pine  counties,  and  are  found,  perhaps 
only  in  exceptional  cases,  even  in  the  pine  regions  still  farther  north. 
In  fact,  they  were  found  upon  several  small  farms  near  the  shore  of 
Vermilion  Lake,  where  the  only  agricultural  products  were  potatoes 
and  a little  timothy.  In  one  case  a patch  of  timothy  surrounded  by 
evergreen  trees  was  utterly  ruined  by  them,  and  close  questioning 
brought  out  the  fact  that  chinch-bugs  had  been  causing  similar  dam- 
age to  the  same  patch  for  at  least  three  seasons,  thus  plainly  proving 
that  this  insect  can  survive  even  exceedingly  cold  winters  without 
being  much  injured.  As  far  as  our  prairies  are  concerned,  those  ad- 
joining the  wooded  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes  are  more  or  less  in- 
fested with  this  pest;  and  as  the  windbreaks  offer  excellent  shelter 
for  it  during  the  winter,  there  is  danger  that  the  chinch-bugs  will 
invade  a steadily  enlarged  territory. 

The  past  history  of  the  chinch-bug  teaches  us  that  its  increase 
and  decrease  may  be  compared  with  ocean  weaves  striking  a shore: 
at  first  a gentle  swell,  then  a small  wave,  followed  by  a tremendous 
breaker.  In  other  words,  it  takes  a number  of  years  before  the  in 
sects  become  numerous  enough  to  cause  immense  losses.  Like  the 
sudden  collapse  of  the  breaker,  chinch-bugs,  having  reached  the 
period  of  greatest  destructiveness,  also  become  suddenly  reduced  in 


154 


numbers  and  are  past  doing  barm  for  a number  of  years.  This  fore- 
cast would  be  a very  pleasant  one  if  the  bugs  in  Minnesota  had  al- 
ready reached  this  culmination  point  of  their  increase,  which  un- 
happily is  not  the  case,  and  we  may  reasonably  expect  increasing 
trouble  for  at  least  two  years.  Past  experience  has  shown  that  we 
may  expect  at  most  two  chinch-bug  years  in  every  seven  years,  with 
the  strong  probability  that  there  will  not  be  two  in  succession ; it  is 
only  a pity  that  this  rule  should  never  have  exceptions,  which,  how- 
ever, it  has.  At  all  events,  such  experience  ought  to  warn  us  to  be 
always  prepared  for  the  enemy  and  to  apply  remedies  in  time  and 
not  wait  until  too  late. 

The  cause  for  this  rapid  increase  in  their  numbers  was  evidently 
the  exceedingly  dry  and  warm  season  of  1894.  Even  the  oldest  in 
habitant  of  the  state  does  not  recollect  a season  like  the  past  one, 
which  is  a singular  fact  considering  how  apt  some  wiseacres  are  to 
recollect  things — in  imagination.  In  many  portions  of  the  state 
rain  fell  only  at  very  rare  intervals  and  dew  was  almost  unknown. 
If  it  had  not  been  for  the  frost  in  May,  following  very  warm  and 
moist  weather,  which  forced  the  roots  of  cereals  to  penetrate  deep 
in  a soil  warmer  than  the  air,  damages  by  the  drouth  would  have 
been  still  greater.  It  was  really  surprising  that  plants  could  grow 
at  all  during  such  a season.  The  dry  and  warm  conditions  of  soil  and 
air  are  just  the  conditions  chinch-bugs  require  to  thrive  and  to  mul- 
tiply, and  from  the  few  bugs  found  here  and  there  in  isolated  locali- 
ties sprung  the  great  and  almost  connected  armies  of  chinch-bugs 
found  late  in  1894.  Yet  notwithstanding  these  favorable  conditions 
for  the  existence  of  these  bugs,  farmers  lost,  comparatively  speaking, 
but  little  on  their  account,  simply  because  the  earlier  cereals,  such 
as  barley,  wheat,  rye,  and  even  oats,  matured  much  sooner  than 
usual,  and  thus  became  unfit  for  their  food. 

After  injuring  to  some  extent  the  corn,  or  causing  in  some  cases 
a total  loss  of  that  important  crop,  and  after  destroying  such  grasses 
as  the  different  kinds  of  pigeon  grasses,  to  the  latter  of  which  they 
were  decidedly  welcome,  the  chinch-bugs  moved  about  in  search  for 
suitable  shelters  under  which  to  pass  the  winter.  A large  number  of 
such  shelters  have  been  investigated  in  various  parts  of  the  infested 
regions,  and  almost  invariably  with  the  same  results:  immense 
numbers  of  chinch-bugs  were  found  snugly  hidden,  ready  to  com- 
mence their  destructive  operations  early  next  spring.  In  most  cases 


155 


the  great  majority  of  these  dormant  bugs  were  found  to  be  decidedly 
healthy,  and  only  in  some  localities  a disease  is  silently  at  work  re- 
ducing their  numbers.  Diseased  bugs  were  found  in  their  winter 
quarters  only  in  regions  where  a disease  had  been  spread  artificially 
in  1894;  not  a single  diseased  bug  has  been  found  elsewhere. 

Life  History  of  the  Chinch- Bug. — It  seems  to  be  unnecessary  to 
give  the  life  history  of  such  a well  known  insect,  which  has  repeat- 
edly caused  such  vast  losses  to  part  of  our  state,  but  a large  number 
of  our  farmers  have  had  thus  far  no  opportunity  to  become  familiar 
with  their  enemy.  This  is  chiefly  true  of  regions  not  yet  or  only 
quite  recently  infested,  and  where  this  tiny  insect  has  not  been  dis- 
covered to  be  such  a formidable  foe.  That  many  farmers,  even  liv- 
ing in  regions  where  chinch-bugs  have  caused  considerable  damage, 
do  not  yet  know  this  pest  is  plainly  proven  by  the  fact  that  all  sorts 
of  insects  are  sent  to  this  Station  with  the  question : Is  this  a chinch- 
bug?  Among  such  specimens  received  are  insects  which  do  not  re- 
semble chinch-bugs  in  size,  shape,  color  or  general  appearance,  but 
all  are  fairly  large,  showing  that  small  insects  are  considered  too 
insignificant  to  annoy  the  “crown  of  creation/’  Yet  it  is  among  the 
smaller  insects  that  our  greatest  enemies  are  found.  A large  num- 
ber of  small  insects,  but  mainly  bugs,  are  frequently  mistaken  for 
the  genuine  chinch-bug,  simpy  because  they  smell  bad.  Chinch-bugs 
have,  indeed,  a bad  odor;  but  other  bugs  produce  the  same  or  a 
worse  by  being  squeezed.  In  illustration  Fig.  1 are  given  all  the 
different  stages  of  this  insect,  and  by  comparing  a doubtful  specimen 
carefully  with  these  figures  farmers  not  yet  familiar  with  the  chinch- 
bug  will  have  no  trouble  in  ascertaining  their  true  character. 


FIG.  1.  Different  stages  of  the  Chinch-Bug,  showing  Egg,  Larva,  Puna  and  Adult. 

After  Riley. 


156 


The  adult  and  winged  chinch-bug  (Blissus  leucopterns , Say.)  is 
three- twentieths  of  an  inch  long,  and  has  a black  body  covered  with 
a very  fine  grayish  down,  too  fine  to  be  plainly  visible  to  the  naked 
eye.  The  four-jointed  feelers  possess  a honey-yellow  basal  joint;  the 
second  joint  is  tipped  with  black;  the  third  and  fourth  are  black. 
The  beak,  when  not  in  use,  lies  hidden  between  the  legs,  and  is 
brown.  The  wings  and  wing-covers  are  white;  the  latter  have  near 
the  middle  two  short,  irregular  black  lines  and  a very  conspicuous 
black  spot  near  the  margin.  The  white  wing-covers,  with  the  con- 
trasting black  spot,  distinguish  the  chinch-bug  from  all  other  bugs 
found  in  Minnesota.  Of  course,  whenever  an  insect  becomes  so  very 
numerous  as  the  chinch-bug,  many  forms  can  be  found  which  vary 
somewhat  from  the  description  given.  Even  forms  may  be  found 
which  possess  only  rudimentary  wings , and  this  is  most  frequently 
the  case  in  the  first  generation,  when  these  insects  do  not  readily 
use  their  wings.  The  black  spot  upon  a white  ground  is,  however, 
always  plainly  visibe. 

All  chinch-bugs  pass  the  winter  in  the  adult,  winged  or  perfect 
state,  never  as  eggs,  larvae  or  pupae.  Towards  autumn,  when  their 
food  supply,  such  as  corn  and  wild  grass,  becomes  too  dry  to  furnish 
sap,  the  bugs  are  forced  to  search  for  some  convenient  and  suitable 
shelter  in  which  to  pass  the  winter.  But  in  doing  so  they  seem  to 
know  exactly  what  is  a suitable  shelter  and  what  is  not.  The  aim 
of  all  seems  to  be  to  find  a dry  situation ; one  that  is  either  some- 
what elevated  to  afford  good  drainage,  or  one  composed  of  such  soil 
as  sand,  that  will  permit  moisture  to  disappear  quickly.  In  such 
situations  the  bugs  hide  under  dead  leaves,  bunches  of  tall  grass, 
under  all  sorts  of  rubbish,  under  logs,  stone®  and  clods  of  earth;  they 
also  find  shelter  under  haystacks,  straw  stacks,  corn  shucks — even 
under  loose  bark  of  trees  and  in  outhouses.  Most  chinch-bugs  hide 
near  the  edge  of  woods  growing  upon  an  elevation,  under  rubbish 
upon  sandy  soil,  or  under  the  mulching  in  windbreaks.  Here  they 
remain  torpid  during  the  cold  weather,  but  during  a continuous 
warm  spell  in  winter  they  are  apt  to  move  about  a little,  perhaps 
to  find  still  warmer  quarters.  Extreme  cold  weather  has  no  terrors 
to  chinch-bugs;  in  fact,  the  colder  the  winter  the  safer  they  pass 
it,  providing,  however,  that  no  repeated  thawings  and  freezings  take 
place,  which  will  injure  their  vitality.  A bug  that  can  safely  winter 
upon  the  shores  of  Vermilion  Lake  cannot  be  frozen  to  death  by  any 
weather  that  may  occur  elsewhere  in  Minnesota.  Last  winter  a 


157 


number  of  chinch-bugs  were  found  hidden  in  a short  bunch  of  grass 
in  a lawn,  and  by  sprinkling  water  upon  bugs  and  bunch  the  ice 
formed  at  once,  keeping  the  bugs  hermetically  sealed  for  several 
months.  Upon  thawing  this  ice  the  bugs  acknowledged  their  obli- 
gations by  destroying  some  tender  and  choice  grass  plants.  The 
general  opinion  that  a severe  cold  winter  will  decimate  our  insect 
enemies  is  based  upon  no  facts;  on  the  contrary,  an  open  winter, 
with  repeated  thawing  and  freezing,  is  more  apt  to  assist  us  against 
this  enemy,  but  to  what  extent  it  is  impossible  to  state. 

As  soon  as  the  soil  becomes  warmer  towards  spring  the  bugs 
show  greater  activity  during  the  warmer  portions  of  the  day,  and  are 
very  apt  to  crowd  together  in  spots  particularly  warm.  At  this 
time  they  do  not  yet  require  food.  But  as  the  nights  become  also 
warmer  they  commence  to  show  their  appetite  by  tapping  the  ten- 
der grasses  now  appearing.  Towards  the  end  of  May,  though  some- 
times much  earlier  or  later,  according  to  the  climatic  conditions  of 
the  season,  the  bugs  become  decidedly  active.  In  exceptionally  early 
and  warm  springs,  mating  takes  place  in  many  cases  before  leaving 
their  hibernating  quarters,  though  as  a general  rule  it  does  not  oc- 
cur until  breeding  places  have  been  selected.  During  a long-contin- 
ued warm  and  dry  autumn,  mating  chinch-bugs  are  not  so  very  un- 
common, yet  such  cases  are  an  exception,  not  a rule.  When  the 
proper  time  arrives,  all  the  bugs  take  to  their  wings  and  fly  about  in 
search  of  food  for  themselves  and  for  their  prospective  offsprings. 
Not  infrequently  the  air  is  filled  with  their  winged  bodies,  and  this 
is  sometimes  the  only  time  that  they  attract  general  attention,  as 
they  frequently  entirely  cover  horses,  wagons  and  persons.  This  is 
a critical  period  for  fields  that  have  so  far  escaped  their  ravages. 
As  the  weight  of  such  bugs  is  but  slight,  they  can  be  carried  away 
by  the  winds  to  very  distant  localities.  In  fact,  the  stronger  the 
wind  at  this  time  the  farther  the  trouble  may  spread.  This  no  doubt 
accounts  for  the  presence  of  the  chinch-bug  in  regions  but  poorly 
adapted  to  their  requirements;  for  instance,  in  isolated  meadows 
surrounded  by  dense  pine  forests.  This  is  also  the  time  when  the 
otherwise  safe  western  prairies  of  our  state  may  be  invaded  for  the 
season,  and  if  sufficient  shelters  can  be  found  in  windbreaks  the  pest 
may  be  established  in  this  newly  conquered  region  for  several  years. 
Such  flights  only  take  place  when  the  air  is  dry,  and  only  during  the 
heated  portion  of  the  day.  The  reason  for  such  flights  is  self-evident ; 
they  are  made  to  find  feeding  places  for  themselves  and  for  their 


158 


offsprings.  But  not  every  field  with,  inviting  young  plants  of  barley 
and  wheat  has  attraction  for  such  insects;  the  fields  must  be  of  a 
certain  kind.  Fields  with  a sandy  soil,  well  drained  by  being  situ- 
ated on  a knoll,  and  which  warm  up  readily,  are  preferred;  or  fields 
that  either  from  being  poorly  cultivated  or  from  being  more  or  less 
exhausted  of  vegetable  food,  have  a poor  stand  of  plants.  Such  fields 
are  almost  invariably  selected  simply  because  the  soil  is  exposed  to 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  and  because  chinch-bugs  dearly  love 
warmth  and  dryness.  When  settled  in  their  new  home  the  bugs 
make  up  for  the  long  fast  enforced  upon  them  by  the  winter,  but 
soon  afterwards  the  sexes  commence  to  mate.  Those  that  had 
already  mated  soon  commence  to  deposit  eggs,  and  thus  the  egg-lay- 
ing season  lasts  four  weeks  or  more.  A field  may  contain  untold 
numbers  of  bugs  and  yet  have  but  very  few  visible,  and  those  nearly 
all  in  the  act  of  mating,  which  usually  takes  place  upon  the  ground. 
By  shaking  the  plants — or,  better  by  pulling  them  up  with  their 
roots — the  true  state  of  affairs  will  become  painfully  visible.  The 
great  majority  of  the  bugs  enter  the  ground  for  protection,  and 
obtain  their  food  by  tapping  the  lower  parts  of  the  stalks  of  grasses 
and  cereals.  Though  not  equipped  with  legs  fit  for  digging,  they  find 
an  entrance  near  the  plant,  made  for  them  by  the  swaying  of  the 
stems  in  the  wind.  Here  they  enter  and  make  their  homes,  sur- 
rounded by  plenty  of  food — the  sap  of  nearly  all  species  of  the  grass 
family. 

The  egg  is  rather  large  for  such  an  insect,  measuring  about  0.03 
inch;  it  is  elongate  oval,  with  the  diameter  about  one-fifth  the 
length.  By  observing  such  an  egg  with  a powerful  lens,  it  will  be 
found  quite  a pretty  affair.  It  has  a squarely  docked  top,  sur- 
mounted with  four  rounded  tubercles  near  the  center.  As  long  as 
quite  fresh,  it  is  pale,  whitish  and  translucent;  as  it  grows  older  it 
becomes  amber  colored,  and  towards  the  period  of  hatching  the  red 
parts  of  the  future  insect,  but  especially  the  eyes,  are  very  plainly 
visible  towards  the  top.  These  eggs  are  almost  invariably  deposited 
upon  the  roots  of  the  plants  selected,  and  only  exceptionally  can 
they  be  found  upon  the  withered  sheaths  near  the  base  of  the  stalk. 
As  the  eggs  are  usually  deposited  in  small  clusters,  they  are  readily 
detected  with  the  naked  eye.  By  pulling  up  such  plants  and  inspect- 
ing carefully  the  roots  and  base  of  stalk,  the  eggs  appear  as  glisten- 
ing objects  of  amber  or  red  color,  quite  distinct  from  similarly  colored 
grains  of  sand.  Of  course  a large  number  of  the  eggs  become  de- 


159 


tached  and  remain  in  the  soil  when  pulling  the  plant,  so  that  those 
counted  give  by  no  means  a true  estimate  of  the  numbers  really 
present.  It  is  claimed  that  each  female  can  deposit  as  many  as  500 
eggs.  When  we  consider  that  the  egg-laying  period  of  a female  bug 
extends  from  ten  days  to  four  or  five  weeks — in  some  cases  over  even 
a longer  period — and  that  eggs  may  constantly  mature  in  the  ovaries, 
this  large  number  is  very  likely  to  be  only  too  correct.  There  is  con- 
siderable difference  in  the  length  of  time  required  to  hatch  egg,s. 
Last  year  eggs  deposited  quite  early  in  June  remained  almost  three 
weeks  in  the  ground  before  hatching;  later  the  hatching  time  was 
considerably  shortened  by  more  favorable  weather,  and  the  eggs 
hatched  on  an  average  in  two  weeks.  Eggs  of  the  second  laying 
hatched,  in  some  cases,  inside  of  ten  days,  everything  being  in  favor 
of  a rapid  development  of  the  embryos. 

Ln,rval  Stages. — As  soon  as  the  young  larvae  hatch  they  lose  no 
time  in  inserting  their  beaks  to  obtain  the  liquid  nourishmnet  of  the 
plant.  This  action  frequently  takes  place  before  the  young  bug  has 
seen  the  light  of  day.  Of  course  a great  deal  depends  upon  the 
weather  existing  at  the  time.  If  warm  and  dry,  the  young  bugs 
work  their  way  towards  the  surface  and  usually  insert  their  beaks 
in  the  stalk  just  above  the  surface.  The  character  of  the  soil  has 
also  considerable  influence  in  this  respect.  The  newly  hatched  larva 
is  pale  yellow,  ornamented  with  an  orange  stain  upon  the  middle  of 
the  three  larger  abdominal  joints.  A glance  at  Fig.  1 will  show 
this,  as  well  as  the  other  differences  pointed  out  later.  In  shape 
this  young  bug  resembles  the  adult  insect,  being  but  slightly  longer 
in  proportion.  Yet  it  differs  in  one  point  essentially  from  the  adult 
by  having  but  a two-jointed  foot.  Of  course  this  otherwise  curious 
difference  will  not  greatly  interest  the  farmer.  As  the  infantile  bug 
grows  older  the  red  color  soon  pervades  the  whole  body,  except  the 
first  two  abdominal  joints,  which  remain  yellowish.  As  the  larva 
enlarges  it  soon  outgrows  the  outer  skin,  which  can  not  expand,  and 
the  insect  is  forced  to  throw  off  the  old  coat  and  wear  a new  one  of 
a bright  vermilion  color,  in  strong  contrast  with  the  pale  band 
across  the  middle  of  the  body.  Growing  rapidly,  the  larva  has  again 
to  undergo  a second  molt,  after  which  the  new  coat  shows  a dusky 
head  and  thorax.  At  this  time  the  future  wings  become  indicated 
by  small,  dusky  wing  pads.  Molting  a third  time,  the  pupal  stage 
has  been  reached.  The  pupa  has  a brownish-black  head  and  thorax, 
larger  wing-pads  of  a similar  color,  a dingy  gray  abdomen,  and  a 


160 


dark  horny  spot  at  tip  of  abdomen.  The  entire  body  is  also  slightly 
pubescent.  The  pupa,  as  well  as  the  larva  and  adult,  takes  food  by 
inserting  its  beak  in  the  food  plant. 

The  adult  bug  has  already  been  described.  It  is  distinguished 
not  only  by  having  a different  color,  but  by  being  larger,  winged, 
sexually  mature,  and  by  having  one  toe  more  in  each  foot.  As  al- 
ready mentioned,  a great  number  of  somewhat  differently  colored 
and  shorter  winged  forms  have  been  described,  but  none  are  of  a 
pleasing  aspect  to  the  farmer. 

The  time  required  to  transform  a freshly  deposited  egg  into  an 
adult  bug  varies  greatly  in  different  seasons,  as  might  be  expected 
in  case  of  an  insect  so  fond  of  warmth  and  dryness.  In  wet  or  cold 
seasons  it  takes  much  longer,  but  if  conditions  are  favorable  these 
changes  may  be  passed  through  in  fifty-six  to  sixty-two  days. 
Sometimes,  long  before  the  last  produced  larvae  have  reached  the 
adult  or  even  the  pupal  stage,  such  food  as  rye,  barley  and  wheat 
becomes  too  ripe  to  furnish  the  needed  sap,  and  the  bugs  are  forced 
to  travel  in  search  of  plants  more  suitable  for  their  food. 

Migration. — The  above  accounts  for  the  peculiar  fact  that  the 
migrating  armies  of  chinch-bugs,  when  leaving  the  fields  of  small 
grains  for  those  of  green  corn,  are  composed  of  all  ages,  forms  and 
sizes.  In  some  cases  nearly  full-grown  larvae  compose  the  majority 
of  the  army;  again,  small  and  large  larvae  and  pupae  form  the  bulk, 
but  most  usually  a large  number  of  adults  are  among  the  migrating 
insects.  Climatic  conditions  and  the  resulting  fitness  or  unfitness 
of  the  food-plants  are  the  main  cause  of  this  peculiar  state  of  affairs. 
As  a very  general  rule,  such  armies  do  not  and  can  not  travel  very 
fast  nor  far,  and  seldom  a distance  of  over  one  hundred  rods  is  passed 
over.  Of  course,  hunger  is  a very  severe  prompter,  and  almost  all 
bugs  leave  a field  no  longer  furnishing  food  at  nearly  the  same  time, 
and  all — prompted  by  the  same  sense  or  instinct— move  in  the  same 
direction,  and  almost  invariably  to  the  next  field  of  corn.  What 
this  sense  may  be  is  difficult  to  state;  perhaps  an  acute  sense  of 
smell,  perhaps  some  sense  we  do  not  know  anything  about,  not  pos- 
sessing it  ourselves.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  adults  found 
in  such  an  army  possess  wings,  they  use  them  but  very  seldom,  and 
only  when  the  air  is  very  warm  and  dry.  Such  winged  insects  may 
fly  to  the  next  source  of  food,  or  may  be  blown  by  the  winds  arising 
during  their  flight  to  far-away  regions,  to  form  the  starting  point 
of  a new  colony  or  a new  army.  All  attempts  to  force  such  winged 


161 


insects  to  fly  are  of  no  avail;  they  evidently  trust  more  to  their  legs 
than  to  their  wings.  An  army  of  migrating  chinch-bugs  would  be 
a sad  sight  if  they  were  friends  and  not  enemies.  They  appear  foot- 
sore and  dusty,  and  surely  are  hungry  and  thirsty.  The  individuals 
move  rather  quickly,  and  readily  overcome  common  obstacles  that 
may  impede  their  march.  But  if  they  encounter  dusty  paths  and 
roads,  or  newly  plowed,  dusty  fields,  they  have  a desperate  task 
before  them.  In  such  dusty  places,  heated  by  the  direct  rays  of 
the  sun,  and  not  compressed  by  rain  or  dew,  their  progress  is  nec- 
essarily but  slow.  As  they  move  their  front  feet  forward,  grasping  a 
particle  of  dust,  this  latter  gives  away  and  is  pulled  towards  the 
insects  whenever  they  attempt  to  press  forward.  Thus  a dusty  road 
becomes  an  obstacle  almost  impossible  to  cross.  Yet  the  hunger  and 
thirst  permits  no  cessation  of  work,  and  many  insects  will  at  last 
succeed  in  overcoming  all  obstacles.  A heavy  dew,  or  a slight  rain, 
is  of  course  of  great  assistance  to  the  moving  army,  and  a dusty  road 
no  longer  is  impassable.  The  sun,  which  chinch-bugs  enjoy  so  much 
at  other  times,  becomes  at  this  period  a source  of  great  danger,  and 
many  of  the  younger  and  less  efficiently  protected  bugs  die  in  con- 
sequence. All  these  facts  ought  to  point  out  to  the  farmer  many  a 
method  by  means  of  which  he  can  conquer  his  enemies.  In  the  end, 
all  obstacles  are  surmounted  by  those  bugs  that  did  not  perish  from 
hunger  or  heat,  and  the  surviving  members  succeed  in  reaching  the 
land  of  plenty — a waving  field  of  corn,  with  vivid  green  and  succulent 
food.  Nor  are  the  bugs  slow  in  utilizing  these  new  stores,  and  they 
are  so  hungry  that  they  settle  upon  the  first  plant  they  reach.  Soon 
the  famished  army  covers  the  outer  rows  of  plants  of  a cornfield,  and 
we  can  now  for  the  first  time  realize  how  numerous  they  were  in  the 
fields  abandoned  by  them,  since  the  scattered  insects  are  now  con 
centrated  upon  a few  and  large  plants.  These  plants  of  corn  soon 
turn  black  by  the  very  presence  of  the  insects.  At  first  only  the 
base  of  the  stalk  is  thus  crowded,  as  the  tired  bugs  attacked  that 
part  of  the  plant  reached  first;  but  soon  afterwards  the  whole  plant, 
to  the  very  extemities  of  the  leaves,  is  covered  with  them.  Their 
united  action  forces  all  the  sap  of  the  plant  to  the  outside,  and  as 
there  is  at  first  usually  more  sap  than  the  bugs  can  well  imbibe,  the 
spaces  between  the  sheaths  of  the  leaves  become  filled  with  fluid, 
which  in  a very  short  time  ferments  and  sours.  If  the  bugs  would 
simply  be  satisfied  with  imbibing  sap,  they  would  greatly  injure 
the  plant;  but  they  cause  still  greater  damage  by  injecting  some 


162 


poison  which  browns  or  blackens  the  leaf  surrounding  the  part  in- 
jured by  the  beak.  Thus  even  comparatively  few  insects,  not  numer- 
ous enough  to  kill  a plant,  will  cause  it  to  wilt  or  die  by  the 
action  of  this  poison.  A similar  action  can  be  observed  in  a domesti- 
cated species  of  bugs  not  seldom  found  in  beds.  These  insects,  in- 
stead of  thriving  upon  vegetable  sap,  prefer  that  of  animals,  and  to 
fill  their  hungry  stomachs  as  quickly  as  possible  they  insert  their 
beaks  into  the  human  skin,  inject  an  irritating  poison  to  cause  a 
local  inflammation,  and  thus  force  a rapid  flow  of  blood  to  the 
injured  part.  Perhaps  for  a similar  reason  is  poison  injected  into 
plants  by  chinch-bugs  attacking  the  same. 

Gradually  the  chinch-bugs  of  this  first  generation  mature,  and, 
after  mating,  deposit  eggs  for  a second  and  last  brood.  These  eggs 
are  usually  deposited  behind  the  old  and  withered  sheaths  of  the 
lower  leaves,  where  they  may  be  found  quite  readily,  and  in  large 
numbers,  not  being  so  much  hidden  by  particles  of  soil  as  those  laid 
earlier  in  spring.  Under  such  sheaths  the  young  bugs  hatch  and 
feed,  sometimes  even  undergoing  all  their  metamorphoses  to  the 
adult  stage.  Most  larvae,  however,  leave  these  shelters,  because 
they  are  too  crowded,  and  search  for  more  suitable  places  upon 
other  plants.  In  this  manner  soon  most  of  the  plants  in  a field  are 
crowded,  and  suffer  in  consequence.  The  outer  rows  of  corn,  so 
thrifty  looking  at  first,  soon  cease  to  furnish  food,  and  after  the 
insects  have  left  appear  white  and  bleached.  In  very  severe  cases, 
a cornfield  badly  infested  can  be  distinguished  from  all  others  by 
this  bleached  appearance;  and,  as  this  usually  happens  during  our 
hottest  and  dryest  season,  even  repeated  showers  of  rain  are  unable 
to  strengthen  and  revive  such  plants.  Whoever  wishes  to  study  the 
power  of  insects  to  destroy  and  to  increase  needs  only  to  pull 
down  a leaf  of  a corn  plant  infested  with  chinch-bugs.  He  will 
find,  snugly  hidden  beneath  the  sheath,  immense  numbers  of  these 
insects,  together  with  the  discarded  coats  of  the  earlier  stages  of  this 
bug.  In  course  of  time  all  these  insects  mature,  and  as  their  supply 
of  food  commences  to  flow  more  sparingly,  or  ceases  altogether,  it  is 
time  for  them  to  search  for  shelters  under  which  to  pass  the  winter. 
Many  of  the  insects  remain  for  this  purpose  under  the  very  sheaths 
that  offered  them  shelter  and  food  thus  far,  but  the  great  majority 
now  make  good  use  of  their  wings  and  scatter  far  and  near.  As 
their  usual  winter  quarters  have  already  been  described,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  repeat. 


163 


This  is,  in  a general  way,  the  life  history  of  the  chinch-bug.  It 
varies  somewhat  in  details  in  the  different  regions  or  in  different 
seasons,  but  as  far  as  Minnesota  alone  is  concerned,  no  essential 
facts  have  been  omitted.  It  might  be  added,  that  during  their 
migrations  to  the  cornfields,  these  injurious  insects  become  useful 
by  destroying  all  the  pigeon  grass  growing  in  the  abandoned  fields 
and  upon  the  route  over  which  they  pass. 

Vulnerable  Points  in  '1  heir  Habits. — When  we  consider  the  life 
history  sketched  above,  we  find  that  a practical  person  will  be  very 
apt  to  discover  some  habits  that  could  be  utilized  to  kill  large  num- 
bers of  this  pest.  Considering  the  fact  that  these  bugs  find  shelter 
under  all  sorts  of  rubbish,  leaves,  etc.,  it  appears  assuredly  feasible 
to  attack  them  there  with  good  results.  Clean  farming,  then,  is  not 
only  goodly,  but  an  excellent  remedy  against  this  insect,  and  against 
many  others.  Let  every  farmer  do  his  share  of  the  work  by  not  per- 
mitting any  rubbish  to  accumulate  upon  his  farm.  In  our  usually 
dry  autumns  all  rubbish  will  burn  well.  Such  material  should  be 
raked  together  in  rows;  this  should  be  done  before  the  bugs  search 
for  shelters,  and  as  they  surely  will  find  such  rows,  they  will  not  be 
slow  to  appropriate  them  for  winter  quarters.  Later,  rubbish  and 
bugs  can  be  disposed  of  by  fire.  This  work  should  include  the  clear 
ing  and  cleaning  of  the  edges  of  the  woods,  of  fences  and  fence 
corners,  of  haystacks  and  straw-stacks,  of  windbreaks;  in  fact,  no 
rubbish  should  be  permitted  to  remain  upon  the  farm;  and  no  rub- 
bish means  no  shelters  for  the  bugs.  Besides  this  all  the  taller  grass 
should  be  burned  over;  in  fact,  let  the  fire  be  anywhere  and  every- 
where excepting  where  it  might  be  dangerous.  This  burning  of  dead 
foliage  upon  fields,  meadows  and  prairies  in  former  times  accounted, 
to  a great  extent,  for  the  absence  of  many  injurious  insects  at  pres- 
ent only  too  common. 

We  know  that  chinch-bugs  prefer  certain  plants  and  dislike 
others;  they  prefer  millets,  for  instance,  and  almost  invariably  at- 
tack this  plant  when  found  in  the  infested  region,  while  flax  repels 
them.  It  seems  that  barley  is  their  second  choice,  then  wheat,  and 
later  in  the  season  corn.  Winter  rye  frequently  escapes  harm,  as  it 
usually  ripens  too  early,  though  a great  deal  depends  upon  the  sea- 
son, and  rye  may  be  destroyed  by  preference.  Chinch-bugs  do  not 
like  oats.  This  does  not  mean,  however,  that  oats  will  invariably 
escape  their  ravages.  On  the  contrary,  if  more  suitable  food  should 
be  scarce,  chinch-bugs  consider  oats  good  enough  for  them,  and  act 


I(j4 

accordingly.  By  sowing  millets  very  early,  and  having  it  above 
ground  before  the  bugs  leave  their  winter  shelters,  they  will  assur- 
edly find  and  appreciate  it,  and  will  settle  there  in  very  large  num- 
bers. Of  course,  the  owner  of  such  millet  cannot  expect  to  grow 
both  a crop  of  millet  and  of  bugs,  but  will  be  forced  to  sacrifice  the 
former  to  kill  the  latter.  Just  before  the  millet  becomes  too  hard 
for  the  insect,  it  should  be  cut  and  left  upon  the  soil.  The  bugs  re- 
main upon  it  for  some  time  before  realizing  the  necessity  of  migrat- 
ing, and  this  delay  should  be  utilized  to  burn  millet  and  bugs. 

Another  point  in  the  life  history  of  these  bugs  is  their  love  for 
warmth  and  dryness,  and  consequently  their  selection  of  fields  offer- 
ing both.  Chinch-bugs  prefer  sandy  soil  or  poorly  cultivated  soil 
simply  because  in  such  fields  the  plants  are  small  and  of  irregular 
growth,  thus  permitting  the  sun  to  strike  the  soil  directly,  it  not 
being  shaded  by  foliage.  Fields  well  covered  with  plants,  and  conse- 
quently soils  well  shaded,  are  not  attractive  to  these  insects.  A good 
farmer  will  not  utilize  soils  of  the  above  characters,  but  will  enrich 
the  sandy  soil  to  such  an  extent  as  to  produce  a strong  and  uniform 
stand  of  plants;  nor  will  he  cultivate  poorly  a good  soil;  neither  will 
he  be  a robber  of  the  soil  by  continuing  to  remove  crops  year  after 
year  without  returning  something  to  the  soil  in  form  of  manure  to 
keep  up  its  fertility.  A good  farmer  will  escape  many  losses  by 
insects  and  other  pests  where  a poor  farmer  would  suffer.  Good 
farming,  and  clean  farming,  should  be  the  motto  over  every  farmer’s 
door.  Poor  farming  means  also  a rank  growth  of  weeds,  and  mainly 
of  the  different  species  of  pigeon  grasses,  which  in  themselves  are  a 
great  attraction  for  chinch-bugs. 

Another  point  in  favor  of  the  good  farmer,  or  of  one  who  feeds 
the  soil  generously,  is  a return  of  the  thankful  soil  in  form  of  strong 
and  vigorous  plants;  plants  which  can  withstand  the  attacks  of 
injurious  insects  much  better  than  the  wTeak  plants  growing  upon  a 
starved  soil. 

As  long  as  it  is  the  aim  of  the  farmer  to  grow  upon  the  biggest 
scale  possible  only  one  kind  of  crop,  just  that  long  noxious  insects 
will  be  numerous,  or  even  increase  still  more  in  numbers.  The  rea- 
son for  this  is  so  self-evident  that  it  is  not  even  necessary  to  explain. 
If  more  diversified  farming  was  the  rule  and  not  the  exception,  as  it 
is  at  present,  fields  containing  the  same  kinds  of  plants  would  be 
more  or  less  widely  separated  by  fields  containing  other  kinds  of 
plants,  and  insects  would  not  find  it  so  convenient  to  multiply  with- 


165 


out  let  or  hindrance.  Such  fields  of  cereals,  separted  by  other  fields 
containing  other  crops,  would  soon  reduce  the  numbers  of  many  in- 
sects, and  among  them  those  of  the  chinch-bugs.  Of  course,  this 
would  mean,  perhaps,  more  work,  but  it  would  also  mean  less 
trouble  and  better  returns  for  the  labor  expended. 

When  we  consider  the  method  in  which  the  bugs  of  the  first 
brood  migrate  from  the  dry  plants  first  infested  to  the  future  green 
food  in  cornfields,  we  are  struck  with  the  fact  that  nearly  all  bugs, 
whether  large  or  small,  migrate  on  foot,  and  that  even  the  great  ma- 
jority of  the  winged  ones  do  not  form  an  exception  by  using  their 
wings.  Of  course,  under  certain  conditions  a small  percentage  take 
to  their  wings;  but  this  is  the  exception  and  not  the  rule.  Armies 
of  insects  migrating  on  foot,  and  moving  slowly  and  in  the  same 
direction,  should  offer  us  manv  opportunities  to  oppose  or  to  shop 
them  entirely.  This  very  fact  of  migrating  on  foot  is  the  weak  point 
in  the  life  history  of  the  chinch-bug,  where  we  can,  with  a little 
foresight,  overcome  them.  Many  different  methods  may  be  adapted, 
depending  mainly  upon  the  character  of  the  ground  over  which  the 
insects  have  to  pass.  In  our  own  state  the  agricultural  soils  are 
usually  quite  free  of  rocks  and  stones,  excepting  certain  localities 
where  they  abound,  but  where,  in  consequence,  but  little  grain  is 
grown.  By  making  between  grain  and  cornfied  a ditch  several  feet 
in  depth,  immense  numbers  of  bugs  can  be  captured  and  killed;  in 
fact,  nearly  all  that  travel  on  foot.  But  in  dry  summers  such  ditches 
will  have  sides  composed  of  baked  and  hard  soil,  and  would  offer  but 
a slight  hindrance  to  the  moving  army  beyond  extending  their  trip 
over  a little  greater  distance.  It  is  therefore  necessary  that  the 
sides  of  such  a ditch  should  be  smooth  and  that  its  bottom  should 
be  very  dusty.  This  latter  is  easily  managed  by  tying  together  a 
bundle  of  twigs,  with  the  leaves  still  adhering,  and  by  dragging  this 
bundle  repeatedly  through  the  ditch  until  the  desired  conditions  have 
been  made.  The  spade  should  be  used  to  rectify  any  defects  in  the 
smooth  sides.  If  such  a ditch  cannot  be  made,  one  or  more  very 
deep  furroAvs  should  be  plowed,  and  by  using  bundles  of  twigs  their 
bottoms  should  be  made  very  dusty.  Very  fine  dust  will  perform 
the  work  most  thoroughly.  As  already  mentioned,  it  is  almost  im 
possible  for  a bug  to  cross  such  a dusty  strip.  Many  modifications 
of  this  method  are  possible  and  will  suggest  themselves  to  the  think- 
ing farmer.  Even  a strip  of  plowed  land,  made  perfectly  level  with 
a disk-harrow  and  thoroughly  rolled  by  a heavy  roller  and  made 


166 


dusty,  will  do  wonders.  All  these  methods  have  two  ends  in  view : 
to  stop  the  progress  of  the  bugs  and  to  collect  them  in  large  num- 
bers in  a limited  space,  so  that  they  may  be  killed.  This  latter  can 
be  done  in  various  ways.  If  ditches  are  used,  a little  straw  scat- 
tered in  the  bottom  will  soon  be  crowded  with  bugs;  in  fact,  piles  of 
straw  seem  to  confuse  the  traveling  bugs  and  retard  and  retain  them 
for  some  time.  The  straw  can  be  burned  by  adding  a little  kerosene 
oil.  Or,  by  means  of  a post-hole  augur,  holes  can  be  made  every  ten 
or  fifteen  feet,  into  which  the  bugs  will  collect  or  into  which  they  may 
be  swept.  By  closing  such  holes  when  filled  with  bugs  and  making 
other  holes,  or  by  killing  the  bugs  in  the  holes  by  kerosene  oil  and 
cleaning  them  afterwards  with  the  augur,  the  bulk  of  the  army  can 
be  captured  and  disposed  of.  As  the  bugs  will  not  cross  coal  tar, 
the  edges  of  furrows  or  ditches  towards  the  fields  to  be  protected 
should  be  covered  with  this  material,  and  none  of  the  insects  could 
leave  the  trap.  This  coal  tar  can  also  be  used  even  without  a ditch 
or  furrow^  but  will  not  be  so  effective;  yet  in  certain  and  extreme 
cases  it  may  be  the  only  method  that  can  be  used  in  time.  By  pour- 
ing a broad  line  of  this  material  upon  the  neutral  zone  between  the 
fields,  and  by  keeping  its  surface  fresh,  the  bugs  will  gather  in  front 
and  can  be  trapped  in  holes  made  for  this  purpose.  If  all  such  meas- 
ures have  been  neglected,  or  if  the  bugs  have  already  reached  the 
outer  few  rows  of  the  corn,  the  plants  in  them  should  be  cut  down  in 
such  a way  that  they  form  more  or  less  continuous  piles  upon  the 
ground.  The  bugs,  being  starving,  will  not  leave  these  stalks  for 
some  time,  but  will  continue  to  find  their  sustenance  upon  them. 
This,  for  quite  a while,  prevents  their  moving  to  the  next  row^s  of 
corn.  The  bugs  can  be  killed  in  very  large  numbers  by  burning  dry 
straw  between  the  piles  of  corn  cut  down.  A little  kerosene  oil,  or 
any  other  substance  that  burns  well  and  makes  a dense  smoke,  wrill 
make  a very  pleasing  addition  to  the  entertainment.  Knowing  the 
principle  to  be  applied,  every  thinking  farmer  ought  to  know  kowr 
to  apply  it  to  the  best  advantage  upon  his  own  fields.  The  very 
fact  that  the  bugs  are  retarded  for  a long  time  upon  the  heated  sur- 
face of  the  ground  is  sufficient  to  kill  a large  number.  The  same 
principle  explained  above,  but  in  another  form,  was  applied  by  the 
writer  six  years  ago  upon  the  fields  of  the  Experiment  Station,  and 
with  such  marked  success  that  the  corn  to  be  protected  did  not  suffer 
in  the  least  from  the  chinch-bugs,  though  they  almost  surrounded 
the  cornfields  in  immense  numbers.  The  description  of  this  particu- 
lar case  will  be  quoted  later. 


167 


It  seems  strange  that  sensible  farmers,  who  have  been  told  again 
and  again,  should  fail  to  make  use  of  such  a very  simple  and  cheap 
remedy,  simply  because  it  requires  some  extra  work.  And  yet  this 
work  is  required  to  be  done  at  a time  when  other  farm  work  is  not  so 
very  pressing.  If  these  methods  were  only  generally  and  conscien- 
tiously followed,  there  would  be  no  need  to  apply  other  remedies; 
and  not  alone  would  the  corn  be  saved,  but  in  saving  it  the  second 
brood  of  chinch-bugs  would  be  very  materially  reduced  in  numbers, 
and  in  a short  time  the  chinch-bug  would  cease  to  be  the  destructive 
insect  it  now  is.  As  this  method  is  such  a good  one,  it  bears  repeti- 
tion: all  that  is  required  is  a thoroughly  dusty  surface,  best  in  a de- 
pression especially  made  for  that  purpose,  and  that  this  dusty  surface 
should  be  attended  to  diligently,  so  that  repairs  can  be  made  when- 
ever necessary.  A ditch  or  furrow  left  unattended  will  be  made  in 
vain. 

' Although  most  of  the  direct  remedies — the  insecticides  now  in 
general  use — will  prove  of  but  little  value,  we  should  except  the 
kerosene  oil  emulsion,  which  can  be  used  very  successfully  in  certain 
cases.  If  the  migrating  bugs  have  reached  the  outer  rows  of  corn, 
and  almost  hide  these  plants  by  their  presence,  this  material  will 
prove  very  effective;  and  as  it  will  cost  less  than  75  cents  per  acre, 
it  should  be  used  much  more  generally.  The  emulsion  should  be  well 
made,  and  it  will  be  found  best  to  use  the  one  made  after  the  Hub- 
bard formula,  which  is  here  repeated: 

Kerosene,  2 gallons 67  per  cent. 

Common  soap  or  whale  oil  soap,  one-halt*  pound) 

Water,  1 gallon ) 33  per  cent. 

“Heat  the  solution  of  soap  and  add  it  boiling  hot  to  the  kerosene. 
Churn  the  mixture  by  means  of  a force  pump  and  spray  nozzle  for 
five  or  ten  minutes.  The  emulsion,  if  perfect,  forms  a cream  which 
thickens  on  cooling,  and  should  adhere  without  oiliness  to  the  sur- 
face of  glass.  Dilute  before  using  one  part  of  the  emulsion  with 
nine  parts  of  water.  The  above  formula  gives  three  gallons  of  emul- 
sion, and  makes,  when  diluted,  thirty  gallons  of  wash.v  To  do  the 
work  thoroughly,  farmers  should  use  this  wash  at  the  rate  of  about 
sixty  gallons  to  the  acre. 

Relation  of  the  weather  to  Chinch  Bugs  — Most  persons  have  the 
impression  that  a very  severe  and  cold  winter  would  prove  fatal  to 
chinch-bugs.  This  impression  or  belief  is  not  borne  out  by  facts, 
which  prove  that  the  opposite  is  nearer  the  truth.  An  uniformly 


168 


cold  winter,  and  a more  or  less  deep  covering  of  snow,  are  the  very 
conditions  that  chinch-bugs  require  to  pass  the  winter  in  good 
health.  As  soon  as  the  cold  weather  begins,  they  become  torpid,  and 
remain  so  until  spring.  If,  however,  we  have  an  open  winter,  with 
little  snow,  or  long  mild  spells  warm  enough  to  wake  up  the  torpid 
bugs,  followed  by  very  cold  periods,  or  if  we  have  frequent  freezing 
and  thawing,  then  the  bugs  suffer  more  or  less  severely,  and  their 
vitality  becomes  impaired  and  weak,  and  they  are  ready  to  succumb 
to  any  disease  that  may  attack  them . This  is  especially  true  if  large 
numbers  of  bugs  crowd  together  in  the  same  hibernating  quarters. 
It  seems  as  if  a deep  covering  of  snow  was  essential  to  their  health. 
Yet  immense  numbers  of  bugs  remain  frequently  unimpaired  and 
healthy  without  such  a cover,  and  wake  up  quite  active  in  spring, 
not  showing  the  least  ill  effect  of  such  a long  exposure  to  cold.  If 
we  investigate  such  hibernating  places  we  soon  discover  that  they 
are  dry,  or  that  they  are  well  drained.  It  seems,  then,  that  it  is 
moisture  more  than  cold  that  chinch-bugs  try  to  escape.  They  are 
not  easily  killed  w'hen  in  a state  of  torpidity,  and  we  can  have  no 
assurance  that  they  may  be  killed  by  the  inclemency  of  our  winters. 
Their  love  for  dry  shelter  accounts  for  the  fact  that  a long  continu 
ous  wet  spring  is  fatal  to  their  health.  They  cannot  escape  this 
moisture,  and  large  numbers  of  bugs  can  be  found  dead  after  such  a 
rainy  spring.  This  accounts,  also,  for  the  fact  that  a rainy  season 
usually  causes  the  end  of  a chinch-bug  invasion.  The  insect  becomes 
weak  and  the  prey  of  various  diseases  which  seem  to  be  always 
ready  to  attack  bugs  with  an  impaired  vitality,  and  during  such 
seasons  the  great  majority  of  bugs  are  killed.  An  uniformly  cold 
winter,  with  much  snow,  an  early  spring  not  too  wet,  followed  by  a 
warm  and  dry  late  spring  and  a still  warmer  and  dry  summer,  are 
the  essential  climatic  conditions  favorable  to  a rapid  increase  of 
chinch-bugs.  Knowing  that  immense  numbers  of  chinch-bugs  are 
now  sheltered  in  their  winter  quarters,  and  that  at  the  present  time 
(Dec.  10,  1894)  they  are  still  in  a most  healthy  condition,  it  is  to  be 
feared  that  a considerable  part  of  next  year’s  crops  will  be  sub- 
jected to  their  ravages.  As  we  cannot  tell  beforehand  what  kind  of 
weather  will  prevail  in  spring  and  early  summer,  and  as  rain  makers 
have  apparently  lost  a control  they  never  possessed,  it  well  be- 
hooves us  to  make  all  the  preparations  necessary  to  fight  the  enemy. 
Every  farmer  ought  to  be  willing  to  do  his  share  of  the  work,  and  by 
carrying  out  conscientiously  the  different  methods  given  above — all 


169 


based  upon  the  habits  of  that  enemy — very  much  may  and  should  be 
done.  Yet  the  millennium  has  as  yet  not  been  reached,  when  every 
farmer  will  be  educated  and  willing  to  undertake  such  work,  and  we 
must  therefore  depend  upon  other  remedies,  which  should  be  applied 
largely  by  the  state  for  the  benefit  of  the  entire  community,  as  large 
crops  are  the  mainspring  to  the  activity  of  every  other  business  be- 
sides that  of  farming. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  area  of  wheat  and  of  other  plants  be- 
longing to  the  family  of  grasses  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  losses 
caused  by  chinch-bugs  as  cause  to  effect.  Districts  in  which  most 
wheat  is  raised  feel  the  damage  first  and  most  severely;  those  in 
which  wheat  and  oats  are  the  principal  crops  next  receive  the  brunt 
of  the  insect  attack;  and  the  last  to  be  seriously  affected  are  those 
in  which  corn  and  grass  are  the  leading  products  (Forbes).  In  a 
region  in  which  stock-raising  and  dairying  are  the  leading  agricul- 
tural pursuits  the  bugs  are  less  liable  to  cause  damage  than  in  a 
region  in  which  small  grains  are  the  staple  crops.  Prof.  Forbes 
has  also  demonstrated  that  large  areas  of  oats  could  be  successfully 
grown,  but  in  corn-growing  regions  most  small  grains  should  be  left 
alone,  and,  above  all,  winter  wheat  and  barley. 

Diseases  of  the  Chinch- Bugs. — Considerable  attention  has  been 
paid  during  the  last  ten  years  to  a number  of  diseases  that  are  known 
to  be  fatal  to  such  bugs,  and  considerable  progress  has  been  made  in 
their  application.  Such  diseases  have  been  studied,  and  methods 
have  been  invented  in  which  they  can  be  increased  and  spread  among 
their  victims.  Still,  a large  amount  of  work  and  innumerable  ex- 
periments have  to  be  made  in  this  direction,  and  it  is  still  an  open 
question  whether  we  shall  ever  so  fully  succeed  as  we  wish  to. 
None  of  these  diseases  can  be  called  as  yet  a true  remedy,  as  we 
can  do  but  one  part  of  the  work,  while  climatic  conditions  must  do 
the  other.  It  is  easy  enough  to  produce  any  amount  of  fungi  causing 
such  diseases,  but  we  cannot  produce  the  necessary  weather  to  make 
it  effective.  All  such  diseases  seem  to  require  two  distinct  condi- 
tions: a fair  amount  of  moisture  to  make  such  plants  as  fungi  thrive 
well,  and  a somewhat  lowered  vitality  of  the  bug  to  be  attacked  by 
the  disease.  Under  artificial  conditions  we  have  control  over  both, 
and  can  consequently  produce  from  a few  fungi  a very  large  number 
of  diseased  and  fungus-covered  dead  bugs.  But  when  we  introduce 
this  material  among  the  healthy  bugs  found  in  our  fields  we  lose 
control  of  the  necessary  conditions  and  have  to  depend  upon  the 
weather  that  may  be  prevailing  at  the  time.  If  this  is  in  favor  of 


170 


FIG.  2.  Disease  Killing  the  Common  House-Fly. 

the  death-dealing  fungi,  the  introduction  of  a disease  will  be  a suc- 
cess; if  not,  it  will  do  but  little  good.  In  other  words,  if  the  disease 
is  introduced  when  the  weather  is  favorable,  good  results  will  follow; 
if  dry,  none  may  be  expected.  As  the  diseases  are  chiefly  active 
during  the  warmer  portions  of  the  season,  they  make  but  slow 
progress  during  the  time  that  the  bugs  hibernate;  yet  late  summer 
and  autumn  rains  have  a tendency  to  promote  the  development  of  a 
very  virulent  disease  of  the  bugs,  the  White  Muscardmc.  Persons 
who  are  in  the  habit  of  watching  such  things  have  no  doubt  ob- 
served how  rapidly  our  common  house-flies  are  killed  by  a disease 
prevailing  in  September.  Not  infrequently  we  may  at  this  time  ob- 
serve a fly  fastened  by  its  tongue  to  a pane  of  glass  in  a window, 
surrounded  by  a white,  flour-like  dust.  If  the  fly  is  removed,  its  body 
will  be  found  hollow.  This  white  dust  is  in  reality  composed  of 
spores  of  a fungus  which  grew  inside  the  fly,  and  after  killing  its 
host,  forced  its  way  to  the  surface  of  the  same  and  scattered  these 
spores,  again  fatal  to  other  flies  that  may  come  in  contact  with  them. 


The  disappearance  of  the  multitude  of  flies  early  in  September  is 
not  owing  directly  so  much  to  the  colder  nights  that  prevail  at  that 
time  as  to  the  disease  and  death-producing  fungus.  We  do  not  ob- 
serve this  disease  during  the  warmer  portion  of  the  year,  simply  be- 
cause the  vitality  of  the  flies  will  permit  them  to  escape  this  con- 
tagious disease.  But  as  cool  nights  become  the  rule  and  not  the 
exception  the  vitality  of  the  fly  is  lowered;  flies  crowd  together  in 
large  numbers  ,are  more  or  less  sluggish  in  all  their  actions,  and  con- 
sequently the  disease  requiring  such  conditions  can  attack  and  kill 
them.  The  same  holds  good  with  all  diseases  of  this  nature  that 
attack  chinch-bugs;  perhaps  it  is  the  general  rule  with  all  diseases 
caused  by  such  small  parasitic  organisms. 


FIG.  3.  Chinch-Bug  Killed 
by  Entomopthora. 


FIG.  4.  Bug  Covered  by  Mycelium 
of  Sporotrichum. 


In  Fig.  3 is  shown  a chinch-bug,  greatly  enlarged,  that  was  killed 
by  a species  of  fungus  (Entomophtkora),  and  which  was  the  cause  of 
the  sudden  disappearance  of  chinch-bugs  from  the  state  in  1888. 
As  the  case  was  a very  interesting  one,  showing  at  the  same  time 
another  method  to  prevent  bugs  migrating  from  the  neighboring 
cornfields,  the  statement  made  at  the  same  time  is  here  repeated: 
“Oats,  rye,  wheat  and  some  grass  was  utterly  destroyed  by  them, 
and  the  young  and  promising  corn  formed  now  a standing  invitation 


172 


to  the  hungry  hordes.  To  prevent  their  inroads,  all  the  infested 
fields  and  experimental  plats  were  surrounded  by  a low  board  fence, 
six  inches  high,  and  snugly  fitting  to  the  ground,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  insects  from  crossing  under  this  fence.  The  upper  edge  of  the 
boards  were  painted  from  time  to  time  with  tar,  which  prevented 
the  bugs  from  crossing.  The  ‘insects  were  at  this  time  of  all  sizes 
and  ages;  adults  of  the  first  brood,  young  hatched  bugs  and  pupae 
were  all  mixed  together,  and  all  were  decidedly  hungry,  as  their  in- 
tense activity  and  the  swarming  armies  of  famishing  bugs  plainly 
indicated.  To  gather  in  this  crop  of  bugs,  round  holes,  about  six 
inches  in  diameter,  were  drilled  in  the  ground  close  to  the  fence, 
and  as  one  hole  became  filled  with  insects  it  was  closed  and  another 
one  was  opened  close  by  for  the  reception  of  more  victims.  So  mat- 
ters worked  to  our  satisfaction,  when  an  unexpected  assistant  came 
to  help  us,  making  the  construction  of  more  fences  unnecessary. 
The  above-mentioned  holes  were  quite  deep,  and  consequently  were 
all  wet,  a condition  of  things  not  at  all  suitable  to  starving  chinch- 
bugs,  and  they  soon  became  unhealthy  and  weak,  thus  presenting 
the  best  conditions  for  any  disease  to  claim  them  as  its  victims. 
And  such  a disease,  produced  by  a fungus,  was  not  slow  in  making  its 
appearance,  as  could  be  seen  by  the  numerous  dead  bugs.  The  mar- 
gins of  the  holes,  but  chiefly  those  most  densely  crowded  with  cap- 
tives, became  whitened  with  dead  bugs,  enshrouded  in  white  mycelial 
threads  and  dust-like  spores ; in  fact,  in  a few  days  the  upper  rims 
of  these  holes  looked  as  if  recently  whitewashed.  Nor  did  the  dis- 
ease stop  there!  On  the  contrary,  it  spread  very  rapidly  to  ad- 
joining fields  of  timothy,  Hungarian  grass,  millet,  etc.  Even  the 
course  followed  by  it  from  the  holes  could  be  readily  recognized 
for  some  time  by  the  more  or  less  numerous  white  spots  left  in  its 
wake.  The  fields  invaded  by  the  disease  afforded,  upon  closer  ex- 
amination, a truly  edifying  spectacle  to  those  not  interested  in  the 
welfare  of  the  chinch-bugs.  They  looked  quite  panic-stricken,  and 
moved  about  in  a slow  and  dazed  way,  figuratively  speaking,  as  if 
badly  scared.  And  well  they  might  be!  The  victims  of  the  disease 
could  be  seen  everywhere  by  the  thousands;  they  had  been  slaught- 
ered in  all  kinds  of  positions,  but  they  were  usually  fastened  to  the 
blades  and  stems  of  the  grass,  or  to  the  leaves  of  the  young  clover. 
All  showed  plainly  that  their  last  and  strong  determination  in  life 
had  been  to  hold  on  as  long  as  possible;  their  legs  were  firmly 
planted  upon  the  substance  where  the  bugs  happened  to  be;  others 


had  only  their  beaks  inserted  and  were  dangling  by  it  free  in  the  air. 
But  all  showed  the  characteristic  white  mycelium  threads  and  spores 
of  the  disease.  The  illustration  in  Fig.  3 shows  an  enlarged  chinch- 
bug,  with  white  threads  issuing  from  its  body,  and  numerous 
other  specimens  in  natural  size  killed  by  the  fungus.  Although 
almost  exclusively  attacking  chinch-bugs,  the  disease  was  not  slow 
in  slaughtering  such  small  flies  as  found  the  society  of  such  mal- 
odorous companions  to  their  taste.  A story  with  a moral.”  “Most, 
if  not  all,  the  chinch-bugs  would  have  been  killed  at  the  Experiment 
Station,  if  the  suitable  conditions  for  the  disease  had  lasted  a few 
days  longer.  But  the  wet  spell  which  prevailed  part  of  the  time  the 
disease  was  playing  such  havoc  amongst  the  bugs  soon  passed  and 
was  followed  by  warm  and  very  dry  days,  which  soon  stopped  any 
further  spread  of  the  disease.  But  by  artificially  producing  such 
conditions,  the  disease  was  kept  at  work  for  some  time,  but  only  on 
a very  limited  scale.  Nor  could  it  be  spread,  because  in  nature  such 
artificial  conditions  could  neither  be  produced  nor  maintained  on 
any  extensive  scale.  As  many  parts  of  the  southern  portion  of  this 
state  were  overrun  with  chinch-bugs,  I thought  that  a good  opportu- 
nity and  an  inviting  field  was  presented  to  purposely  spread  a dis- 
ease— an  act  not  usually  considered  a very  kind  one  to  engage  in, 
and  one  not  to  be  recommended  to  physicians.  This  was  exceedingly 
simple,  as  all  that  was  necessary  was  to  gather  a number  of  the 
diseased  bugs,  put  them  in  tight-fitting  tin  boxes  and  mail  them  to 
regions  infested  with  chinch-bugs.  Arrived  at  their  destination, 
the  contents  of  the  boxes  could  be  simply  thrown  in  any  field  known 
to  be  infested  with  such  bugs.  This  was  done  with  specimens  of 
the  diseased  bugs  collected  at  the  Experiment  Station,  and  eighteen 
different  places  in  Southern  Minnesota  were  thus  made  centers  of 
distribution  for  this  disease.  And,  as  it  seems, with  remarkably  good 
results,  as  the  disease  has  killed  off  the  bugs  to  such  an  extent  that 
careful  search  in  a majority  of  places  failed  to  produce  a single  liv- 
ing specimen,  whilst  the  traces  of  the  disease  was  found  everywhere. 
The  disease  spread  so  rapidly  that  even  corn  growing  near  wheat- 
fields  crowded  with  chinch-bugs  was  entirely  protected,  and  no  bugs 
had  entered  them  in  all  the  places  visited  by  myself.  But  I am  by 
no  means  satisfied  that  the  disease  was  really  introduced  in  this 
manner.  Is  it  not  possible  that  the  disease  was  there  already,  un- 
known to  anyone,  and  that  I simply  re-introduced  its  germs?  The 
reason  for  this  belief  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  too  large  an  area 


174 


was  infested  by  the  disease;  too  large  to  be  readily  accounted  for 
by  the  short  time  in  which  the  atmospheric  conditions  were — ap 
parently — in  its  favor.  But  be  this  as  it  may;  one  thing  is  certain, 
viz.:  The  disease  has  been  there,  and  consequently  the  spores  of 

the  fungus  producing  it  are  there  also,  and  remain  there,  to  act  when 
ever  the  conditions  are  favorable;  and  I firmly  believe  that  our  farm 
ers  need  not  entertain  any  fears  of  chinch-bugs  for  the  near  future.” 
The  above  statement  was  written  late  in  the  autumn  of  1888,  and 
subsequent  events  have  shown  that  the  belief  then  expressed  be- 
came a fact.  It  might  be  added,  that  in  the  same  autumn  many 
thousands  of  circulars  were  mailed  to  farmers  living  in  the  region 
infested  in  that  year  with  chinch-bugs.  Several  thousand  replies 
were  received,  and  by  entering  them  upon  a map  of  the  state  they 
clearly  showed  that  for  some  reason  or  other  the  disease  did  execu- 
tion only  where  introduced,  and  not  in  other  places. 

Besides  the  disease  just  mentioned,  several  others  are  found 
that  are  fatal  to  the  chinch-bugs.  One  is  a bacterial  disease,  thriv- 
ing in  the  abdominal  region  of  the  bug.  This  disease  seems  to  be 
less  contagious  than  others,  at  least  has  as  yet  not  given  much 
promise  that  it  might  be  utilized  to  destroy  the  insects  upon  a large 
scale.  Bugs  affected  by  it  have  usually  a swollen  abdomen,  are 
weak  and  clumsy,  so  much  so  that  if  laid  upon  their  back  they  are 
unable  to  reassume  their  proper  position.  After  death  the  insects 
are  not  covered  with  a white  dust  composed  of  threads  and  spores, 
as  is  the  case  with  other  diseases  caused  by  fungi. 

The  third  fungus  which  causes  the  death  of  chinch-bugs  is  the 
White  Fuagas  ( Sporotrickum,  globuliferum).  This  fungus,  though 
not  strictly  belonging  to  those  that  can  only  exist  upon  living  insects, 
has  been  found  to  be  the  only  one  that  can  be  manipulated  with 
ease  and  success,  as  demonstrated  again  and  again  by  the  valuable 
and  careful  experiments  made  by  Professors  Snow,  Forbes  and  oth- 
ers. Attacking  by  preference  old  and  spent  bugs,  it  will  also  attack 
healthy  ones,  in  all  stages  of  their  growth,  not  even  excepting  the 
eggs.  When  conditions  are  favorable — i.  e.,  when  the  bugs  are 
weakened  by  wet  weather — the  increase  of  this  fungus  is  exceed- 
ingly rapid  and  the  disease  caused  by  it  sweeps  over  a large  terri- 
tory in  a short  time,  killing  the  majority  of  the  infesting  army. 
The  dried  fungus  can  also  be  kept  in  tin  boxes  over  winter,  and  is 
always  ready  to  respond  to  our  demands.  As  it  matures  its  spores 
in  a comparatively  short  time  and  in  immense  numbers,  an  artificial 


175 


increase  may  be  very  rapid.  The  disease  caused  by  it  would  be  a 
perfect  remedy  if  all  the  conditions  necessary  to  its  spread  in  the 
infested  fields  could  be  controlled,  which,  however,  is  not  possible. 
A bug  infected  by  it  shows  symptoms  similar  to  those  attacked  by 
the  Entomoplithora  or  Empusa  already  described.  It  becomes  slug- 
gish, does  not  like  to  move,  changes  somewhat  in  color,  appears 
inflated,  and  is  soon  afterwards  covered  with  an  external  white  coat 
of  fungus  growth.  This  coat  is  so  very  dense  that  it  hides  more  or 
less  completely  the  dead  host,  thus  differing  greatly  from  the  Ento- 
mophthora,  where  but  comparatively  few  white  threads  are  visible. 
Fig.  4 gives*  an  idea  of  the  appearance  of  this  fungus  enclosing  a 
dead  bug,  while  Fig.  3 shows  that  of  the  Entomophthora. 

This  short  description  of  the  three  diseases  now  known  to  be  fatal 
to  chinch-bugs  may  suffice  for  the  present  time.  Other  diseases  are 
also  known,  but  they  still  require  study  and  experiments  to  solve 
their  history  and  habits.  With  these  diseases  we  ought  to  be  able 
to  cope  with  the  pest  of  our  grain-fields,  but  at  present  we  do  not  al- 
ways succeed ; nor  can  we  expect  to,  simply  because  we  cannot  con- 
trol the  various  necessary  adjuncts  to  success,  and  consequently  not 
too  much  confidence  should  be  put  upon  any  one  of  them.  Future 
studies,  experiments  and  experience  may  solve  or  lessen  greatly  the 
difficulties  still  in  our  path.  Neither  should  we  neglect  to  be  always 
prepared ; we  should  constantly  be  ready  to  utilize  favorable  climatic 
conditions  and  introduce  such  diseases,  and  should  not  wait  for  them 
to  assist  us,  which  they  may  or  may  not  do.  And  as  the  spores  of 
Sporotrichum  can  be  kept  for  a long  time  without  dying,  can  be 
increased  both  upon  artificial  cultures  and  upon  the  insects  them- 
selves, we  should  be  failing  in  our  duty  to  ourselves,  to  the  commu- 
nity and  to  the  whole  state  if  we  were  not  always  ready  to  fight  the 
enemy;  in  fact,  an  armed  armistice  should  be  the  position  held  by  us. 

Method  s of  increasing  the  number  of  diseased  bugs  —Knowing 
the  conditions  under  which  fungi  causing  death  to  bugs  thrive  best, 
it  is  not  very  difficult  to  produce  them  artificially.  We  know  that 
moisture  and  impaired  health  of  the  bugs  are  necessary.  To  produce 
the  latter  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  confine  the  more  or  less  healthy 
bugs  found  in  our  fields  to  boxes  made  of  wood — the  infection  boxes. 
Shutting  off  all  the  light,  and  forcing  the  bugs  to  exist  in  an  atmos- 
phere saturated  with  moisture,  will  give  all  the  necessary  conditions 
required  by  the  fungus.  If  we  take  a shallow  wooden  box,  six  inches 
in  depth,  and  not  too  large — say  from  three  to  four  feet  long  and  two 
feet  wide — and  cover  the  bottom  with  tightly  pressed  moist — not 


176 


wet — soil,  we  possess  just  what  is  needed.  The  bugs  should,  of 
course,  be  fed,  and  the  sides  of  the  box  should  be  moistened  from 
time  to  time,  if  it  should  become  necessary.  Chinch-bugs,  loving 
the  light,  warmth  and  dryness,  are  not  slow  to  be  influenced  by 
such  unsuitable  conditions  as  are  prevailing  in  their  prison,  and  soon 
become  weaker  in  their  vitality.  If  we  now  introduce^  a few  dis- 
eased bugs,  covered  with  the  spores  of  the  disease,  the  fungus  caus- 
ing it  is  surrounded  by  the  necessary  moisture  and  by  bugs  -more  or 
less  weakened.  The  weaker  ones,  coming  in  contact  with  such 
spores  during  their  anxious  efforts  to  escape,  will  soon  contract  the 
disease,  and  after  death  become  covered  with  a new  crop  of  spores 
ready  to  further  spread  the  disease.  Many  healthy  bugs  thus  intro- 
ducd  into  the  infection  box  fail  for  a long  time  to  contract  the  dis- 
ease; in  fact,  we  have  sometimes  raised  a large  number  of  young 
bugs  to  their  pupal  and  even  to  their  adult  stage  without  having 
been  able  to  make  them  diseased.  But  such  cases  are  the  exception 
and  not  the  rule,  as  most  of  the  bugs  will  before  long  show  the 
effects  of  the  infection,  providing  we  have  been  careful  to  give  the 
proper  attention  to  the  box.  It  is  of  course  not  necessary  to  intro- 
duce diseased  bugs,  as  many  persons  seemed  to  think,  as  dead  bugs 
are  equally  good,  and  better,  being  already  covered  with  spores. 
Such  an  infection  box  will  produce  immense  numbers  of  spores  of 
the  disease-giving  fungi.  The  box  should  not  be  opened  very  often, 
since  by  doing  so  much  of  the  moisture  contained  in  the  enclosed 
air  will  escape.  A small  sliding  door  in  the  top  will  facilitate  the 
introduction  of  more  prisoners.  As  soon  as  many  bugs  can  be  found 
that  are  covered  with  the  fungus,  they  may  be  removed  and  other 
infection  boxes  can  be  started  with  them.  When  these  boxes  are 
working  in  a satisfactory  way,  most  of  the  imprisoned  bugs  can  be 
removed  after  two  days  and  scattered  in  the  fields  infested  with 
chinch-bugs.  Those  removed  should  be  replaced  with  other  bugs 
gathered  in  the  field.  In  this  manner  everybody  intending  to  util- 
ize such  diseases  to  fight  the  common  enemy  should  be  provided 
with  an  infection  box  in  which  he  can  produce  all  the  spores  he  may 
require.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  cleanliness  is 
here,  as  well  as  elsewhere,  of  great  importance.  The  food  provided 
for  the  still  living  bugs  in  the  box,  being  surrounded  by  a moist  at- 
mosphere, so  suitable  for  all  kinds  of  molds,  will  soon  decay,  and 
therefore  is  apt  to  become  moldy.  This  being  the  case,  the  food 
should  be  removed  as  soon  as  it  is  seen  to  commence  to  decay,  as 


177 


decaying  and  rotting  vegetable  matter  is  sure  to  produce  gases  by 
no  means  of  advantage  to  the  fungi  we  are  trying  to  produce.  It  is 
best  to  clean  the  boxes  from  time  to  time,  because  other  enemies 
to  our  work  will  surely  appear  and  give  trouble.  We  should  also  not 
introduce  too  many  bugs  at  the  same  time — not  more  than  will 
fairly  cover  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  infection  boxes  should  be 
kept  in  the  shade;  if  exposed  to  the  hot  rays  of  the  sun  we  are  apt 
to  steam  the  prisoners,  which,  of  course,  will  kill  them,  but  not  in  the 
manner  we  wish  to  see  them  die.  Nor  should  the  boxes  be  kept  in 
a cold  cellar,  as  fungi  of  the  kind  desired  require,  besides  moisture 
and  weak  bugs,  sufficient  warmth  to  develop  rapidly.  Perhaps  it 
would  be  best  to  sink  the  whole  box  in  a soil  that  is  always  well 
shaded.  Of  course  many  other  methods  will  suggest  themselves  to 
the  farmer,  but  he  will  do  wisely  to  follow  the  directions  here  given, 
and  not  try  to  improve  them,  or  even  attempt  to  breed  the  disease 
in  bottles,  very  wet  inside,  without  containing  food,  tightly  corked 
and  exposed  to  the  sun,  as  was  done  several  times  by  some  very 
smart  persons  who  wrere  furnished  with  diseased  material.  It  is 
not  simply  dead  bugs  wre  wish  to  produce  in  the  infection  boxes,  but 
diseased  ones.  Nor  was  it  wdse,  in  another  case,  to  put  the  material 
received  wdth  the  proper  directions  howr  to  use  it  in  a bottle  that 
had  contained  castor-oil,  or  some  other  oil  intended  for  a very  differ- 
ent purpose.  Many  cases  discovered  last  year  showed  that  another 
“Comedy  of  Errors”  might  be  w^ritten,  based  upon  the  manipulations 
of  the  chinch-bug  diseases. 

Other  Enemies  Besides  Diseases. — It  is  strange  how  soon  people, 
even  after  having  lost  their  entire  crops  of  cereals  in  former  years  by 
chinch-bugs,  forget  the  appearance  of  that  insect.  Not  infrequently 
we  have  been  told  by  farmers  that  knew  all  about  this  pest  that  the 
bugs  measured  over  half  an  inch  in  length  or  had  from  ten  to  fifty  legs. 
This  forgetfulness  is  also  clearly  showm  by  the  large  number  of  speci- 
mens of  all  kinds  of  insects  received  at  the  Experiment  Station 
with  the  query:  “Are  these  chinch-bugs?”  Some  of  these  speci- 
mens have  not  the  least  resemblance  to  them,  but  are  as  widely  dif- 
ferent from  the  genuine  article  as  a horse  is  from  a hen.  The  illus- 
trations given  in  Figs.  5 to  8 show  insects  that  are  frequently  mis- 
taken for  chinch-bugs.  Figs.  9 to  12  show  useful  insects,  or  such  as 
make  it  part  of  their  business  to  assist  us  against  the  enemy  by 
devouring  the  same.  Illustrations,  Figs.  5 to  8,  showT  insects  that 
are  frequently  mistaken  for  the  true  chinch-bugs,  and  which,  in 


178 


FIG.  6.  Negro -Bug.  After  Riley.  FIG.  8.  Insidious  Flower-Bug.  After  Riley. 


consequence,  have  been  frequently  called  “bogus  chinch-bugs. v 
These  latter  are  by  no  means  beneficial  insects,  yet  they  need 
not  cause  unnecessary  alarm.  The  common  names  of  all  these 
insects  are  given  below  the  illustrations.  It  seems  that  the  chinch- 
bug  occupies  a position  among  insects  shared  by  but  few  others — 
i.  e.,  there  is  not  a true  parasitic  insect  that  seems  to  enjoy  the 
highly  flavored  bug. 

When  mentioning  our  friends  among  insects  and  other  animals, 
we  should  not  omit  to  state  that  many  birds,  reptiles,  frogs  and 
toads  assist  us  materially  against  the  enemy,  and  that  we  should 
protect  our  friends.  It  is  a great  shame  that  domineering  man  is 
so  selfish!  Birds  like  the  Bob  White  and  prairie  chickens  are  killed 
on  a large  scale,  simply  because  they  are  good  to  eat.  But  in  pam- 
pering to  our  stomachs  we  forget  that  both  birds,  pressed  by  hunger 
during  autumn,  winter  and  early  spring,  make  war  upon  the  insects 
they  may  find  hibernating.  In  fact,  insects  form  the  staple  food 
for  these  birds,  and  consequently  large  numbers  of  chinch-bugs  are 


179 


Fig.  12  Lady  Bugs.  From  Div.  of  Entomology. 

consumed.  The  red-winged  blackbird,  the  cat  bird,  the  brown 
thrush,  the  meadow  lark,  and  several  species  of  wrens,  have  been 
repeatedly  observed  to  eat  chinch-bugs,  and  even  those  of  the  above 
list  that  may  appropriate  some  seeds  and  fruits  not  planted  for 
them  should  be  protected.  Our  domesticated  fowls  also  eat  chinch- 
bugs,  but  not  all  kinds  and  breeds  act  alike  in  this  matter.  Some 
chickens  eat  them  greedily;  others  will  not  be  tempted  by  them. 
The  Guinea  fowl  and  turkeys  devour  large  numbers.  Frogs  and 
toads  are  also  useful  in  chinch-bug  years,  and  especially  so  the  latter, 
which  should  always  be  protected. 


180 


What  was  done  in  189 4. — The  climatic  conditions  which  pre- 
vailed in  1894,  and  which  were  so  highly  favorable  to  chinch-bug 
increase,  have  already  been  mentioned.  To  illustrate  them  in  a 
specific  case,  yet  one  not  very  different  from  the  average  condition 
that  prevailed  almost  everywhere  in  Minnesota,  the  amount  of  rain 
and  the  temperature  prevailing  at  Rochester  is  given  in  the  follow- 
ing table,  kindly  prepared  by  Messrs.  C.  N.  Ainslie  and  H.  C.  Butler, 
the  former  an  ardent  student  of  natural  history  and  natural  sciences: 

1894. 


l 1 

Wind. 

Rainfall. 

Temp. 

Junk. 

Wind. 

Rainfall. 

PH 

a 

a> 

H 

1* 

P 

P 

>-5 

Wind. 

Rainfall. 

Temp. 

| August.  | ! 

Wind. 

p 

(A 

Temp. 

06 

X 

M 

H 

a. 

m 

Wind. 

Rainfall. 

Temp. 

1 

N.W. 

0.12 

52  70 

1 

1 N. 

0 

42  73 

1 

N W. 

0 

68-82 

1 

N.W 

0 

66-82 

1 

ft.  W* 

0 

47  81 

2 

S.  E. 

0 

36-61 

2 

' N. 

0 

46  80 

2 

N.W. 

0 

50  82 

2 

i N.W. 

0 

53  84 

2 

ft.  W 

0 

64-92 

3 

8, 

0 

43  53 

3 N.W. 

0 

52-73 

3 

N.W. 

0 

52-80 

3 

N.W. 

0 

40-66 

3 

ft.  W 

0.01 

69-89 

4 

S. 

0 

36-63 

4 N.W. 

0 

44-72 

4 

N.W 

0 

52  74 

4 

S. 

0 

44-73 

4 

N.  E 

0 

57  81 

5 

s. 

2.04 

43  63 

5 

N. 

0 

33  53 

5 

N.W 

0 

46  80 

5 

s. 

0 

50-78 

5 

S. 

trac 

56  80 

6 

w 

0 

43-53 

6 N.W. 

0 

32  70 

6 

N. 

0 

56  72 

6 

! s. 

0 

55-85 

e 

ft. 

0 

61  85 

7 

N.W 

0 

40-62 

7, 

N.W 

0.07 

40  82 

7 

N.W. 

i 0 

42  78 

7 

ft.  w. 

trace 

59  87 

? 

S.E. 

0 

67  75 

8 

N.W. 

0 

38  72 

8 

S. 

0 

48  83 

8 

W. 

0 

48  86 

8 

w. 

0 

64-90 

8 

ft.  W. 

0 

56  81 

9 

n!  w. 

0 

48  80 

1 9 

s. 

0 

53  84 

9 

3.  W. 

0 

50-90 

9 

N. 

0 

60  97 

c 

w. 

0 

48-78 

10 

n!w. 

0 

48-56 

TO 

s. 

0 

53  84 

10 

ft.  W. 

0 

58  90 

10 

S. 

040 

67-83 

1( 

N.W. 

0 

44-80 

11 

s. 

0 

32  70 

11 

s. 

0 

60-90 

11 

ft.  w. 

0 

66  92 

11 

s. 

0 

64  85 

11 

S.W. 

0 

33-63 

12 

S.  E 

0 

48-80 

12  3.  W. 

0 

64  94 

12 

ft.  W. 

0 

70  92 

12 

3.  W. 

0 

58-84 

12: 

ft. 

0 

37-68 

13 

S.  E. 

0 

50  84 

13  3.  W. 

0 

64  95 

13 

ft.  W. 

0 

56-74 

13 

3.  W. 

0.15 

58-83 

It 

ft.  E. 

0 

46  70 

14 

s.  w 

0 

64-84 

14  3.  W. 

0 

64  94 

14 

w. 

0 

50  80 

14 

ft. 

0 

61  81 

U 

ft.  E. 

0.25 

52-71 

1 

1*1 

ft. 

0.08 

63-92 

15  S.  W. 

trace 

64  92 

15 

N.W 

0 

54-92 

15 

ft.  w. 

0 

53-82 

15 

ft.  W. 

0 

45  83 

1«l  ft  R 

0 

62  82 

16 

ft.  w. 

0 

64  92 

16 

W. 

0 

60  94 

16 

S.  E. 

0 

53-75 

16 

w. 

0 

49-71 

17l 

ft  R 

0 82 

52  80 

17 

N.  E. 

0 

72  63 

17 

ft.  W. 

0 

53-98 

17 

ft. 

0 

57  83 

17 

W. 

0 

42-74 

18  N.W. 

0 

36  50 

18 

E. 

0 

59  76 

18 

3. 

0 

64  98 

18 

w. 

0 

56-*9 

18 

W. 

0 

28-64 

19  N.W. 

0 

30-55 

1!) 

S.  E. 

0 

52-78 

19 

ft.  W 

0 

68  94 

19 

w. 

0 

52-82 

19 

ft.  E. 

0 

48-72 

9fi'  NT  R 

0 

32  64 

20 

3.  E 

0 

66  90 

20 

N.W. 

0 

62  84 

20 

S.E. 

0 

59-85 

20 

W. 

0 

53-81 

91  1 

R 

0 40  53 

21 

w. 

1.45 

60-84 

21 

W. 

0 

46  86 

21 

s 

0 

57-85 

21 

N.  E. 

0.66 

47-66 

22  N.  E. 

trace  46-58 

22 

S. 

0 

64  84 

1 22 

ft.  W. 

0 

54  92 

22 

s.  w. 

0 

60-82 

|22 

S.E. 

0 

47-75 

23  N.  E 

0 

43  64 

20 

3.  E. 

0.78 

64  73 

23 

3. 

0 

66  96 

23 

w. 

0 

65-88 

23 

N W. 

0 

44-69 

21!N.  E. 

0 

50  70 

21 

W. 

1.03 

64  80 

]24 

N. 

0 

66  88 

24 

N. 

0 

61-91 

I24 

W. 

0 

35-55 

OK  M W 

0 

42-76 

25 

ft.  E 

0 

53  80 

25 

3. 

0 

52  92 

25 

N.  E. 

0 

57  87 

25 

3.E. 

0 

35-54 

26 

s. 

0 

48-84 

28 

S.  E. 

0 

55-88 

28 

S. 

0 

72  102 

26 

N.  E. 

0 

50-81} 

|26 

ft.  E. 

0 

52-62 

2n\ 

N.  W. 

0 

42  56 

27 

ft.  E. 

0 

58  84 

27 

N.W. 

0 

77  102 

27 

N.W. 

0 

58  83 

;27 

3.  E. 

0 

50  76 

28' 

N. 

0 

32-64 

28 

W. 

trace 

62-84 

23 

N.W. 

0 

71  96 

23 

S.  W. 

0 

58-88 

28 

3.  W. 

0.26 

59-83 

29 ' 

N W. 

0 

46-70 

29 

S. 

0 

55  89 

29 

w. 

0 

51  84 

29 

N.W. 

0 

60  90; 

129 

ft.  W. 

0 

62  84 

30 1 

N 

0 

40  60 

30 

3.  E. 

0 

66  92 

30 

W. 

0 

59-89 

30 

w. 

0 

47-77 

30 

N.W. 

0 

40-79 

8l| 

N. 

0 

36-63 

31 

S. 

0.03 

69-89 

31 

w. 

0 

46-76 

Temperature  figures  furnished  by  Judge  H.  C.  Butler,  the  others  by  Ohas.  N.  Ainslie,  both  of 
Rochester,  Minn. 


Notwithstanding  this  almost  unparalleled  drouth,  the  crops  of 
small  grains  were  but  little  damaged,  either  by  lack  of  moisture  or 
by  chinch-bugs;  the  ripening  period  of  the  plants  was  simply  greatly 
shortened.  Only  in  a few  exceptional  cases  did  crops  suffer  from 
both.  Yet  such  favorable  conditions  must  necessarily  have  vastly 
increased  the  number  of  chinch-bugs  during  that  season,  and  the 
outlook  for  1895  becomes  gloomy  indeed,  if  our  fears  should  be  real 
i7.ed.  His  Excellency,  Governor  Nelson,  always  willing  to  assist  the 


181 


agricultural  class  of  our  citizens  in  suck  emergencies,  and  realizing 
fully  the  danger  threatened  by  chinch-bugs,  did  all  he  possibly 
could  by  furnishing  some  means  to  start  infection  boxes.  As  there 
was  no  appropriation  made  for  this  important  work,  but  a small 
sum  of  money  could  be  expended,  and  not  early  enough  in  the  sea- 
son to  fully  test  the  value  of  the  diseases  discussed  above.  The 
County  Commissioners  of  Olmsted,  Blue  Earth  and  Nicollet  coun- 
ties also  assisted  by  appropriating  some  funds,  and  some  of  the 
owners  of  commercial  mills  helped  all  they  could  by  furnishing  help. 
Mr.  Cole  of  Rochester  and  Mr.  Hubbard  of  Mankato  deserve  the 
thanks  of  all  farmers  in  their  neighborhood  for  the  interest  taken  in 
this  work.  A large  amount  of  work  was  accomplished,  and  thou- 
sands of  small  tin  boxes  filled  with  diseased  bugs  were  distributed 
to  all  farmers  desiring  them.  A large  number  of  reports  showed 
that  in  many  cases  the  disease  worked  well,  even  killing  all  the  bugs 
infesting  some  fields.  In  many  other  cases  the  success  was  less  ap- 
parent, and  in  still  others  none  could  be  observed.  Considering  the 
phenomenally  dry  season,  more  could  not  be  expected,  and  that  in 
many  fields  the  disease  should  have  spread  at  all  speaks  well  in 
favor  of  the  white  fungus  disease,  which  wTas  mainly  employed. 

Considerable  harm  has  been  caused  by  highly  sensational  arti- 
cles in  newspapers  published  during  the  last  six  or  seven  years,  in 
regard  to  this  method  of  killing  chinch-bugs,  which  read  as  if  the 
bugs  could  be  killed  by  such  diseases  as  if  by  magic,  and  this  in  a 
few  days,  or  even  hours.  Nearly  every  farmer  had  read  such  arti- 
cles, and  many  of  the  more  uneducated  ones  based  all  expectations 
from  the  remedies  applied  by  them  upon  such  a disease  instead  of 
upon  those  dependent  upon  the  habits  of  the  insects — the  only  true 
remedies  we  possess  at  present.  Many  farmers  actually  expected 
that  by  throwing  a pinch  of  the-diseased  bugs  in  a large  field  infested 
with  bugs,  these  w^ould — presto! — be  found  dead  the  next  day. 
They  did  not  realize  that  the  introduction  of  a disease  requires 
very  careful  wrork,  and  work  that  not  every  farmer  can  perform.  To 
dispel  any  such  illusions  this  bulletin  has  been  prepared,  and  also  to 
show  how  farmers  must  act  to  overcome  the  enemy.  The  results 
obtained  by  the  experiments  of  last  year  are  encouraging,  yet  no 
one  should  base  all  his  hopes  upon  the  introduction  of  such  diseases 
alone,  but  should  mainly  depend  upon  the  other  remedies  given, 
which  are  sufficient,  if  honestly  and  thoroughly  applied.  These  lat- 
ter can  aways  be  depended  upon,  while  the  former  may  or  may  not 


182 


work,  depending  so  much,  as  they  do,  upon  conditions  that  cannot 
be  controlled.  Yet  this  does  not  mean  that  such  experiments  should 
be  abandoned;  on  the  contrary,  they  offer  the  only  other  hopes  we 
possess  of  gaining  the  mastery  over  an  insect  like  the  chinch-bug. 
A private  man  cannot  enter  into  these  experiments,  which  are  both 
expensive  and  tedious;  but  an  agricultural  state  like  Minnesota 
should  always  have  the  means  ready  to  assist  farmers  if  the  oppor- 
tunity offers.  For  this  reason  it  is  hoped  that  the  legislature  will 
see  fit  to  appropriate  a sufficient  amount  of  money  for  investiga- 
tions and  experiments  of  this  and  similar  character.  •‘Forewarned 
is  forearmed”  is  a proverb  that  should  teach  us  a very  valuable  les- 


son. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 

BULLETIN  NO.  38. 


HORTICULTURAL  DIVISION. 

DECEMBER,  1894. 


GARDEN  TILLAGE  AND  IMPLEMENTS. 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK,  RAMSEY  CO., 

MINNESOTA 

ST.  PAUL: 

Tin;  Pioneer  Press  Cqm 

1895. 


UNIVERSITY  OR  MINNESOTA 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis, 1896 

The  HON.  GREENLEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul, 1900 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul, 1900 

The  HON.  WM.  H.  YALE,  Winona, . 1896 

The  HOY  JOEL  P.  HEATWOLE,  Northfield, 1897  . 

The  HON.  O.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth, 1896 

The  HON.  WM.  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson, 1897 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN,  Minneapolis, 1895 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  B.  A.,  Minneapolis,  ....  1895 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  St.  Paul, Ex-Officio. 

The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PENDERGAST,  M.  A.,  Hutchinson,  . . . Ex-Officio. 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHROP,  LL.D.,  Minneapolis, Ex-Officio. 

The  President  of  the  University. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  J.  S.  PILLSBURY. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PENDERGAST. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION: 


WM.  M.  LIGGETT,  . 

WILLET  M.  HAYS,  B.  S.  A.,  . 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S , 
OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  . 
HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S.,  . 

T.  L.  HiECKER, 

M.  H.  REYNOLDS,  M.  D.,  V.  M., 
THOS.  SHAW,  .... 
J.  A.  VYE,  .... 
ANDREW  BOSS, 


Chairman. 

Vice  Chairman  and  Agriculturist. 

Horticulturist. 
. Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

Chemist. 
Dairy  Husbandry. 
Veterinarian. 
Animal  Husbandry. 

Secretary. 
Farm  Foreman. 


The  Bulletins  of  this  Station 
who  make  application  for  them. 


are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the  state 


GARDEN  TILLAGE. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN. 

By  the  proper  cultivation  of  the  garden  we  accomplish  three 
things:  (1)  The  weeds  are  kept  out  so  that  they  do  not  shade  or 

take  away  valuable  plant  food  and  moisture  from  the  plants  which 
we  desire  to  perfect.  (2)  The  surface  soil  is  brought  into  the  best 
condition  to  resist  drouth ; that  is,  into  the  best  condition  for  avail- 
ing itself  to  the  utmost  of  the  stores  of  water  in  the  subsoil  and  to 
prevent  the  evaporation  of  this  water  from  the  surface  soil.  (3)  The 
stores  of  insoluble  plant  food  are  made  soluble  by  the  chemical 
action  and  fermentation,  which  are  increased  by  loosening  the  soil, 
thereby  letting  in  the  air. 

Keeping  Out  the  Weeds  — The  methods  best  adapted  for  keeping 
the  weeds  out  of  the  garden  are  many  and  varied,  and  depend  much 
upon  the  condition  and  kind  of  soil  in  which  the  weeds  grow ; upon 
the  kind  of  crop  and  upon  the  habits  of  the  weeds  themselves.  The 
most  important  step  in  making  easy  the  prevention  of  weeds  in  the 
garden  is  the  harrowing  or  other  thorough  cutivation  of  the  land 
just  before  the  planting  of  the  seed,  to  kill  the  young  weeds.  If 
this  is  done  thoroughly,  the  weeds  do  not  have  a better  chance  than 
the  crop.  If  this  is  not  done,  the  weeds  will  be  ahead  of  the  crop  in 
growth,  and  if  started  even  ever  so  little  when  the  crop  is  planted, 
the  result  generally  is  that  the  crop  is  seriously  overgrown  by  them 
before  it  is  large  enough  to  be  cultivated.  This  is  a common  mis- 
take, and  is,  perhaps,  responsible  for  more  failures  in  the  garden 
than  any  other  factor  which  enters  into  the  consideration  of  this 
subject;  and  it  is  a very  simple  matter  to  prevent  any  trouble  from 
this  source  if  a little  foresight  is  exercised. 

Early  Cultivation  to  Kill  Weeds  — The  next  most  important 
factor  in  the  prevention  of  weeds  in  the  garden  is  early  cultivation. 
In  the  case  of  seeds  that  require  a long  time  to  germinate,  it  is  an 
excellent  plan  to  lightly  rake  over  the  land  with  an  ordinary  fine- 
toothed rake,  even  before  the  crop  appears  above  the  ground,  pro- 
viding the  work  is  so  carefully  done  as  not  to  disturb  the  seeds. 


184 


When  the  seed  is  sown  with  a drill,  the  line  of  the  row  may  be 
plainly  seen  even  before  the  plants  come  up,  thus  making  it  easy  to 
commence  cultivating  it  in  advance  of  the  weeds.  In  case  of  such 
crops  as  carrots,  onions,  parsnips  and  beets,  which  are  quite  deli- 
cate when  young,  cultivation  should  begin  with  some  hand  garden 
cultivator,  even  if  it  is  intended  later  on  to  cultivate  with  a horse, 
and  the  crop  is  planted  with  this  purpose  in  view.  Such  close  and 
careful  work  cannot  be  done  with  any  horse  implement  now  in  use 
as  with  the  best  hand  implements.  With  proper  tools,  the  work 
may  be  done  nearly  as  quickly  by  hand  as  by  horse  power,  and  far 
more  perfectly  when  the  plants  are  small.  Careful  early  cultivation 
is  of  the  utmost  importance,  since,  if  the  weeds  are  removed  when 
they  are  young,  the  work  of  weeding  is  very  small.  If  allowed  to 
remain  until  well  rooted,  their  removal  is  often  a very  serious  mat- 
ter, and  frequently,  if  neglected  at  this  early  stage,  the  weeds  be- 
come so  firmly  established  as  to  make  it  a question  whether  to  re- 
move them  or  plow  under  the  whole  crop;  and  often  it  is  the  part  of 
wisdom  to  adopt  the  latter  alternative.  Aside  from  its  effect  in  the 
prevention  of  weeds,  early  cultivation  is  of  great  value  in  breaking 
up  the  crust  that  packs  firmly  around  the  tender  growing  stems  of 
plants,  and  which  seriously  inter  feres  with  their  growth.  It  is 
also,  like  all  surface  cultivation,  of  aid  in  the  conservation  of  moist- 
ure in  the  soil.  The  effects  of  cultivation  from  this  standpoint  will 
be  found  referred  to  on  page  186. 

Imnortanee  of  Not  Allowing  Weeds  to  Go  to  Seed. — A common 
source  of  weed  infection  is  often  found  in  the  few  weeds  that  are 
allowed  to  go  to  seed  toward  the  end  of  the  growing  season  in  the 
maturing  crop  or  after  the  crop  has  been  gathered.  To  some  farm- 
ers it  often  seems  a small  matter  to  allow  a few  plants  of  pig-weed, 
purslane,  tumble  weed  and  weeds  of  other  kinds  to  go  to  seed  in  the 
garden,  but  absolute  cleanliness  should  be  the  only  rule  in  this  par- 
ticular, and  it  is  by  far  the  most  economical  in  practice  in  the  long 
run.  It  requires  but  little  labor  and  saves  much  useless  expense 
to  destroy  weeds  that  are  going  to  seed.  If  the  preventives  for 
weeds  here  suggested  are  closely  followed,  hand  weeding  will  be 
reduced  to  a minimum  and  will  often  be  unnecessary  with  any  crop. 

Weed,  Seeds  in.  Manure  for  the  Garden. — While  the  discussion  of 
the  subject  of  manures  for  the  garden  is  not  the  special  object  of  this 
bulletin,  yet  some  reference  to  the  subject  is  quite  necessary  in  con- 
sidering the  subject  of  weed  eradication.  The  people  of  this  state 
have  not  yet  learned  the  great  value  of  barnyard  manure  and 


185 


its  proper  preparation  for  best  results  in  the  soil.  This  is  a subject 
of  vast  importance,  and  one  that  in  the  future  will  receive  far  more 
thought  than  at  present.  The  manure  applied  to  the  garden  is  often 
coarse  and  contains  many  weed  seeds,  and  is  a fruitful  source  of 
weed  infection.  The  manure  intended  for  the  garden  that  contains 
the  seeds  of  weeds  should  be  piled  up  and  allowed  to  ferment  until 
the  whole  mass  is  thoroughly  rotted.  By  this  means  the  seeds  in  it 
will  be  killed.  But  in  order  to  rot  manure  to  best  advantage,  it 
should  be  forked  over  occasionally  when  well  warmed  up  by  fer- 
mentation, and  the  whole  turned  over,  with  the  outside  of  the  pile 
thrown  into  the  center.  If  dry,  it  should  be  watered  enough  to  en- 
able fermentation  to  continue,  and  to  prevent  “fire-fanging.”  It 
is  seldom  advisable  to  use  fresh  manure  in  the  garden,  and  manure 
should  only  be  applied  in  this  condition  when  free  from  weeds,  and 
then  only  for  some  late-maturing  crops,  in  which  case  there  will  be 
time  for  it  to  rot  before  the  crops  need  it.  All  early  crops  need  well 
rotted  manure,  and  require  it  in  much  larger  quantities  than  do  the 
late-maturing  crops. 

Plowing—  In  Minnesota,  where  the  summers  are  generally  dry, 
the  garden  should  always  be  plowed  in  the  fall.  It  is  seldom  advis- 
able to  leave  the  plowing  until  spring  in  this  climate,  and  if  ever 
plowing  is  done  in  the  spring,  the  plow  should  be  run  shallow.  Deep 
spring  plowing  leaves  too  much  of  the  upper  soil  loose  and  not  suf- 
ficiently compact  to  enable  the  subsoil  water  to  reach  the  surface 
roots. 

Ridging  the  Land,—\i  the  land  is  likely  to  be  too  wet  in  early 
spring  for  planting,  sometimes  it  is  good  practice  to  turn  several 
furrows  back  to  back,  and  thus  leave  the  land  in  ridges  over  winter. 


FIG.  1.  Section  showing  ridged  land  in  the  winter. 

If  these  ridges  or  “lands”  are  made  fifteen  to  twenty  feet 
wide,  they  may  be  dragged  and  planted  in  the  spring  without  further 
plowing.  For  some  crops  it  is  often  best  to  back-furrow  out  again  in 
the  spring,  and  thus  leave  the  land  level.  This  method  of  treatment 


186 


permits  of  working  the  land  much  earlier  in  the  spring  than  it  other- 
wise could  be  worked,  if  plowed  flat.  It  leaves  the  soil  in  very  good 
shape  for  the  action  of  the  frost  on  its  particles  during  winter.  For 
early  crops  on  flat  or  heavy  soils,  it  is  a most  desirable  treatment. 
The  objection  to  it  is  that  if  not  turned  back  in  the  spring  the  dead 
furrows  interfere  with  cultivation.  If  the  land  is  plowed  in  the 
spring,  it  may  be  left  too  loose;  but  admitting  these  objections,  even 
then  there  are  often  cases  where  this  treatment  would  be  very  desir- 
able. The  soil  for  the  garden  should  be  worked  to  the  depth  of  at 
least  eight  inches  in  order  to  be  in  the  best  condition  for  crops.  On 
soils  which  have  subsoil  too  compact,  the  subsoil  plow  may  be  used 
to  advantage.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  in  cultivating  the  garden 
that  while  the  soil  in  it  may  be  too  loose,  it  cannot  be  too  rich  or  too 
deep,  nor  can  the  subsoil,  if  not  of  too  impervious  a nature,  be  too 
compact. 

General  Cultivation  of  Garden  Crops.  — The  methods  to  be  pur- 
sued in  the  general  cultivation  of  garden  crops  will  vary  somewhat, 
according  to  the  soil,  season  and  crop.  However,  it  is  very  impor- 
tant to  remember  that  the  destruction  of  weeds  is  but  a small  part 
of  the  work  of  cultivation.  The  most  important  part  is  to  so  fit 
the  soil  that  it  may  best  withstand  drouth.  This  is  accomplished 
by  frequent  shallow  cultivation  during  the  period  of  growth.  The 
first  implements  to  use  in  the  care  of  such  crops  as  are  generally 
cultivated  by  hand  are  those  that  work  the  soil  to  only  a very  slight 
depth,  close  to  the  plants.  Such  implements  may  be  used  just  as 
the  seedlings  are  breaking  ground.  As  soon  as  the  plants  have 
gained  some  little  strength,  implements  should  be  used  that  will  go 
deeper,  until  a depth  of  two  or  three  inches  can  be  easily  worked 
without  endangering  the  safety  of  the  crop  by  covering  the  plants 
with  dirt.  It  is  doubtful  if  any  of  our  garden  crops  should  ever  be 
cultivated  more  than  three  inches  deep,  and  it  is  very  certain  that 
many  crops  are  injured  by  cultivating  deeply  very  close  to  the 
plants,  in  which  case  the  roots  are  cut  off  near  their  upper  ends 
and  thus  wholly  destroyed.  Cultivation  in  a period  of  drouth  re- 
sults in  forming  a mulch  or  blanket  of  dry  earth  on  the  surface 
of  the  land,  which  prevents  the  moisture  from  passing  into  the 
atmosphere,  and  a rather  shallow  blanket,  say  two  inches  deep, 
accomplishes  this  purpose.  A compact  subsoil  readily  transmits 
the  water  upwards  to  the  surface  soil,  in  the  same  manner  that  a 
lamp  wick  carries  the  oil  to  the  flame.  At  the  surface  the  soil  water 


187 


is  prevented  from  evaporating  by  a blanket  of  loose  earth,  and  is 
thus  saved  in  the  upper  subsoil  and  lower  and  middle  parts  of  the 
furrow  slice  for  the  roots  of  the  crop;  loose  surface  soil  is  a good 
non-conductor  of  water.  During  the  growth  of  a crop,  the  surface  of 
the  ground  should  never  be  left  long  with  a crust  on  it,  but  should 
be  stirred  after  each  rain  or  after  artificially  watering. 

Cultivation  to  Develop  Plant  Food,. — Nearly  all  laud  in  the  state 
contains  immense  quantities  of  plant  food.  Professor  Snyder  has 
shown  that  our  average  wheat-producing  soils  contain  enough  nitro- 
gen to  raise  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  successive  crops  of  wheat. 
But  only  a very  little  of  this  material  is  ever  at  one  time  in  a condi- 
tion in  which  the  plant  can  take  it  up.  Nearly  all  of  it  is  insoluble. 
By  chemical  action  and  fermentation  in  the  soil  plant  food  is  set 
free.  This  is  increased  and  made  more  complete  by  admitting  air 
into  the  soil;  hence  the  reason  for  deep  plowing  in  the  fall,  which 
allows  the  air  and  water  to  enter  and  thus  develop  the  plant  food. 
This,  also,  is  an  important  fact  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  cultivating 
land.  Where  the  soil  can  be  kept  moist  through  the  summer,  deep 
spring  plowing  is  an  advantage,  as  it  opens  the  soil  to  the  air;  but 
on  account  of  the  liability  to  drouth,  the  practice  is  a poor  one  for 
this  state. 

Garden  Implements  and  Their  Use # — It  is  very  evident  that 
mixed  husbandry  is  to  replace  exclusive  grain  farming  and  cattle 
raising  in  Minnesota  in  the  near  future.  With  this  change  will 
come  greater  attention  to  the  amenities  of  life.  There  will  then  be 
more  demand  for  a variety  of  food,  and  consequently  for  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  garden.  The  importance  of  doing  garden  work  by  horse- 
power is  so  evident  that  it  goes  without  saying.  On  every  garden 
large  enough  to  admit  of  it,  horse  labor  should  be  used  in  preference 
to  hand  labor.  As  a rule,  our  farm  gardens  are  too  small  to  permit 
of  this.  One  of  the  greatest  hindrances  to  the  successful  cultivation 
of  the  garden  is  the  common  practice  of  so  laying  it  out  that  a large 
amount  of  hand  labor  is  necessarily  involved  in  cultivating  it.  The 
farmers  of  Minnesota  are  justly  proud  of  their  achievement  of  almost 
entirely  doing  away  with  hand  labor  in  the  field,  but  in  garden 
methods  they  still  have  very  much  to  learn  in  this  particular.  The 
garden  is  a part  of  the  farm  that  is  often  very  unpopular,  and  I 
believe  it  is  so  largely  from  the  fact  that  comparatively  little  effort 
is  made  to  adapt  modern  methods  to  its  management.  Many  of 
our  vegetable  crops  can  be  growrn  without  any  hand  labor  whatever, 


188 


providing  the  soil  is  in  good  order  to  begin  with,  and  free  from 
weeds.  The  most  important  tool  for  the  average  horticulturist  or 
gardener  is  a first-class  horse  cultivator.  No  pains  should  be  spared 
to  have  the  best  implements,  and  then  the  most  intelligent  man  in 
such  matters  on  the  place  should  run  it.  Too  often  the  running  of 
the  cultivator  is  given  to  some  young  hand  who  has  much  more 
muscle  than  judgment,  and  his  work  is  judged  by  the  number  of 
rows  he  goes  over  rather  than  by  the  care  and  completeness  with 
which  the  work  is  done.  It  is  best  to  go  slow  with  the  horse  culti- 
vator, for  this  means  the  saving  of  much  hand  labor.  The  best  culti- 
vators in  use  to-day  are  adjustable  to  various  kinds  of  work,  each  of 
which  they  are  capable  of  doing  in  an  admirable  manner.  But,  to 
get  the  best  results  from  their  use,  they  must  be  carefully  studied 
and  their  attachments  adapted  to  each  special  use.  I want  espe 
cially  to  insist  that  in  order  to  get  good  work  done  by  modern  garden 
tools,  they  and  the  directions  sent  with  them  must  be  carefully 
studied.  But  even  when  horse  labor  is  used  as  much  as  possible, 
there  will  always  be  a necessity  for  some  hand  work  in  such  garden 
crops  as  onions,  table  beets  and  table  carrots.  These  can  probably 
be  grown  most  cheaply  in  rows  about  fourteen  inches  apart,  where 
the  cultivation  must  be  done  largely  by  hand  implements.  These 
implements  have  reached  a rare  degree  of  perfection,  and  are  wonder- 
fully adapted  for  their  purposes.  The  use  of  some  of  them  has  be- 
come a necessity  in  every  well  regulated  garden.  It  is  safe  to  say, 
that  no  one  who  cultivates  a garden  can  afford  to  be  without  good 
hand  and  horse  cultivators,  with  the  modern  attachments,  and  their 
more  general  use  would  make  the  farm  garden  more  common  and 
relieve  it  from  being  looked  upon,  as  it  often  is,  as  being  the  most 
troublesome  part  of  the  farm.  Hand  seed  sowers  have  also  become 
necessary  in  gardens,  and  are  so  well  made  that  they  will  sow  almost 
any  kind  of  garden  seeds  quickly  and  accurately  as  to  quantity  and 
depth  of  planting. 

In  order  to  use  these  hand  and  horse  garden  tools  to  the  best 
advantage,  the  rows  should  be  straight  and  long  and  the  land  culti- 
vated flat.  The  rows  to  be  cultivated  by  hand  implements  should  be 
by  themselves.  It  is  important,  also,  to  use  short  whiffletrees.  The 
whiffletrees  generally  used  for  farm  purposes  are  much  too  long  for 
the  best  work,  and  their  use  prevents  the  proper  use  of  modern  culti- 
vators. For  ordinary  garden  purposes,  these  should  not  be  over 
fourteen  inches  long,  and  when  working  in  very  narrow  rows,  one 


189 


may  be  used  not  over  twelve  inches  long,  providing  the  traces  are 
protected  from  wearing  the  hair  off  the  horse. 

GARDEN  IMPLEMENTS. 

So  many  garden  implements  have  been  introduced  within  a few 
years  that  the  Horticultural  Division  of  the  Experiment  Station 
has  made  quite  a collection,  in  order  to  study  them.  On  the  follow- 
ing pages  will  be  found  notes  on  such  implements  tried  at  the  sta- 
tion as  seemed  to  be  particularly  desirable. 

The  “ Combination  Drill  and  Cultivator,”  manufactured  by 
Ames  Plow  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.,  is  arranged  to  use  either  one  or  two 
wheels,  as  may  be  preferred.  (See  Fig.  2.)  The  indicator  is  very  simple 
in  construction  and  is  easily  handled.  The  agitator  is  sure  to  keep  the 
seed  moving  through  constantly,  unless  clogged  with  some  foreign 
material.  The  depth  of  sowing  can  be  easily  regulated.  The  wheel 
and  coverer  are  simple  and  do  the  work  required,  viz  : cover  seeds 


and  firm  the  soil  over  them.  The  marker  is  well  adapted  for  giving 
a clean  track  for  successive  rows,  and  is  easily  changed  to  different 
widths.  A convenient  cut-off  is  provided  to  use  when  turning  at  the 
ends  of  the  rows  to  prevent  loss  of  seed.  The  change  from  the  drill 
to  cultivator,  or  vice  versa,  can  be  made  very  quickly.  For  working 
the  soil  it  has  hoes,  plows,  rakes  and  cultivator  teeth  of  good  shape 
and  size.  Being  arranged  to  use  either  one  or  two  wheels,  the 
efficiency  of  the  work  that  it  can  do  is  greatly  increased.  It  can  be 


190 


used  successfully  to  open  and  close  furrows.  This  feature  is  useful 
in  planting  seeds  or  plants  two  or  four  inches  belowT  the  surface. 
The  whole  machine  is  put  together  in  a workmanlike  manner,  and  is 
made  of  good  material.  It  is  a very  desirable  implement  for  those 
who  have  a vegetable  garden  to  cultivate.  The  machine  is  adapted 
to  working  on  both  sides  of  a single  row  with  two  wheels,  or  be- 
tween the  rows.  This  is  also  a convenient  arrangement  when  sow- 
ing seed.  The  introducers,  however,  recommend  for  market  garden- 
ers, instead  of  this  combined  implement,  separate  implements,  to 


FIG:  3.  New  Universal  Double- Wheel  Hoe,  Cultivator  and  Plow. 

save  the  time  of  changes.  They  make  the  separate  drill  and  sepa- 
rate cultivator,  embodying  the  above  features  and  others  that  cannot 
be  included  in  a combination  implement.  This  machine  is  shown 
closing  furrows  at  (b)  in  the  cover  illustration.  For  further  notice 
see  page  23.  List  price,  $13.50. 

The  '‘New  Universal  Hand  Doable-  Wheel  Hoe,  Cultivator  and 
Plow,”  shown  in  Fig.  3,  is  also  made  by  the  Ames  Plow  Co.,  Boston. 
This  implement  is  of  recent  introduction  and  has  all  the  latest  im- 
provements in  this  line.  It  is  furnished  with  the  usual  tools,  such  as 
scuffle-hoes,  cultivator  plates,  plows  and  leaf  guards.  A feature  that 


191 


is  very  handy  is  the  adjustable  arch,  by  which  the  depth  or  angle  of 
the  cultivator  teeth  may  be  regulated.  It  can  be  used  to  work  be- 
tween rows  or  to  straddle  one  row.  The  construction  is  excellent. 
A one-wheel  cultivator  closely  resembling  this,  and  which  is  very 
light  and  useful  for  cultivating  between  rows,  is  made  by  this  same 
company.  List  price  of  double-wheel  machine  is  $7.50,  and  single- 
wheel $6. 

The  A.  H.  Matthews  Seed  Brill  has  been  used  for  many  years  at 
the  University  Farm  and  by  many  market  gardeners.  It  has  given 
good  satisfaction  as  a safe  and  reliable  seed  sower.  It  is  shown  at 
No.  1 in  Fig.  4. 

New  Model  Seed  Brill , made  by  the  Bateman  Manufacturing  Co., 
Grenlock,  N.  J.,  is  a very  compact,  light  and  strong  machine.  The 
forward  wheel  is  of  extra  width,  thus  making  it  very  easy  to  push 
through  light  soil.  The  agitator  is  an  excellent  arrangement  and 


FIG.  4.  1 — A.  H.  Matthews’  Drill.  2 — .Planet  Jr.  Combined  Drill.  3 — Matthews’  Com- 
bined Drill.  4— New  Model  Drill.  5— Planet  Jr.  Hill  Dropping  Garden  Drill. 

sure  to  keep  the  seed  moving  through  the  feed-hole  in  a regular 
stream.  There  is  one  feed-hole,  the  size  of  which  is  quickly  changed 
by  a simple  and  convenient  device  that  permits  of  its  being  increased 
or  diminished  in  size  at  pleasure.  The  coverer  and  the  press-wheel 
are  well  adapted  for  covering  seeds  evenly  and  pressing  the  surface 
soil  over  them.  The  marker  attachment  for  tracing  lines  for  suc- 
ceeding rows  is  well  made  and  easily  handled.  This  is  an  excellent 
garden  drill,  in  every  respect;  list  price,  $9.  This  drill  is  shown  at 
No.  4 in  Fig.  4. 

The  Iron  Age  Horse  Hoe  (see  Fig.  5),  made  by  the  Bateman  Man- 
ufacturing Co.,  wherever  tried  has  given  good  satisfaction.  It  is 
simple  in  construction  and  strong,  and  in  every  way  a good  imple- 


192 


ment  for  general  work.  The  frame  is  of  steel,  and  the  standards 
and  plates  well  suited  for  their  purposes.  The  regular  form  has 
only  five  plates  or  shovels  of  medium  width.  A set  of  sweeps  is 
provided  for  hilling.  Two  extra  standards  are  provided,  which  may 
be  used  with  narrow  plates,  forming  a fine  seven-tooth  cultivator. 


FIG.  5.  Iron  Age  Horse  Hoe. 


It  also  has  attachments  for  opening  and  closing  furrows  and  all  the 
requisites  of  a first-class  horse  hoe  and  cultivator.  A lever  controls 
the  change  of  width,  thus  making  it  easy  to  work  with  it  close  up  to 
the  rows,  even  if  they  are  not  always  parallel.  List  price,  $9.50. 

The  Iron  Age  Combined  Cultivator  and  Harrow,  made  by  the 
Bateman  Manufacturing  Co.,  is  a horse  implement  that  is  very  effi- 
cient in  forming  a dust  blanket  in  the  garden  during  the  dry  sum- 
mer months.  It  will  also  do  admirable  work  when  plants  are  small. 
It  can  be  used  very  close  to  plants  and  to  destroy  any  small  weeds 


FIG.  6.  Iron  Age  Combined  Harrow  and  Cntivator. 

that  are  near  them.  It  has  a lever  expanding  arrangement  that 
works  easily  and  quickly.  The  teeth  are  easily  reversed,  making 
either  a straight  or  slanting  tooth  implement.  The  material  and 


193 


construction  is  of  the  best.  This  is  a favorite  implement  with 
many  market  gardeners.  List  price,  $8.75.  Fig.  6. 

Gem  of  the  Garden  Hand  Cultivator . — The  Gem  of  the  Garden 
Hand  Cultivator  is  a very  light  but  strong  cultivator,  made  by  the 
Bateman  Manufacturing  Co.  It  is  furnished  with  cultivator  teeth, 
scuffle-hoes  and  plows.  Two  wheels  are  provided,  allowing  it  to  be 


FIG.  7.  Gem  of  the  Garden  Hand  Cultivator. 

used  either  as  a straddle  cultivator  or  simply  as  a one-wheel  culti- 
vator. The  material  and  construction  are  of  the  best.  All  parts 
are  made  of  steel.  The  extra  parts  furnished  consist  of  a small 
landside  plow  and  an  onion  harvester.  List  price,  $6.50.  Fig.  7. 

The  Jewel  Double-  Wheel  Hoe  is  a very  desirable  hand  implement 
for  close  cultivation  of  garden  crops.  It  is  made  to  be  used  as  a 
straddle  hoe  or  between  the  rows  only.  It  is  well  adapted  for  the 
light,  close  cultivation  that  is  necessary  when  plants  are  young  and 
just  starting  into  growth,  or  for  the  deeper  and  more  thorough  culti- 
vation during  the  summer  months.  It  is  of  light  construction,  but 
strong  and  well  made  and  compares  favorably  with  the  implements 
of  other  makers  designed  for  the  same  purpose.  List  price,  $6. 
Made  by  Bateman  Manufacturing  Co.  Fig.  8. 

The  Cover  Illustration  is  reproduced  from  a photograph  of  work 
done  in  opening  and  closing  furrows  by  the  Planet  Jr.  and  Mat- 
thews’ combined  garden  cultivators.  At  (a)  is  shown  the  Planet 

NOTE.  The  Bateman  Manufacturing  Co.  refers  correspondents  to  their  Northwest- 
ern agents,  Lindsay  Bros.,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 


194 


FIG.  9.  Buckley  Cultivator. 

in  holes  arranged  around  the  frame,  almost  under  the  axle  of  the 
wheel.  The  material  used  in  its  construction  is  good.  It  is  espe- 
cially useful  in  heavy  land  for  loosening  the  soil  when  it  bakes  hard 
in  summer.  It  is  the  most  powerful  hand  garden  implement  known. 
Market  gardeners  will  find  it  very  desirable.  List  price,  $8.  Fig.  9. 


Jr.  implement,  which  has  a one-moldboard  plow  at  work  opening 
furrows.  At  (b)  is  shown  the  Matthews  combined  garden  culti- 
vator at  work  closing  furrows,  for  which  purpose  it  has  two  one- 
moldboard  plows,  which  may  be  reversed  when  used  for  opening  fur- 
rows. 


FIG.  8.  Jewel  Double  Wheel  Hoe. 

The  Buckley  Cultivator  manufactured  by  E.  C.  Buckley,  Peoria, 
111.,  is  designed  to  give  extra  leverage  by  having  the  wheel  thirty 
inches  in  diameter.  This  also  gives  a steadiness  not  possible  in  a 
machine  with  smaller  wheels.  The  various  attachments  are  placed 


195 


The  Universal  No.  3 Straddle  Hoe  is  a very  light  and  simple 
hoe,  capable  of  doing  good  work  when  weeds  are  small  and  land 
moderately  fine.  The  blades  are  nicely  adapted  for  cutting  weeds 
under  the  surface  of  the  land  and  to  scour  well.  The  manufacturers 
recommend  this  implement  for  use  when  onions  are  small  and  after- 
wards the  use  of  the  Sherwood  No.  3 Union  Hoe.  List  price  $5.  It 
is  shown  at  No.  3 in  Fig.  10,  and  is  manufactured  by  C.  O.  Jelliff  & 
Co.,  Southport,  Conn. 

The  Sherwood  No.  3 Union  Hoe  is  designed  to  be  used  as  a general 
hand  cultivator  for  garden  crops.  It  is  light  and  strong,  and  the  ma- 


12  3 4 

FIG  10.  Hand  Garden  Implements*  Manufactured  by  C.  O.  Jelliff  & Co.  1— Universal  Onion  Drill. 
2— Universal  One  Blade  Hoe.  3 — Universal  No.  3.  Straddle  Hoe.  4 — Sherwood  No.  3 Union  Hoe 

terial  is  of  the  best.  Hoes  of  good  shape,  designed  to  cut  under  the 
surface  of  the  soil.  A novel  feature  is  the  addition  of  two  small 
disks  which  can  be  set  at  any  angle  so  as  to  loosen  the  soil  in  the 
rows,  like  the  disks  of  a disk-harrow.  An  onion  puller  attachment 
is  manufactured  for  this  implement.  It  has  a curved  hoe  running 
under  the  onions  and  a mold-board  behind,  which  rolls  the  onions 
to  one  side  and  thus  turns  two  rows  together.  It  does  its  work  very 
well.  List  price,  $7.  Shown  at  No.  4,  Fig.  10.  Manufactured  by 
C.  O.  Jelliff  & Co. 

Universal  One-Blade  Hoe  is  a very  useful  and  efficient  one-blade 
hoe  for  close  work  in  the  garden.  The  blades  may  be  of  any  length. 
Its  special  use  is  to  keep  the  surface  of  the  land  free  from  weeds. 
It  does  not  work  the  soil  except  on  the  surface.  List  price  $2.75. 
Shown  at  No.  2 in  Fig.  10.  Manufactured  by  C.  O.  Jelliff  & Co. 

The  Universal  Onion  Drill  is  very  simple  in  construction,  of  ex- 
cellent workmanship  and  light  in  weight  but  strong  enough  for 
general  work.  It  is  designed  to  sow  two  rows  at  a time.  Two 
styles  of  this  machine  are  manufactured,  one  sowing  twelve  inches 
apart  and  the  other  fourteen  inches.  Two  seed  hoppers  are  on  the 
axle,  and  the  seed  is  forced  out  by  small  wheels  which  turn  on  the 


196 


axles,  thus  making  it  sure  to  drop  the  seeds  very  accurately  and 
evenly.  The  track  of  the  outer  wheel  is  the  mark  for  the  inside 
wheel  to  follow  in  returning.  With  land  in  reasonably  good  condi- 
tion, this  machine  will  do  rapid  and  excellent  work.  Large  onion 
growers  will  find  this  seeder  a very  desirable  implement.  It  is  de- 
signed especially  to  sow  onion  seed,  and  is  not  intended  for  general 
purposes.  List  price  for  the  twelve-inch  machine  is  $8;  fourteen- 
inch,  $10.  This  drill  is  shown  at  No.  1 in  Fig.  10,  and  is  manufac- 
tured by  C.  O.  JellifE  & Co. 

The  McGee  Cultivator  is  a light,  strong  and  efficient  hand  culti- 
vator. The  handles  are  held  apart  with  a spring,  which  makes  it 
very  convenient  to  go  close  to  plants,  or  to  keep  away  from  the  row, 
as  may  be  desired,  without  any  change  of  bolt  or  other  appliance. 
The  arch  is  very  high,  so  as  to  allow  it  to  pass  over  tall  plants  with- 
out breaking  the  tops.  The  tools  accompanying  the  machine  are 
well  adapted  to  cut  out  small  weeds,  to  keep  soil  well  stirred,  etc. 
It  is  also  provided  with  an  onion  puller,  which  passes  under  the  row, 
lifting  the  onions  and  dropping  them  again  in  the  rear.  The  mate- 
rials used  in  its  construction  are  very  good.  It  is  manufactured  by 
Deere  & Mausur  Co.,  Moline,  111.  List  price,  $5. 

The  Planet  Jr.  Hill- Dropping  Garden  Drill  differs  from  any 
other  drill  on  the  market  in  its  arrangement  for  sowing  the  seed  in  hills, 
It  is  of  excellent  workmanship,  and  will  do  everything  that  the 
manufacturers  claim  for  it.  We  quote  from  their  catalogue  as  fol- 
lows: “Until  recently  there  was  no  such  thing  as  a hill-dropping 

seeder,  most  modern  drills  sowing  seed  only  in  a continuous  row. 
The  demand  for  a machine  that  could  be  adjusted  to  plant  in  hills 
has  been  urgent.  If  seed  is  drilled  and  the  plants  thinned  out,  it  is 
often  hard  to  find  a strong  plant  at  the  right  point,  even  with  thick 
sowing;  but  with  hill-planted  seed  you  are  almost  sure  to  find  two 
or  three  good  plants  at  the  exact  spot  where  one  is  wanted.  This 
is  accomplished,  too,  with  far  less  seed.  Thus,  with  great  saving  of 
labor,  time  and  seed,  a far  more  regular  crop  is  produced.  This  is 
often  of  great  importance,  as  in  sugar  beet  culture.  This  drill  will 
sow  in  a continuous  row,  in  the  ordinary  way,  with  the  greatest  reg- 
ularity; but  its  distinctive  feature  is  that  it  will  also  drop  neatly  in 
hills,  either  four,  six,  eight,  twelve  or  twenty-four  inches  apart.  It 
opens  the  furrow,  plants,  covers,  rolls  down  and  makes  a mark  for 

NOTE.  Northrup,  Braslan  & Goodwin  Co.,  Minneapolis,  Minnesota,  are  Northwestern 
agents  for  O.  O.  Jelliff  & Co.’s  implements. 


197 


the  next  row,  all  at  one  operation.  The  hopper  holds  two  quarts. 
The  wheels  are  fifteen  inches  high.  It  is  changed  in  a moment  from 
hill-dropping  to  drill  work  by  simply  hooking  up  the  ‘cut-off,’  and  is 
changed  back  again  instantly  by  releasing  the  cut-off.  The  flow  of 
seed  is  stopped  or  started  instantly  by  a single  movement  of  the  fore- 
finger, without  stopping  or  taking  the  hand  from  the  handle.  This 
is  so  easily  done  that  not  one  hill  need  be  missed  in  starting  or  stop- 
ping. The  drill  has  a force  feed ; a peculiarly  formed  rubber  double 
screw  works  over  a diamond-shaped  opening  in  the  bottom  of  the 
hopper.  While  it  sows  with  perfect  regularity,  the  rubber  feed 
wheel,  revolving  within  a brass  cylindrical  shield,  cannot  injure  deli- 
cate seeds,  such  as  radish,  cabbage,  etc.  It  sows  equally  well, 
whether  the  hopper  is  full  or  contains  only  a paper  of  seed.  The 
setting  is  quickly  and  accurately  done  for  the  different  seeds  by  a 
simple  thumb  screw.  An  index  plate,  with  the  names  of  the  princi- 
pal seeds,  is  placed  at  the  top  of  the  right  handle,  and  the  screw  is 
turned  until  the  indicator  stands  opposite  the  name  of  the  one  to  be 
sown.”  List  price,  $12. 


FIG.  11.  Plants  Growing  as  Sown  by  the  Planet  Jr.,  Hill  Dropping  Garden  Drill. 

The  Planet  Jr.,  Combined  Brill  and  Cultivator  has  for  many 
years  been  very  popular  and  is  certainly  an  excellent  combination 
for  the  home  garden  and  for  small  vegetable  gardens  generally.  The 


198 


manufactures  do  not  offer  it  as  the  most  desirable  implement  for 
market  gardeners,  but  recommend  to  those  cultivating  any  consider- 
able amount  of  land  the  use  of  separate  drills  and  cultivators.  It 
is  well  made,  low  in  price,  and  does  excellent  work.  This  implement 
has  all  the  attachments  for  the  most  successful  cultivation  of  gar- 
den plants  that  are  commonly  grown  in  narrow  rows.  It  may  be 


FIG.  12.  Planet  Jr.  Combined  Drill  and  Cultivator. 

used  when  the  plants  are  under  six  inches  high  to  work  the  soil  on 
both  sides  of  the  row  at  one  operation.  It  also  does  the  best  of  work 
when  used  between  the  rows.  It  will  sow  any  of  our  common  garden 
seeds  evenly  and  well,  covering  at  an  even  depth,  and  will  cultivate 
the  plants  as  perfectly  as  any  garden  cultivator.  It  may  also  be 
used  to  open  or  cover  furrows.  The  changes  from  drill  to  cultivator, 
or  vice  versa,  are  quickly  and  easily  made.  List  price  $12.  This 
machine  is  shown  at  (a)  in  cover  illustration,  and  in  Fig.  12. 

The  Planet  Jr.  Double  Wheel  Cultivator  is  made  for  the  culti- 
vation of  the  soil  between  two  rows,  or  on  both  sides  of  a single  row 
at  one  operation.  The  attachments  are  very  complete  and  include 
a set  of  curved-point  hoes,  rakes  for  leveling  land,  plows,  wide  and 
narrow  cultivator  teeth  and  leaf  guards.  The  attachments  are 
made  to  fit  in  long  slots  behind  the  wheels,  thus  making  it  easy  to 
change  width  between  them.  The  changes  in  attachments  are 


199 


easily  and  quickly  made.  It  can  be  used  as  a cultivator  on  both 
sides  of  the  row  until  plants  are  about  eighteen  inches  high.  This 
is  the  style  of  tool  most  desirable  for  general  use  by  market  garden- 
ers. The  materials  and  construction  are  of  the  very  best.  These 
machines  are  also  furnished  with  an  onion-puller  attachment.  List 
price,  $8.  Fig.  13. 

The  Planet  Jr.  Single  Wheel  Hoe,  Cultivator,  Rake  and  Plow 
combined  is  designed  to  work  between  the  rows,  and  will  do  admir- 
able work.  It  has  the  same  attachments  as  the  Double- Wheel  Culti- 


FIG-.  13.  Planet  Jr.  Double-Wheel  Cultivator. 

vator.  It  can  be  used  on  both  sides  of  the  row,  but  is  not  as  desir- 
able for  such  a purpose.  It  is  strong  in  construction  and  a very 
desirable  implement.  List  price,  $5. 

The  Planet  Jr.  Horse  Hoe  has  made  a very  favorable  record 
wherever  it  has  been  tried.  The  construction  is  so  complete  that  it 
can  be  used  for  almost  all  kinds  of  horse  work  in  the  garden.  It  will 
open  and  close  furrows  for  potatoes,  will  do  good  work  as  a cultiva- 
tor, and  will  draw  the  soil  from  or  throw  it  toward  plants.  The  at- 
tachments comprise  sets  of  narrow  cultivator  teeth,  wings  for  push- 
ing the  soil  to  one  side  or  to  carry  it  to  the  center  between  the  rows, 
and  sweeps  for  shallow  cultivation.  A useful  attachment  is  a pul- 
verizer or  rake  to  level  the  surface  in  the  rear.  Two  extra  side-bars 
are  provided,  which  allow  the  use  of  nine  narrow  plates  instead  of 
five.  Two  levers  are  attached,  one  of  which  regulates  the  depth 
and  the  other  the  width.  The  list  price  is  $12.  Fig.  14. 

The  Planet  Jr.  Twelve-  Tooth  Cultivator  and  Pulverizer  is  in- 
tended for  fine  horse  cultivation,  either  deep  or  shallow,  and  for 


working  among  small  plants.  In  the  hands  of  a careful  man,  this 
cultivator  will  work  the  soil  in  a field  of  small  cabbages  or  other 


FIG.  14.  Planet  Jr.,  Horse  Hoe. 

small  plants  so  that  no  land  will  be  seen  that  has  not  been  stirred, 
and  yet  the  plants  will  not  be  injured.  The  teeth  plates  are  about 
one  inch  in  width,  and  are  set  so  as  not  to  clog  easily.  The  depth 
and  the  width  of  cultivation  are  easily  and  quickly  controlled  by 


FIG.  15.  Planet  Jr.  Twelve- Tooth  Cultivator  and  Pulverizer. 

levers.  The  pulverizer  attachment  is  readily  put  on,  and  leaves  the 
surface  of  the  soil  fine  and  smooth.  The  teeth  can  be  changed  so 
as  to  work  as  a slant-tooth  cultivator.  I consider  this  an  especially 
valuable  tool  for  keeping  a dust  blanket  on  the  surface  of  the  land 
during  the  dry  weather  of  summer.  List  price,  $12.50.  Fig.  15. 

The  Planet  Jr.  Implements  are  manufactured  by  S.  L.  Allen  & Co..  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  who  refer  correspondents  to  their  agents,  Bindsay  Bros.,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 


201 


Scuffle  Attachments  for  Hand  Garden  Cultivators— Fig.  16 
shows  two  sets  of  implements  designed  to  be  attached  to  the  ordinary 
wheel  cultivators,  which  will  work  close  up  to  young  plants  so  as  to 
cut  off  the  weeds  just  under  the  surface  of  the  soil.  They  were  de- 


signed by  Mr.  William  Mackintosh,  a market  gardener  of  Langdon, 
Minn.,  and  will  be  found  very  useful  in  many  places.  They  can  be 
made  out  of  tool  steel  by  any  good  blacksmith.  The  length  of  blades 
may  be  made  to  suit  work. 

The  Scuffle  Hoe , shown  in  Fig.  17,  is  an  excellent  old-fashioned 
implement  for  shallow  cultivation,  such  as  is  needed  in  spring  in 
the  garden.  Besides,  it  is  so  very  cheap  and  simple  that  it  can  be 
made  by  any  handy  blacksmith.  It  cannot  be  recommended  to  take 


the  place  of  the  improved  wheel  hoes  for  large  gardens,  but  in  a 
small  garden  it  may  be  used  for  the  work  of  shallow  cultivation  to 
good  advantage.  It  does  not  work  the  soil  deep  enough  for  the  best 
summer  cultivation. 


FIG.  16.  Home-Made  Attachments  for  Garden  Cultivator. 


FIG.  17.  Scuffle  Hoe. 


/ 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


BULLETIN  NO.  39. 


HORTICULTURAL  DIVISION. 


DECEMBEE,  1S94, 


Potatoes, -Variety  Tests,  Potato  Scab,  Blight  and  Internal 
rown  Rot;  Tomatoes,— Variety  Tests,  Training:  Straw- 
berries,-Variety  Tests  ; Apple-Tree  Sun-Scald;  Rasp- 
berries,—Variety  Tests,  Cane  Rust. 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK,  RAMSEY  CO., 

MINNESOTA. 


ST.  PAUL: 

The  Pioneer  Press  Co.. 
189s. 


UNIVERSITY  OK  MINNESOTA 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis, 1896 

The  HON.  GREENLEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul, 1900 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  . . . . . 1900 

The  HON.  WM.  H.  YALE,  Winona, 1896 

The  HON.  JOEL  P.  HEATWOLE,  Northfield, 1897 

The  HON.  O.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth, 1896 

The  HON.  WM.  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson, 1897 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN,  Minneapolis, 1895 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  B.  A.,  Minneapolis,  ....  1895 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  St.  Paul, Ex-Officio . 

The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PENDERGAST,  M.  A.,  Hutchinson,  . . . Ex-Officio. 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHROP,  LL.D.,  Minneapolis, Ex-Officio. 

The  President  of  the  University. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  J.  S.  PILLSBURY. 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PENDERGAST. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION: 


WM.  M.  LIGGETT,  . 

WILLET  M.  HAYS,  B.  S.  A.,  . 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S., 
OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.}  . 
HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S.,  . 

T.  L.  HACKER, 

M.  H.  REYNOLDS,  M.  D.,  V.  M., 
THOS.  SHAW,  .... 
J.  A.  VYE,  .... 
ANDREW  BOSS, 


. Chairman. 
. Vice  Chairman  and  Agriculturist. 

Horticulturist. 
. Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

Chemist. 
Dairy  Husbandry. 
Veterinarian. 
Animal  Husbandry. 

Secretary. 
Farm  Foreman. 


The  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the  state 
who  make  application  for  them. 


EXPERIMENTS  WITH  POTATOES. 


SAMUEL  B.  GREEN. 


Experiments  with,  potatoes  in  1894  consisted  largely  in  the  trials 
of  forty  varieties  at  the  Experiment  Station  and  a duplication  of  the 
same  varieties  at  Bethel,  Anoka  county.  Trials  have  also  been 
made  to  determine  the  value  of  various  fungicides  as  preventives 
of  scab  and  rust  of  potatoes.  On  account  of  the  very  dry  season,  the 
yield  of  potatoes  was  very  light  at  the  University  Farm  and  at 
Bethel,  yet  the  results  are  not  without  interest  to  the  potato  growers 
of  the  state.  The  soil  in  which  the  potatoes  were  grown  at  the  Uni- 
versity Farm  is  a light,  somewhat  sandy,  loam,  in  a very  good  state 
of  cultivation.  So  far  as  known,  however,  it  had  never  grown 
potatoes  before.  The  land  used  for  the  experiment  at  Bethel  had 
produced  two  crops  of  potatoes.  It  is  sandy  loam,  and  is  representa- 
tive of  much  of  the  best  potato  land  of  that  section,  and  was  selected 
on  that  account.  The  seed  in  each  experiment  was  cut  to  two  good 
eyes,  to  a rather  large  piece  of  potato,  and  was  planted  about  the 
25th  of  May,  in  rows  three  feet  apart,  with  sixteen  inches  between 
the  pieces  of  seed  in  the  row,  and  was  covered  four  inches  deep. 
The  rows  were  150  feet  long,  and,  with  few  exceptions,  each  variety 
occupied  one  row.  As  soon  as  the  potato  tops  commenced  to  show, 
the  land  was  dragged  with  a slanting-tooth  harrow,  to  loosen  the 
soil  around  the  plants  and  to  kill  the  weeds  which  had  started. 
They  were  dragged  also  a little  later  and  again  when  the  tops  were 
about  four  inches  high.  Further  cultivation  consisted  of  loosening 
the  soil  between  the  rows  with  a one-horse  cultivator.  This  same 
tool  was  also  used  to  throw  a little  earth  toward  the  hills,  but  the 
crop  was  not  hilled  much.  The  land  was  kept  nearly  flat.  This 
method  of  cultivation  is  perhaps  as  good  as  any  for  the  general  cul- 
tivation of  potatoes  in  this  state. 


204 


When  the  early  varieties  were  beginning  to  mature  they  were 
examined  every  few  days  to  note  when  they  were  of  marketable 
size.  After  this  time  most  of  the  other  varieties  were  examined  at 
frequent  intervals,  with  the  same  purpose  in  view.  The  notes  relat- 
ing to  this  matter  will  be  found  in  the  seventh  column  of  Table  LXY. 


TABLE  LXV.—  Potatoes,— Variety  Tests.  University  Farm,  18  94. 


Yield  in  Pounds 
of  150  Feet  of 
Row. 

Yield  in  Bushels 
per  Acre. 

Date  wheii 
ready  for 
market. 

Market- 

able. 

Un- 

market- 

able. 

Total. 

Market- 

able. 

Un- 

market- 

able. 

Total. 

Acme  Seedling 

36 

1 7 

1 43 

58 

11 

69 

1 July  25. 

American  Wonder 

23 

16 

I 39 

37 

26 

63 

Late. 

Arizona  * 

25 

16  | 

1 41 

40 

25% 

23% 

60% 

Medium. 

Beauty  of  Hebron 

3iy2 

14% 

1 46 

51 

<4% 

Aug.  5. 

Burbanks  

27% 

127  - 

40 

40 

24 

64 

Late. 

Delaware  

17-1/2 

121/2I 

I 30 

29 

20 

49 

Aug.  22. 

Early  Ohio 

45 

11%|  56% 

73 

19 

92 

July  25. 

Early  Oxford 

25 

14 

| 39 

40 

22 

i 62 

Aug.  5. 

Early  Rose 

34 

19  ] 

| 53 

44 

30% 

74% 

Aug.  5. 

Freeman  (from  J.  C.  Vaughan) 

13% 

25%! 

! 39 

22 

41% 

63% 

Early. 

Freeman  (from  Mr.  Freeman) 

9y2 

19%] 

I 29 

15 

30 

45 

Early. 

Freeman  (from  De  Cou  & Co.) 

ioy2 

20 

30% 

17 

32 

49 

Early. 

Ideal  

25 

6% 

31% 

44 

14 

58 

Aug.  8. 

I.  X.  L 

31Vo 

10  1 

! 41% 

51 

16 

67 

Aug.  1. 

Lee’s  Favorite 

35%  | 

21%| 

57 

49 

33  | 

| 82 

Late. 

Maggie  Murphy 

48 

6%l 

54% 

77% 

10%  | 

88 

Late. 

No.  5 

42 

7 1 

49 

67 

11  1 

1 78% 

Late. 

Ohio  Jr 

42 

7 1 

49 

67% 

11  1 

1 78% 

Aug.  1. 

Polaris  (?) • 

28% 

29  | 

57% 

46 

34  1 

80 

Aug.  10. 

Racquet  Seedling 

. • 1 

46 

33 

79 

Early. 

Reed’s  Eighty-six 

28% 

25 

21  1 

49% 

Aug.  1. 

Red  Ohio 

15  | 

40 

40 

24  1 

64 

July  25. 

Rural  New  Yorker,  No.  2 

26 

9 | 

35 

42 

14% 

50% 

Late. 

Snowflake  

44% 

7% 

52 

72 

12 

84 

Late. 

Summit  

7% 

27 

34% 

12 

44 

56 

Medium. 

Thorburn  

19 

8% 

27% 

31 

14 

45 

Aug.  8. 

Vaughan  

40 

17  ' 

57 

65 

11  v~ 

76% 

July  25. 

Vick’s  Champion 

33 

10%| 

43% 

53 

17 

'(0 

Aug.  22. 

Western  Red 

33 

5%| 

38% 

53 

9 

62 

Late. 

White  Prolific 

25 

18%] 

43% 

40 

29 

69 

Late. 

World’s  Fair 

8 

8%| 

16%! 

13 

14 

27 

Late. 

205 


TABLE  LXVI.— Potatoes,— Variety  Tests.  Bethel,  Minn,  1894. 


Yield  in  Pounds 
of  150  Feet  of 
Row. 

YYeld  in  Bushels 
per  Acre. 

j Marketable. 

Un- 

Market- 

able. 

Total. 

Marketable. 

I Un- 
market- 
j able. 

Total. 

Acme  Seedling 

50% 

|~24% 

75 

81%|  39% 

121 

American  Wonder 

40 

14 

54 

64%  1 22% 

87 

Arizona  

47 

24 

71 

76 

1 39 

115 

Beauty  of  Hebron 

50 

19 

69 

80% 

| 30%  1 111 

Burbanks  

54 

17 

51 

55 

27  ! 

I 82 

Delaware  

43 

16 

59 

68% 

26 

1 94% 

Early  Ohio 

52 

17 

69 

84 

27  1 

! 111 

Early  Oxford 

61 

19 

80 

98 

30%  1 118%* 

Early  Rose  (true) 

40 

29 

69 

64% 

46%l  111 

Freeman  (from  J.  C.  Vaughan) 

22 

22 

..  1 

l 36% 

35% 

Great  Northern 

44 

22 

66 

70 

1 35%  | 105% 

Ideal  

5oy2 

14% 

65 

81% 

j 23%!  105 

Late  Rose  (?).... 

60 

20 

80 

97 

32  1 

129 

Lee’s  Favorite 

40 

21 

61 

64%, | 

34  | 

98% 

Maggie  Murphy 

12 

11 

23 

19  | 

1 17%! 

36% 

Ohio  Jr 

5oy2 

13% 

64 

81  | 

1 22  1 

1 103 

Polaris  (?) 

63 

I 28 

91 

101%  1 

1 45  | 

146% 

Reed’s  Eighty-six 

49 

12  | 

61 

79  | 

1 19  | 

98 

Red  Ohio 

! 20  | 

20 

. . i 

1 32  I 

32 

Rural  New  Yorker,  No.  2 

ii 

10  i 

24 

22%  | 

16  | 

38% 

Snowflake  

48 

28  | 

<6 

77%, | 

1 45  I 

122% 

Summit  

48% 

16  I 

64% 

78  1 

1 96  j 

304 

Vaughan  

59% 

2iy2| 

81 

96 

1 34%|130% 

Vick’s  Champion 

48 

13 

61 

77% 

21 

98% 

Victor  White 

61 

14  | 

75 

98 

22% 

120% 

Western  Red 

IS 

io  ! 

28 

29 

16 

45 

White  Prolific 

48 

22  I 

70 

77% 

85% 

113 

World’s  Fair 

22%  | 

22% 

..  "1 

36 

36 

It  will  be  noticed  by  any  one  who  carefully  examines  the  fore- 
going tables  that  the  early  varieties  produced  far  more  marketable 
potatoes  than  the  late  or  medium  kinds.  This  was  undoubtedly 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  more  productive  kinds  made  their  growth 
during  the  early  part  of  the  season,  when  the  conditions  were  most 
favorable,  while  the  late  varieties  suffered  more  severely  from  the 
excessively  dry,  hot  weather  which  prevailed  during  the  time  when 
they  should  have  been  in  their  most  active  period  of  growth.  Most 
of  the  later  kinds  seemed  to  have  been  very  sensitive  to  any  condi- 
tion affecting  their  growth.  Many  of  the  tubers  from  these  kinds 
were  on  this  account  so  rough  and  ill-shaped  as  to  be  unmarketable. 
Some  single  specimens  showed  at  least  three  distinct  periods  of 
growth.  The  late  kinds  set  a larger  number  of  potatoes  than  the 
early  varieties,  but  these  could  not  mature  on  account  of  the  ex- 
cessively dry  weather. 


206 


FIG.  1.  Typical  Tubers  of  Varieties  Numbered  Below,  as  Grown  in  1894. 


1. 

Acme  Seedling. 

21. 

2. 

American  Wonder. 

22. 

3. 

Arizona. 

23. 

4. 

Beauty  of  Hebron. 

24. 

5. 

Carman  No.  1. 

25. 

6. 

Colossal. 

26. 

7. 

Crown  Jewel. 

27. 

8. 

Delaware. 

28. 

9. 

Early  Everett.  , 

29. 

10. 

Early  Ohio. 

30. 

11. 

Early  Oxford. 

31. 

12. 

Early  Rose. 

32. 

13. 

Empire  State. 

33. 

14. 

Freeman. 

34. 

15. 

Great  Northern. 

35. 

16. 

Green  Mountain. 

36. 

17. 

Heavy  Weight. 

37. 

18. 

Ideal. 

38. 

19. 

Late  Rose  (?). 

39. 

20. 

Lee’s  Favorite. 

40. 

Maggie  Murphy. 

No.  5. 

Ohio  Junior. 

Polaris.  (?) 

Racqueit  Seedling. 

Reed’s  Eighty-Six. 

Red  Ohio. 

Rural  New  Yorker,  No.  2. 
Six  Weeks’  Market. 
Snowflake. 

Summit. 

Th  orb  urn. 

Vaughan. 

Vick's  Champion. 

Victor  White. 

Western  Red. 

White  Proliflc. 

World’s  Fair. 

Burbanks. 

I.  X.  L. 


NOTES  ON  VARIETIES  OF  POTATOES. 


Acme  Seedling. — Form,  oblong,  short,  thick;  eyes,  medium  to 
large;  color,  pink;  skin,  a little  rough.  Very  early;  ready  for  market 
July  25. 

American  Wonder. — Form,  flat  oblong;  eyes,  many,  prominent 
near  stem  end  and  hollow  near  seed  end ; skin,  smooth,  white. 

Arizona. — Form,  oblong,  somewhat  pointed;  eyes,  shallow;  skin 
smooth  and  white. 

Carman  No.  1. — Form,  bread  oval,  flattened;  eyes,  few,  medium 
in  size;  skin,  nearly  white. 

Delaware. — Form,  short  oval;  eyes,  few  and  of  medium  depth 
skin,  wfiiite,  very  finely  netted. 


207 


Early  Oxford. — Form,  round  oval;  eyes,  large  and  shallow;  skin, 
smooth  and  nearly  white. 

Freeman. — Form,  round  oval;  eyes,  few  and  very  shallow;  color 
creamy  white ; skin,  finely  netted. 

Great  Northern. — Form,  round;  eyes,  small  and  shallow;  color 
nearly  white;  skin,  netted. 

Gueen  Mountain. — Form,  rather  long;  eyes  few  and  shallow 
color,  nearly  white;  skin,  netted. 

Ideal. — Form,  long,  slightly  irregular;  color,  light  red;  eyes,  few, 
small  and  of  medium  depth. 

Late  Rose  (?). — Form,  round  oval;  eyes,  few  and  shallow;  skin 
heavily  netted.  (Probably  some  mistake  in  the  name.) 

Lee’s  Favorite. — Form,  irregulular  oblong;  color,  white;  eyes,  large 
some  of  them  deep,  mostly  shallow ; skin,  somewhat  netted. 

Maggie  Murphy. — Form,  broadly  oval;  light  pink  in  color;  skin, 
netted;  eyes,  few,  some  of  them  very  shallow,  others  large  and 
rather  deep. 

Ohio  Jr  . — Form  oblong,  somewhat  pointed;  eyes,  many  and 
rather  prominent;  skin,  a little  rough;  color,  pink. 

Racquet  Seedling. — Form,  long  cylindrical;  color,  snowy  white, 
eyes,  many  and  of  medium  depth ; skin,  slightly  rough. 

Reed’s  Eighty-Six. — Form,  oblong  to  round;  color,  light  rose; 
eyes,  medium  in  number  and  depth;  skin,  netted. 

Red  Ohio. — Small  to  medium  in  size;  red  in  color;  form,  usually 
round;  eyes,  large  and  medium  in  depth. 

Rural  New  Yorker,  No.  2. — Form,  oblong,  usually  pointed;  eyes; 
shallow  and  few;  skin,  smooth  or  slightly  netted  and  white. 

Snowflake. — Form,  oblong;  eyes,  few  and  shallow;  skin,  netted, 
white. 

Tliorburn. — Form,  oblong,  somewhat  resembles  Beauty  of  Heb- 
ron, from  wdiich  it  is  a seedling;  eyes,  medium  in  number  and  rather 
shallow-  skin,  nearly  white;  flesh,  snowy  white. 

Yaughan. — Form,  oblong,  has  atendency  to  become  pointed  on  seed, 
end  this’ year;  eyes,  rather  large  but  shallow;  skin,  nearly  white 
and  heavily  netted. 

Yick’s  Champion. — Form,  rather  long,  slightly  cubical;  eyes, 
large  and  shallow;  skin,  white  and  nearly  smooth. 

Victor  White. — Form,  compact,  oval  ends  flattened;  eyes,  few 
and  shallow;  skin,  nearly  white  and  a trifle  netted. 

White  Prolific  . — Form,  rather  long  and  cylindrical;  skin,  smooth, 
and  white;  eyes,  many  but  small  and  shallow. 


•208 


World’s  Fair. — Form,  oval;  eyes,  shallow;  skin,  very  finely  net- 
ted, yellowish  white;  flesh,  white. 

Western  Red. — Very  large  and  irregular  in  form,  usually  oblong; 
skin,  light  red. 

I.  X.  L.  —Form,  oblong,  cylindrical,  has  a tendency  to  be  pointed; 
eyes,  large  and  prominent;  skin,  light  red,  somewhat  resembling  the 
Early  Ohio. 


POTATO  SCAB. 

The  seed  tubers  of  nearly  all  the  varieties  of  potatoes  planted  at 
the  University  Farm  in  1894  were  to  some  extent  marked  with  the 
fungus  disease  commonly  known  as  potato  scab.  All  kinds  were 
treated  with  corrosive  sublimate,  as  recommended  in  Bulletin  No. 
32,  with  the  result  that  the  crop  was  almost  entirely  free  from  any 
appearance  of  scab,  while  a few  that  were  not  treated  were  quite 
rough  from  the  work  of  the  scab  fungus.  This  treatment  seems  to 
have  been  so  thoroughly  tried  that  it  is  no  longer  a doubtful  matter, 
but  it  is  a step  in  the  cultivation  of  the  potato  that  growers  cannot 
afford  to  overlook.  The  method  of  treatment  adopted  this  year  was 
as  follows:  Two  ounces  of  powdered  corrosive  sublimate  was  dis- 

solved in  a wooden  bucket,  and  when  all  had  dissolved  the  liquid  was 
poured  into  fourteen  gallons  of  water  contained  in  a barrel  and 
thoroughly  stirred.  The  potatoes  were  put  in  sacks  and  were  thus 
soaked  in  the  corrosive  sublimate  solution  for  one  and  one-half 
hours.  They  were  then  taken  out,  dried  and  cut  into  pieces  for 
planting.  It  was  found  that  soaking  them  for  two  hours  did  not 
injure  the  growth  in  any  way,  but  that  one  and  one-half  hours  was 
sufficient  time  to  kill  the  scab  fungus  where  the  tubers  were  only 
slightly  affected.  In  one  case  where  the  tubers  were  excessively 
covered  with  the  scabs,  so  that  even  the  eyes  could  not  be  made 
out,  soaking  for  one  and  one-half  hours  was  not  long  enough  to  kill 
the  scab  fungus.  I would  recommend  that,  where  the  potatoes 
are  excessively  rough,  they  be  soaked  in  the  corrosive  sublimate 
solution  for  at  least  two  hours.  But  potatoes  that  are  excessively 
scabby  should,  if  possible,  be  avoided  for  planting  purposes.  The 
expense  of  the  treatment  above  referred  to  for  the  prevention  of 
scab  should  never  exceed  $1  per  acre,  including  the  cost  of  the  mate- 
rials and  the  labor  of  treatment. 


209 


As  the  peculiarities  of  this  disease,  which  we  commonly  call 
“scab,”  are  not  as  well  known  as  they  should  be,  I give  below  a short 
abstract  from  Bulletin  No.  32  of  this  station,  in  which  its  peculiari- 
ties and  characteristics  are  treated  at  considerable  length : 

“(1)  Scab  of  potatoes  is  caused  by  a fungus  plant  working  in  the 
surface  of  the  potato.  The  germs  of  it  are  very  abundant  and  live 
for  many  years  in  the  soil  and  also  over  winter  on  the  potatoes.  If 
these  germs  are  fed  to  stock,  they  undoubtedly  grow  in  the  manure, 
and  the  use  of  such  manure  may  often  be  a cause  of  infection.  Also, 
they  may  be  spread  in  the  soil  by  the  natural  drainage  and  land  re- 
ceiving the  drainage  from  infected  fields  may  become  infected  even 
without  ever  having  potatoes  on  them. 

“(2)  Scabby  seed,  when  planted  on  new  or  old  potato  land,  will 
generally  produce  a scabby  crop,  but  the  amount  of  the  disease  will 
generally  be  much  more  on  the  old  than  on  the  new  land. 

“(3)  Perfectly  clean  seed  planted  on  land  winch  is  free  from  scab 
fungus  will  always  and  in  any  season  produce  a crop  of  smooth, 
clean  potatoes,  no  matter  what  the  character  of  the  land.  But  seed 
potatoes  apparently  clean  may  have  the  germs  of  the  scab  fungus 
on  their  surface.  This  is  often  the  case  wiiere  they  have  been  sorted 
out  from  a lot  that  is  somewhat  infected  with  the  scab.  In  this  lat- 
ter case,  the  tubers  should,  at  least,  be  thoroughly  washed  in  run- 
ning water,  to  remove  any  germs  that  may  be  present,  or,  what  is 
better  yet,  be  treated  with  corrosive  sublimate  (mercuric  bichloride), 
as  recommended. 

“(4)  Land  infected  by  the  germs  of  this  disease  will  produce  a 
more  or  less  scabby  crop,  no  matter  howT  clean  and  smooth  the  seed 
used. 

“(5)  Scabby  potatoes  should  be  dug  as  soon  as  mature,  since  the 
scab  fungus  continues  to  grow  on  the  potatoes  as  long  as  they  are 
in  the  ground. 

“(6)  Scabby  potatoes  may  be  safely  used  for  seed,  provided  they 
are  first  treated  with  corrosive  sublimate,  as  recommended.  The 
cost  of  this  treatment  is  a mere  trifle,  not  exceeding  one  cent  a gal- 
lon for  the  solution  used.” 

BLIGHT  OF  POTATOES. 

In  a previous  bulletin  the  results  of  the  treatment  of  blight  of 
potatoes  by  Bordeaux  mixture  were  given  at  considerable  length. 
This  season  the  treatment  gave  but  very  slight  returns,  and  although 


210 


it  increased  the  yield,  it  was  such  a small  increase  that  it  did  not 
pay  for  the  labor  involved  in  the  application  of  the  poisoned  solu- 
tion. The  most  probable  reason  for  the  slight  returns  from  the 
treatment  given  this  year  is,  I think,  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
the  potato  seed  was  treated  with  corrosive  sublimate  before  planting 
and  was  planted  on  new  land,  not  near  where  potatoes  had  been 
grown  for  many  years,  consequently  the  disease  was  not  present  to 
a serious  extent.  The  excessively  dry  season  was  also  unfavorable 
to  the  growth  of  diseases.  However,  our  experience  for  several  pre- 
vious years,  and  the  experience  of  many  others  elsewhere,  make  it 
certain  that  in  seasons  favorable  to  the  growth  of  blight,  it  will 
pay  well  to  apply  Bordeaux  mixture  to  the  potato  tops  in  those  lo- 
cations where  this  disease  is  commonly  destructive.  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture is  made  as  follows: — 

5 lbs.  blue  vitriol  (sulphate  of  copper). 

5 lbs.  quicklime. 

50  gallons  water. 

Perhaps  the  simplest  method  of  making  it  is  as  follows : Slack 

five  pounds  of  the  best  quicklime  in  three  gallons  of  water.  Dis- 
solve five  pounds  of  blue  vitriol,  by  frequently  stirring,  in  three  gal- 
lons of  hot  water  in  a wooden  vessel.  When  both  are  cool,  pour  the 
slacked  lime  through  a gunny  sack  strainer  into  two  barrels  contain- 
ing twenty-two  gallons  of  water  each,  and  then  pour  in  the  blue 
vitriol  solution.  The  result  should  be  a sky-blue  colored  mixture 
that  will  settle  to  the  bottom  in  a few  hours.  In  use,  it  must  be 
kept  well  stirred.  If  cold  water  is  used,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
blue  vitriol  will  dissolve  most  quickly  if  it  is  kept  suspended  at  the 
surface  of  the  water,  as  solutions  of  it  are  heavier  than  water.  Of 
course,  if  it  is  stirred  all  the  time,  nothing  would  be  gained  by  this 
treatment.  When  a large  amount  of  Bordeaux  mixture  is  to  be 
used  at  the  University  Farm,  wre  dissolve  about  twenty  pounds  of 
blue  vitriol  in  twenty  gallons  of  water,  and  in  making  the  mixture, 
instead  of  weighing  out  the  blue  vitriol,  we  measure  out  one  gallon 
of  the  solution. 

The  lime  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  any  injurious 
action  from  the  presence  of  soluble  copper  compounds.  If  the  pro- 
portion used  is  five  pounds  of  blue  vitriol,  five  pounds  quicklime 
and  fifty  gallons  of  water,  as  recommended  above,  there  is  no  danger 


211 


from  the  presence  of  soluble  copper  compounds;  but  in  practice  we 
find  it  more  convenient  to  slack  a large  amount  of  lime  and  then 
add  it  to  the  blue  vitriol  solution  until  the  following  simple  test 
gives  the  proper  reactions : Get  from  the  druggist  or  chemist  a few 

cents’  worth  of  red  litmus  paper  and  cut  it  into  strips  about  one-half 
inch  wide.  So  long  as  there  is  free  acid  present,  the  paper  will  re- 
main red  or  become  a brighter  shade  of  red,  when  wet  with  the 
mixture.  When  sufficient  lime  has  been  added,  the  litmus  paper 
will  turn  deep  blue  if  put  into  the  Bordeaux  mixture.  If  this  simple 
test  is  used,  there  will  be  no  injurious  results  from  the  Bordeaux 
mixture. 

Bordeaux  mixture  should  not  stand  more  than  a day  or  two  be- 
fore being  used.  It  should  be  strained  through  gunny  sacking,  so  as 
to  remove  all  lumps  that  might  clog  the  nozzle.  It  is  best  applied  by 
means  of  a force  pump  having  an  especially  prepared  nozzle  that  will 
deliver  it  as  a fine  spray  on  the  foliage.  In  a small  way,  for  experi- 
mental purposes,  it  may  be  applied  with  a brush-broom.  The  nozzle 
which  has  given  us  the  best  success  for  this  purpose  is  the  “Bordeaux 
Nozzle,”  manufactured  by  the  Deming  Co.,  of  Salem,  Ohio. 

INSECTICIDES  FOB  THE  POTATO  BEETLE. 

The  high  price  of  Paris  green  as  a poison  for  the  potato  beetle 
has  stimulated  inquiries  for  substitutes  for  it  at  a lower  price. 
London  purple  is  much  cheaper  than  Paris  green,  but  it  has  been 
found  in  practice  that  the  results  were  not  so  uniformly  successful 
with  it  as  with  Paris  green,  on  account  of  the  greater  danger  of 
burning  the  foliage.  In  our  practice,  for  some  time  past,  we  have 
found  that  by  using  as  much  quicklime  as  London  purple,  in  the 
water  in  which  the  poison  was  applied,  that  it  was  a safe  and  satis- 
factory poison  to  use.  The  past  season  it  gave  excellent  results,  but 
in  order  to  have  it  work  satisfactorily,  we  had  to  use  it  at  the  rate 
of  one  pound  of  London  purple  to  about  seventy-five  gallons  of  water. 

ARSENATE  OF  LEAD  AS  AN  INSECTICIDE. 

Arsenate  of  lead  for  use  on  potato  vines  to  kill  the  beetles  may 
be  prepared  as  follows:  Put  eleven  ounces  of  acetate  of  lead  and 

four  ounces  of  arsenate  of  soda  into  a hogshead  containing  150  gal 
Ions  of  water.  These  substances  dissolve  quickly  and  form  arsenate 


212 


of  lead,  which,  is  a fine  white  precipitate  that  does  not  settle,  but 
remains  in  suspension  for  a long  time.  If  two  quarts  of  molasses  or 
glucose  are  added  it  aids  in  making  the  poison  stick  to  the  leaves.  It 
adheres  very  tenaciously  to  the  foliage,  and  the  "gypsy-moth  commis- 
sion” of  Massachusetts  reports  it  as  a most  satisfactory  insecticide. 
Boston  parties  offer  the  acetate  of  lead  at  14  cents  per  pound  and 
arsenic  of  soda  at  8 cents  per  pound  in  twenty-five  pound  packages. 
This  poison  has  given  us  good  results  the  past  season  and  is  well 
worthy  of  trial. 


INTERNAL  BROWN  ROT  OF  POTATOES. 


During  the  past  season  the  potato  crop  in  a large  part  of  Min- 
nesota was  affected  with  a new  potato  disease.  In  Ramsey  and 
Hennepin  counties  probably  one-half  of  the  potatoes  brought  into 
market  were  affected  with  what  has  come  to  be  known  as  rot,  or 
brown  rot.  This  disease  affects  the  inside  of  the  potato,  while  the 
outside  appears  perfectly  healthy  and  normal.  When  the  potato 
i»  cut  open,  the  diseased  condition  shows  very  plainly  as  an  aggrega- 
tion of  brown  spots.  These  may  accumulate  directly  through  the 


FIG.  2.  Potato  Infected  with  Internal  Brown  Rot. 

center  or  near  the  outside,  or,  as  in  most  cases,  be  distributed 
throughout  the  potato.  It  does  not  appear  to  decrease  the  amount 
of  starch. 

But  little  seems  to  be  known  about  this  disease.  It  seems  to 
affect  most  varieties  of  potatoes,  as  shown  in  the  following  table, 
which  gives  the  condition  as  regards  this  rot  of  thirty-one  varieties 
which  were  grown  at  the  University  Farm  in  1894: 


213 


TABLE  LXVIL— Per  Cent  of  Diseased  Tubers  Among*  Different  Varieties  of 

Potatoes. 


NAME. 

Per  Cent  of 
Disease. 

1 i 

Per  Cent  of  j 
Disease. 

70 

Badly  discolored. 

Ohio  Jr 

50 

Very  bad. 

American  Wonder. . . 

10 

Racquet  Seedling 

5 

Arizona  

0 

Reed’s  Eighty-six 

5 

Beauty  of  Hebron.. 

20 

Badly  discolored. 

Red  Ohio 

0 

Crown  Jewel 

30 

Slightly  discol- 

Rural  N.  Yorker,  No.  ± 

8 

| ored. 

Snowflake 

30 

Very  slight. 

DelawaT’fk  

0 

Summit 

8 

Early  fAhio  - - ■* 

80 

Quite  badly  dis- 

Thorburn  

20 

colored. 

| Vaughan 

40 

Early  Oxford 

10 

Vick’s  Champion 

40 

Early  Rose 

80 

Victor  White 

20 

Freeman 

70 

Very  much  dis- 

Western Red  (Own)... 

10 

Very  litttle. 

colored. 

Western  Red  (Bethel). 

! 100 

Very  much  dis- 

Great Northern 

10 

colored. 

Ideal 

50 

White  Prolific 

5 

I X L 

60 

Very  bad. 

World’s  Fair 

20 

Some  very  bad. 

Late  Rose  (?) 

55 

Lee’s  Favorite 

70 

Maggie  Murphy 

60 

EXPERIMENTS  WITH  TOMATOES. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN. 

Six  plants  each,  of  eighteen  different  varieties  of  tomatoes  were 
set  out  May  29,  1894,  in  a plot  of  rich  open  clay  land,  sloping 
slightly  to  the  south.  The  plants  were  rather  tall ; therefore,  when 
planting,  the  lower  part  of  the  stems  were  bent  over  and  covered. 
The  rows  were  laid  out  six  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  were  set  as 
follows:  Three  plants  of  each  variety  were  set  five  feet  apart,  then 

three  more  of  the  same  variety,  with  three-foot  intervals  between 
the  plants.  The  object  of  this  was  to  allow  room  for  the  plants  set 
five  feet  apart  to  spread  on  the  ground  in  the  usual  form,  while  the 
plants  set  near  together  were  to  be  trained  on  single  stakes  and 
pruned  to  a single  stem.  Those  on  stakes  were  closely  watched, 
and  the  sideshoots  were  removed  as  fast  as  they  appeared.  This 
is  the  plan  recommended  very  generally  for  the  production  of  the 
earliest  fruit.  The  results  were  as  follows:  Three  varieties  that 

were  staked  ripened  before  those  plants  of  the  same  variety  that 
were  on  the  ground.  Four  varieties  that  were  allowed  to  run 
naturally  on  the  ground  ripened  before  plants  of  the  same  kind  that 
were  staked  and  pruned.  The  results  this  season  seem  to  indicate 


214 


that  there  is  no  profit  in  the  practice  of  staking  and  trimming  toma- 
toes in  this  section  and  under  conditions  similar  to  those  that  ac- 
companied this  experiment. 

The  following  table  gives  the  date  of  the  first  ripe  fruit  of  all 
varieties.  The  third  column  gives  the  results  of  the  total  yield  of 
the  different  varieties,  but  not  the  comparative  yield,  as  it  is  well 
known  that  pruned  plants  produce  less  than  those  not  trained;  but 
the  advantage  claimed  for  the  method  is  that  more  plants  can  be 
planted  on  the  same  amount  of  land,  and  that  the  increased  earli- 
ness will  much  more  than  compensate  for  the  lessened  quantity : 


TABLE  LXVIII.— Tomatoes,  Varieties  and  Date  of  Ripening*  of  Staked  and  Not 

Staked  Plants. 


Atlantic  Prize 

Buckeye  state  (Vaugliaa) 

Cliemin  Market 

Earliest  of  All  (Vaughan)  ... 

Early  Acme 

Dwarf  Champion  ( Vaughan  ) 

Dwarf  Champion  (Own  j 

Ignotum  

Long  Keeper 

Meteor  

Matchless  

Northern  Light 

New  Stone 

Picture  Rock 

Royal  Red 

Terra  Cotta 

Trucker’s  Favorite 


1 

Date  of  First  Ripe  Fruit. 

Average 

Yield. 

Staked. 

On  Ground. 

July  25. 

July  25. 

Aug.  25. 

Aug.  11. 

4 

July  24. 

July  30. 

3 

July  20. 

Aug.  11. 

6 

July  30. 

July  19. 

10 

Aug.  3. 

Aug.  3. 

10 

Aug.  3. 

Aug.  3. 

10 

July  30. 

July  30. 

7 

July  30. 

July  30. 

8 

Aug.  3. 

July  30. 

6 

Aug.  6. 

July  30. 

9 

Aug.  3. 

Aug.  11. 

5 

Aug.  11. 

Aug.  11. 

5 

July  30. 

July  30. 

7 

July  30. 

July  30. 

3-|. 

Aug.  3. 

Aug.  30. 

6-1- 

Aug.  3. 

Aug.  3. 

7-|- 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  table  that  the  results  as  to  earli- 
ness are  very  much  in  favor  of  the  plants  that  were  not  staked  but 
which  were  allowed  to  lie  on  the  ground  in  the  ordinary  way.  It  will 
be  noticed,  also,  that  the  varieties  known  as  the  Dwarf  Champion 
and  Early  Acme  produced  the  most  fruit.  These  are  excellent 
varieties  in  every  way. 


EXPERIMENT  IN  REGARD  TO  AMOUNT  OF  ROT  FROM  TOMATO  VINES 
STAKED  AND  TOMATO  VINES  LEFT  ON  GROUNDS  IN  USUAL  WAY. 

The  past  season  was  a very  favorable  one  for  the  tomato  rot, 
and  it  was  very  abundant.  There  is,  however,  a great  difference  in 
the  liability  to  rot  of  the  various  kinds  of  tomatoes,  as  will  be  seen 
from  reading  the  notes  on  varieties.  To  determine  the  comparative 


215 


susceptibility  to  rot,  of  the  fruit  from  trained  and  untrained  vines, 
the  fruit  from  each  set  of  plants  was  carefully  counted  and  a record 
kept  of  the  diseased  and  sound  fruit.  The  results  will  be  found  in 
Table  LXIX.  which  follows: 


TABLE  LXIX.— Tomatoes,— Fruit  Rotten  and  Sound,  on  Staked  Vines  and  on 

Those  Not  Staked. 


DATE  OF  PICKING. 

Vines  Trained  to 
Stakes  and  Pruned. 

Not  Trained. 

Rotten. 

Sound. 

Rotten. 

Sound. 

Aug.  27 

40 

36 

20 

25 

21 

25 

40 

30 

60 

50 

90 

125 

70  | 

25 

40 

27 

25 

55 

100 

187 

225 

240 

225 

225 

Aug.  31 

Sept.  3 ! 

Sept.  6 i 

Sept.  11 

Sept.  18 

Total  from  Aug.  27  to  Sept.  18 

167 

395 

242 

1,292 

From  the  above  table  it  will  be  seen  that  forty-three  (43%)  per 
cent  of  the  tomatoes  that  grew  on  the  staked  plants  rotted,  while 
only  nineteen  (19%)  per  cent  of  the  tomatoes  rotted  grown  on  the 
vines  which  were  not  trained  but  were  allowed  to  spread  out  on  the 
ground  in  the  ordinary  way. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  VARIETIES  OF  TOMATOES. 

Atlantic  Prize. — Vines,  medium  in  size;  staked  vines  grew  about 
five  feet  high.  The  fruit  small;  skin,  red;  flesh,  pulpy  and  pink; 
form,  rather  flat,  with  some  specimens  very  irregular. 

Buckeye  State. — Vines,  very  vigorous;  staked  vines  grew  seven 
feet  high.  Fruit,  globular,  large  and  smooth.  The  skin  is  of  an 
even,  pink  color,  except  near  the  stem,  which  is  a yellowish  green. 
Flavor,  very  good.  The  plants  grow  too  large  for  this  climate,  and 
unless  trimmed  back  severely,  very  little  fruit  will  ripen.  Hotted 
some. 

Chemin  Market.— Vines,  quite  vigorous;  fruit,  apple  shaped;  color, 
red.  Very  little  fruit  ripened  without  rotting. 

Dwarf  Champion. — Vines,  vigorous  for  a dwarf  variety;  leaves 
broad  and  heavy;  fruit,  globe  shape;  color,  a good  pink;  medium  in 
size;  quality  extra  good;  very  few  rotted. 

Earliest  of  All  . — Vines  not  very  large;  fruit,  red,  very  irregular, 
very  difficult  to  detach  from  the  stem,  ripens  very  early;  not  a good 
variety  for  market  gardeners,  but  very  desirable  for  gardens  in 


216 


severe  locations  on  account  of  its  early  ripening.  J About  20  per  cent 
rotten. 

Early  Acme. — Vines,  medium;  fruit,  medium  in  size  and  of  a 
good  pink  color,  globe-shaped.  This  variety  rotted  somewhat,  but 
not  over  four  per  cent.  A standard  variety  for  marketing. 

Ignotum. — Vines,  medium  in  size;  flesh,  pink  in  color,  with  the 
skin  red;  shape  round,  somewhat  flattened,  often  irregular.  The 
season  of  fruiting  is  comparatively  short;  flavor  rather  poor;  a fewr 
rotted. 

Long  Keeper. — Vines,  very  thrifty,  but  not  quite  as  vigorous  as 
Buckeye  State;  fruit,  pink,  medium  in  size,  a little  soft  when  ripe, 
and  rotted  badly. 

Meteor. — Vines,  of  medium  size;  fruit,  small  to  medium  and  quite 
seedy ; flavor,  fairly  good ; rotted  quite  badly. 

Matchless. — Vines,  quite  large;  fruit,  red;  skin  thick;  flat- shaped, 
with  hollow  at  stem ; rotted  badly. 

Northern  Light. — Dwarf;  fruit,  small,  pale  red  in  color;  skin, 
thin;  flavor,  poor;  some  rotted. 

New  Stone. — Vines,  vigorous;  fruit,  large  and  quite  smooth; color, 
a bright  scarlet;  does  not  ripen  well  near  stem.  This  variety  rotted 
more  than  any  other,  and  it  was  very  hard  at  any  time  during  the 
season  to  get  a healthy  specimen. 

Picture  Rock. — Vines,  medium  to  large;  fruit  large,  somewhat 
flattened,  rotted  quite  badly. 

Royal  Red. — Vines  vigorous,  skin  of  fruit  red  and  flesh  pink; 
quite  seedy  and  soft;  form,  globular,  slightly  flattened;  rotted  badly. 

Terra  Cotta. — Vines,  thrifty;  fruit  globe-shaped  and  pale  red  in 
color,  soft  and  hollow ; rotted  quite  badly. 

Trucker’s  Favorite. — Vines,  medium  in  size;  fruit,  pale  red,  re- 
sembling the  Acme;  rather  pulpy,  globe-shaped;  ripens  well  to  stem; 
many  rotted. 

SUMMARY. 

(1)  The  results  of  this  season  seem  to  show  that  there  is  but  little 
difference  between  the  period  of  ripening  of  tomato  plants  that  are 
pruned  and  trained  to  stakes  and  of  those  that  are  allowed  to  grow 
on  the  ground  in  a natural  way,  and  consequently  no  profit  from  the 
operation  of  pruning.  But  these  results  are  contrary  to  the  experi- 
ence of  some  of  the  most  practical  men,  and  should  not  be  thought 
conclusive. 


217 


(2)  The  earliest  variety  was  “Earliest  of  All,”  the  seed  of  which 
was  received  from  J.  C.  Vaughan,  of  Chicago.  This  variety  is  of 
special  value  for  very  short  seasons.  The  Early  Acme  and  Dwarf 
Champion,  while  about  ten  days  later  in  ripening,  yield  much  more 
and  better  fruit  than  the  Earliest  of  All. 

(3)  Forty-three  per  cent  of  the  fruit  rotted  that  was  produced  by 
vines  trained  to  stakes,  while  only  nineteen  per  cent  of  the  fruit 
rotted  from  vines  allowed  to  grow  naturally  on  the  ground.  This 
also  is  contrary  to  the  usual  experience  of  tomato  growers,  and 
should  not  be  thought  conclusive. 


FIG.  3.  Trunk  of  Apple  Tree  Showing  Effect  of  Sun-Scald  on  Trunk. 

APPLE-TREE  SUN-SCALD. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN. 

It  is  probable  that  more  apple  trees  that  are  well  located  and 
selected  die  from  sun-scald  in  this  state  than  from  any  other 
cause,  and  this  loss  is  entirely  preventable.  By  the  term  sun-scald 


218 


is  meant  the  trouble  that  shows  itself  by  the  trees  becoming  rotten 
in  the  trunk  on  the  south  side,  which  finally  so  weakens  it  that  it 
cannot  support  its  top,  and  consequently  breaks  dowrn,  very  likely 
when  loaded  wdth  fruit.  It  is  probable  that  this  trouble  is  gener- 
ally caused  by  a part  of  the  bark  on  the  south — or,  more  commonly, 
the  south  west — side  of  the  tree  starting  into  growth  before  the  rest 
of  the  tree,  during  some  warm  period  in  the  latter  part  of  wdnter  or 
early  in  the  spring.  Such  warm  periods  are  generally  followed  by 
a severe  freeze,  in  which  case  the  newly-formed  immature  cells  are 
ruptured,  or  the  cell  contents  injured,  which  results  in  the  bark  on 
the  affected  side  dying  and  falling  off.  Fig.  3 represents  a Duchess 
of  Oldenburgh  apple-tree,  which  has  been  severely  injured  by  sun- 
scald.  One  of  the  three  parts  of  the  trunk  has  so  far  rotted  that 


FIG.  4.  Protecting  Trunks  of  Trees  from  Sun-scald  by  Wrapping  Them  in  Autumn 

with  Cornstalks. 

it  lias  broken  down  to  the  ground,  another  part  still  stands,  but  is 
badly  rotted  on  the  southwest  side  for  a distance  of  three  feet  and 
will  probably  break  down  in  a short  time ; the  other  part  of  the  trunk 
is  still  quite  sound. 

PREVENTION  OF  SUN- SCALD. 

(I)  Sun-scald  may  be  prevented  by  anything  that  will  shade  the 
trunk  and  limbs;  even  a few  branches  furnish  sufficient  shade.  If 
the  top  of  the  tree  is  kept  inclined  ti  the  southw  est  until  it  is  firmly 
established,  it  will  shade  the  trunk  sufficiently  to  prevent  sun-scald. 


219 


There  is  a tendency  in  this  section  for  all  trees  to  incline  to  the 
northeast,  due,  largely,  to  the  fact  that  the  prevailing  winds  are  from 
the  southwest  during  the  growing  season  and  while  the  ground  is 
soft.  Trees  that  incline  to  the  northeast  receive  the  rays  of  the  sun 
directly  upon  the  trunk,  and  are  most  liable  to  sun-scald.  In  order 
to  keep  the  tops  of  trees  inclined  to  the  southwest,  they  must  be 
planted  with  a decided  slant  in  that  direction,  though  not  so  much 
so  as  to  disfigure  the  trees.  Even  when  this  is  done  the  trees  will 
need  annual  attention  to  keep  them  in  that  position.  One  large  and 


FIG.  5.  Protecting  Trunk  of  Tree  from  Sun-scald  by  Shading  with  Board. 

successful  apple-grower  in  this  state  goes  so  far  as  to  tie  each  tree 
to  a small  stake  to  hold  it  in  position.  If  the  trees  are  planted  in 
Quincunx  fashion,  so  that  the  rows  run  southwest  and  northeast, 
as  well  as  north  and  south,  they  will  largely  shade  one  another  when 
of  bearing  size. 

(2)  Protection  by  means  of  a screen  of  laths  and  wire  woven 
together  and  wrapped  around  the  trees  is  advocated,  and  has  been 
extensively  and  successfully  used.  It  is  cheaply  made  and  easily  ap- 
plied, but  it  does  not  fit  the  trunk  well  if  the  trees  are  crooked,  and 
it  should  be  supplemented  by  some  material  for  shading  the  crotches, 
which  are  the  weak  spots  of  many  kinds  of  apple  trees.  On  straight 
trees  it  affords  excellent  protection  to  the  trunks,  and  it  is  easily 
supplemented  each  autumn  by  stuffing  the  crotch  with  hay. 


220 


(3)  Thin  veneers  of  wood  are  manufactured  which,  when  soaked 
with  water,  may  be  easily  wrapped  around  the  trunks  and  held  in 
place  by  two  wires.  These  have  recently  come  into  use,  and  are 
received  with  considerable  favor  by  apple-growers.  They  are  open 
to  the  same  objection  as  the  lath  screen,  but  are  easily  supplemented 
in  the  same  way,  and  are  very  desirable. 

(4)  Wire  screen,  such  as  is  used  for  mosquito  netting,  has  its  ad- 
vocates as  protection  against  sun-scald.  It  has  the  merit  of  being 
more  flexible  than  those  mentioned  before,  and  it  easily  conforms 
to  the  shape  of  the  trunk.  It  is,  however,  necessary  to  supplement 
it  with  some  material  for  protecting  the  crotches. 


PIG.  6 Protecting  Trunk  of  Tree  from  Sun-scald  with  a Wooden  Box  and  the  Crotches 
with  Hay.  To  the  Right,  Trunk  of  Small  Tree  Protected  by  Wood  Veneer. 

(5)  Flexible  materials,  such  as  burlap  and  building  paper,  is  excel- 
lent for  this  purpose.  They  should,  however,  be  taken  off  in  sum- 
mer and  the  burlap,  when  thus  cared  for,  may  be  used  for  several 
years. 

(6)  An  excellent  method  of  protection  is  that  given  by  wrapping 
the  trunk  of  the  tree  with  a hay  rope  or  by  tying  cornstalks  (Fig.  4) 
on  the  south  half  of  the  tree  on  the  approach  of  winter.  These 


221 


should  extend  up  far  enough  to  protect  the  crotches  and  lower 
branches  as  well  as  the  trunk. 

(7)  The  planting  of  a shrub,  such  as  a barberry  bush,  an  Artemesia 
dbrotans , or  similar  hardy  plant,  on  the  south  side  of  apple  trees,  has 
been  recommended  and  to  some  extent  practiced  for  the  prevention 
of  sun-scald. 

(8)  Protection  by  boards  has  been  followed  to  a considerable  ex- 
tent. This  is  effected  by  standing  up  a six-inch  board  on  the  south 
side  of  the  tree  (Fig.  5)  so  as  to  keep  the  sun’s  rays  off  from  the  trunk. 
Sometimes  two  boards  a re  nailed  together,  so  as  to  partly  inclose  the 
trunk.  This  is  an  excellent  method  of  protection.  An  objection  to 
it  is  that  unless  the  boards  are  very  carefully  placed  the  bark  on 
the  branches  may  be  injured  by  them. 

(9)  Protection  by  boxing  the  trunks  of  the  trees  and  filling  the 
boxes  with  soil  (Fig.  6)  has  come  into  use  within  a few  years.  This 
is  probably  the  safest  and  most  complete  method  known.  It  pro- 
tects the  trunk  against  sudden  changes  in  temperature,  as  well  as 
against  sun-scald,  and  the  adoption  of  this  method  of  protection  will 
undoubtedly  make  it  practicable  to  grow  the  hardiest  apple  trees 
much  farther  north  than  it  has  been  heretofore  believed  possible. 
This  practice  is  especially  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  protection  of 
the  few  trees  so  desirable  in  the  farmer’s  garden  and  is  worthy  of 
very  general  use  under  such  conditions.  The  expense  for  material 
is  very  little,  and  generally  the  necessary  material  for  use  in  a small 
way  can  be  had  without  any  appreciable  cost  whatever.  The  ques- 
tion of  removing  the  earth  from  the  boxes  in  summer  has  been  con- 
siderably discussed.  At  the  University  Farm  the  boxes  filled  with 
earth  have  been  allowed  to  remain  around  a large  number  of  the 
trees  for  three  years,  and  no  harm  has  resulted  from  the  practice. 
Judging  from  this  experience,  I am  of  the  opinion  that  no  harm  can 
result  from  the  practice  of  allowing  the  boxes  to  remain  on  all  the 
year  round.  However,  if  at  any  time  the  boxes  were  to  be  dis- 
pensed with,  I should  be  very  much  afraid  of  removing  them  on  the 
approach  of  winter,  but  if  removed  in  the  spring  I do  not  think  that 
their  having  been  used  would  increase  the  susceptibility  of  the  trees 
to  injury  from  sun-scald.  This  method  of  protection,  however,  does 
not  cover  the  crotches  of  the  trees,  and  these  should  be  protected  as 
previously  recommended. 

The  methods  of  protection  suggested  here  as  being  such  as  should 
be  left  on  all  the  year  round,  referred  to  in  paragraphs  2,  3,  4,  5 and 


222 


9,  protect  from  all  injury  from  mice,  and,  to  a large  extent,  fom  all 
injury  from  rabbits,  and  on  this  account  alone,  in  many  sections,  will 
be  worth  all  they  cost.  While  all  varieties  of  apples  are  liable  to 
sun-scald,  some  are  much  more  subject  to  this  injury  than  others. 
The  varieties  recommended  by  this  Experiment  Station  and  by  the 
State  Horticultural  Society  are  most  desirable  for  planting  in  this 
state.  And  the  selection  of  other  kinds,  especially  those  that  are 
generally  grown  in  more  favored  locations,  leads  to  disappointment 
and  loss. 

The  extent  of  sun-scald  is  much  greater  in  this  section  than  is 
commonly  thought.  Besides  the  apple,  the  plum  and  cherry  are  oc- 
casionally thus  injured,  while  sun  injuries  are  very  common  on  black 
walnut  and  basswood,  and  occasionally  almost  any  of  our  deciduous 
trees  are  so  affected.  Newly  transplanted  basswoods  are  frequently 
injured  by  sun-scald  when  unprotected,  and  when  used  for  street 
trees  should  always  be  shielded  from  the  sun’s  rays,  at  least  until 
well  established  and  growing  freely,  after  which  such  injuries  are 
less  frequent. 

SUMMARY. 

(1)  Sun-scald  is  a frequent  cause  of  loss  of  apple  trees  in  the 
Northwest,  and  is  entirely  preventible  at  slight  expense. 

(2)  Anything  that  will  shade  the  trunks  of  the  trees  will  protect 
them  from  sun-scald. 

(3)  Many  methods  that  are  admirably  adapted  to  protect  from 
sun  injuries,  also  protect  against  injury  from  rabbits,  mice  and 
borers. 

(4)  It  is  recommended  that  planters  of  apple  trees,  on  a small 
scale,  at  least,  protect  the  trunks  of  their  trees  by  boxing  them  up. 

(5)  All  fruit  trees  should  be  inclined  to  the  southwest  when 
planted. 

(6)  Sun-scald  affects  most^of  our  deciduous  trees  to  some  extent, 
and  a few  of  them,  under  certain  conditions,  quite  disastrously. 


223 


STRAWBERRIES. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN. 


The  strawberry  crop  in  1894  has  been  generally  a poor  one  on 
account  of  the  late  spring  frosts  when  the  plants  were  in  blossom 
and  the  severe  drouth  which  commenced  to  be  injurious  when  the 
crop  was  about  one-third  grown.  At  the  University  Farm  the  crop 
was  fairly  good.  I attribute  our  success  to  the  fact  that  the 
beds  are  on  a retentive  soil  well  cultivated,  and,  also,  to  the  fact  that 
the  mulch  was  kept  over  the  plants  until  as  late  as  practicable.  Our 
beds  were  not  in  flower  until  after  the  damaging  late  frosts,  and  the 
space  between  the  rows  and  around  the  plants  being  heavily  mulched 
were  protected  from  the  sun  and  the  rapid  evaporation.  Our  beds 
which  produced  their  second  and  third  crop  w ere  much  more  pro- 
ductive than  the  newr  beds.  I account  for  this  from  the  fact  that  last 
season  being  very  dry,  the  newly  set  plants  did  not  perfect  their 
fruit  buds  so  w^ell  as  the  older  and  more  vigorous  plants  of  the  old 
beds.  But  I w-ould  not  wrish  to  be  understood  as  advocating  the  re- 
tention of  old  beds  except  wdiere  they  are  mow ed  over  and  renewed 
by  plowing  and  manuring,  according  to  the  wTell  known  practice  of 
this  Station.  By  following  the  practice  outlined  above,  we  have  not 
failed  to  secure  at  least  a fair  crop  any  year  for  four  years  at  this 
Station.  Of  newr  varieties  there  is  little  to  report,  none  of  them  hav- 
ing done  better  than  the  best  of  the  older  varieties.  The  most  prom- 
ising kinds  for  general  planting  are  Warfield,  Haverland  and  Crescent 
of  the  pistillate,  and  Beder  Wood,  Parker  Earle  and  Enhance  of  the 
bi  sexual  class.  The  best  early  berry  here  is  the  Warfield,  the  best 
late  one  the  Parker  Earle.  The  new  kinds  w orthy  of  special  mention 
are  Swindle,  Edgar  Queen  and  Leader.  These  fruited  in  beds  bear- 
ing their  second  crop.  Other  newr  kinds  in  the  newT  bed  did  not  have 
as  good  a chance  as  those  in  the  old  bed  and  should  not  be  condemned 
on  this  account.  The  strawberry  beds  at  the  University  Farm  w ere 
sprayed  wdth  Bordeaux  mixture  in  the  spring,  but  they  w ere  very 
healthy,  and  no  particular  benefit  seemed  to  followr  this  application. 
However,  it  is  my  opinion  that  it  will,  as  a rule,  pay  wrell  to  spray  at 
least  once  with  this  material  in  the  spring,  though  there  may  be  oc- 
casional years  when  there  is  no  apparent  benefit. 


224 


DESCRIPTION  OF  VARIETIES. 

A tabular  statement  of  the  growth,  period  of  ripening  and  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  following  and  other  varieties  was  published  in 
the  “Minnesota  Horticulturist”  for  August,  1894,  and  is  consequently 
omitted  here. 

Atlantic  (Bi  sexual) — Fruited  in  beds  two  and  three  years  old. 
Quite  productive ; medium  early;  foliage  and  growth  good. 

Beder  Wood  (Bi  sexual). — Fruited  in  beds  two,  three  and  four  years 
old,  and  very  productive  in  each;  blooms  early  and  is  full  of  pollen; 
fruit  medium  in  size;  season  medium,  holds  on  well;  growth  and  foli- 
age very  good. 

Boynton  (Pistillate). — Early  and  holds  on  quite  well;  moderately 
productive.  Nearly  the  same  as  Crescent. 

Crescent  (Pistillate). — As  compared  with  the  Warfield,  which  is 
taken  as  the  standard,  it  ranked  about  third.  Fruit  ^not  as  large  as 
Warfield,  but  it  holds  out  better  at  latter  end  of  season.  This  old 
variety  is  still  one  of  the  most  reliable. 

Edgar  Queen  (Pistillate). — Very  vigorous  both  in  foliage  and 
growth  and  very  productive;  fruit  large;  a good  variety  and  well 
worthy  of  trial  by  commercial  growers. 

Eureka  (Pistillate). — Fruited  in  beds  two  and  three  years  old.  A 
very  strong  grower,  foliage  good;  fruit  of  good  size  and  color  and 
firm;  quite  productive;  season  very  long;  worthy  of  trial. 

Esther  (Bi  sexual). — Medium  size,  conical,  red ; quite  productive. 

Gillespie  (Bi  sexual). — Foliage  and  growth  poor,  with  little  fruit. 

Gov.  Hoard  (Bi  sexual). — Foliage  and  growth  good;  not  very  pro- 
ductive. 

Great  American  (Pistillate). — Sets  large  quantities  of  fruit,  but 
only  a small  part  ripens ; fruited  in  all  beds  and  the  results  the  same 
in  each. 

Greenville  (Pistillate). — Foliage  and  growth  vigorous;  productive; 
season  very  long;  fruit  of  good  size. 

Haverland  (Pistillate). — An  excellent  variety.  Season  very  long; 
yielded  well  in  all  beds;  a close  second  to  Warfield;  fruit  large. 

Leader  (Bi  sexual) — Very  vigorous  both  in  growth  and  foliage; 
very  productive. 

Lovett’s  Early  (Bi  sexual). — A very  handsome  berry  of  good  size; 
fairly  productive. 

Michel’s  Early  (Bi  sexual). — An  early  flowering  kind  with  an 
abundance  of  pollen;  produces  very  little  fruit.  As  a pollenizer  it  is 
very  good,  but  otherwise  almost  useless. 


225 


Middlefield  (Pistillate). — A fairly  good  grower;  not  very  pro- 
ductive. 

Ona  (Pistillate). — Not  very  productive;  fruit  red,  conical. 

Parker  Earle  (Bi  sexual). — A large  vigorous  and  thrifty  grower; 
foliage  good;  season  very  late;  fruit  large;  very  productive.  One  of 
the  best  of  the  bi  sexual  kinds. 

Putnam  (Pistillate). — Moderately  productive;  foliage  and  growth 
very  good. 

Saunders  (Bi-sexual). — Fruit  medium  to  large,  compact;  not  very 
productive ; foliage  not  very  good. 

Southard  (Bi-sexual). — Medium  in  size,  red,  usually  broad  coni- 
cal; fairly  productive;  foliage  and  growth  good. 

Standard  (Bi  sexual). — Of  but  little  value  here. 

Stevens  (Bi-sexual). — Season  early,  ripens  well  together,  quite 
productive;  foliage  and  growth  good. 

Swindle  (Pistillate). — Fruit  large,  usually  quite  irregular,  very 
firm;  in  large  clusters;  foliage  and,  growth  very  good;  very  pro- 
ductive. A very  promising  variety. 

Timbrel]  (Pistillate). — Plants  large  and  vigorous,  somewhat  re- 
sembling the  Bubach.  I am  disappointed  in  the  amount  of  fruit  it 
produced  this  year,  which  was  very  little,  but  as  it  fruited  in  the  new 
bed  and  had  been  seriously  dug  into  for  plants  I feel  that  it  has 
hardly  had  a fair  chance. 

Tippecanoe  (Bi-sexual). — A fairly  good  berry. 

Warfield  (Pistillate). — As  in  several  previous  years  this  variety 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  pistillate  varieties.  Yielded  the  most  fruit 
of  all  the  varieties;  fruit  medium  in  size,  quite  dark,  very  regular; 
fruited  well  in  all  beds. 

West  Lawn  (Pistillate). — Of  little  value  here. 

Waupon  (Bi-sexual). — Fairly  productive. 

Williams  (Bi-sexual). — Fruit  medium  in  size,  broadly  conical; 
clusters  very  large;  somewhat  seedy;  moderately  vigorous;  does  not 
ripen  on  end  very  well ; fruited  only  in  new  bed. 


226 


RASPBERRIES. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN. 

The  raspberry  crop  at  the  University  Farm  in  1894  was  consider- 
ably shortened  by  the  severe  drouth,  and  yet  the  returns  from  the 
productive  kinds  compare  favorably  with  the  returns  of  other  years. 
The  raspberries  here  are  grown  in  rows  seven  feet  apart  and  are 
mulched  for  two  feet  on  each  side  of  the  row.  The  three-foot  space 
between  the  rows  not  mulched  is  kept  loose  by  frequent  stirring  with 
a one-horse  cultivator.  On  approach  of  cold  weather  the  canes  are 
bent  to  the  ground  and  enough  soil  put  on  to  hold  them  down,  and 


FIG.  7.  Raspberries  Laid  Down  for  Winter. 

then  the  whole  row  is  covered  with  the  mulch  from  between  the 
rows.  (Fig.  7.)  The  land  on  which  they  are  grown  is  a loose  clayey 
loam.  In  very  severe  locations,  especially  where  the  land  is  dry  in 
autumn,  this  protection  is  not  enough,  but  the  canes  should  be  cov- 
ered their  whole  length  with  earth  by  plowing  against  them  from 
both  sides  and  then  covering  with  mulch. 


227 


VARIETY  TESTS  OF  RASPBERRIES. 


TABLE  LXX- Variety  Test.— “Tip-Rooting-”  Raspberries  at  University  Farm  in 

1894. 


VARIETIES. 

Date  of 
Blooming. 

Date  of  Firsi 
Picking. 

Date  of  Last 
Picking. 

Quality  (scale 
0 to  10). 

Firmness 
(scale  0 to  10). 

Vigor  (scale  0 
to  10). 

Productiveness 
(scale  0 to  10). 

June. 

July. 

July. 

Ada  

10 

IS  1 

21 

8 

8 

9 

7 

Brackett  

8 

10 

| 22 

7 

9 

7 

8 

Conrath’s  Early 

6 

1 1 

20 

8 

9 

9 

9 

Cromwell  

6 

4 

! 16 

8 

8 

9 

9 

Cook’s  Seedling 

4 

rt 

16 

6 

7 

10 

5 

Gregg  

10 

9 1 

20 

8 

10 

10 

8 

Hopkins  

4 

7 1 

8 

9 

8 

8 

Kansas  

6 

2 ! 

* 18 

8 

9 

9 

9 

Lovett  

8 

6 

I 20 

7 

9 

8 

4 

Mystery  

6 

3 ! 

20 

7 

9 

9 

8 

Nemeha  

8 

9 

25 

8 

10 

10 

9 

Ohio  

6 

6 

25 

9 

10 

9 I 

8 

Older 

6 

9 

26 

10 

9 

10 

Palmer  

7 

4 

18 

7 

8 

8 

6 

Progress  

8 

1 6 

26 

8 

8 

8 

8 

♦Smith’s  Giant 

10 

10 

20 

8 

8 

6 

Smith’s  Prolific 

6 

2 

23 

8 

’8 

1 8 

7 

Shaffer  

12 

9 1 

24 

8 

9 

10 

10 

Tyler  

15 

14  | 

18 

8 

8 

7 

‘7 

Wade  

10 

10  I 

22 

! 4 

Wonder  

10 

11 

1 22 

! 

1 3 

♦Suffered  from  drouth. 


NOTES  ON  TIP-ROOTING  RASPBERRIES. 


Ada. — Bushes,  medium  in  size  and  vigorous;  spines,  few  as  com- 
pared with  others;  flavor,  a little  tart. 

Brackett’s  Seedling,  No.  101. — Plants,  thrifty;  fruit,  rather  seedy. 

Cook’s  Seedling. — Vines,  very  tall  and  thrifty;  fruit,  dark  red, 
quite  juicy,  small,  of  inferior  quality.  This  variety  is  reported  by 
Mr.  Dewrnin  Cook,  of  Windom,  Minn.,  as  being  exceedingly  bardv 
and  more  productive  than  any  of  the  other  varieties  he  has  grown. 

Conrath’s  Early. — Vines,  very  thrifty  and  large;  spines,  strong; 
flavor,  fair. 

Cromwell. — A strong  growing,  productive  variety. 

Gregg. — Well  and  favorably  known  as  one  of  the  best  late  black  - 
caps.  f ■ ! ! M [ _ j } 

Hansell. — A bright  red,  early  berry;  valued  chiefly  for  its  earli- 
ness. i { j j | [!|  • ! 

Hopkins. — Vines  of  medium  growth;  fruit  of  fair  size  and  good 
quality;  quite  productive. 

Kansas. — Vines,  very  large,  with  many  spines;  very  early  and 
generally  productive  ; fruit  somewhat  seedy. 


228 


Mystery, — Bushes,  medium  to  large;  fruit  of  fair  size;  not  of  good 
quality. 

Nemeha. — A very  reliable  variety,  closely  resembling  the  Gregg, 
but  think  it  rather  more  desirable  and  destined  to  supplant  that  kind. 

Ohio. — One  of  the  most  productive  of  the  early  kinds.  Of  ex- 
cellent quality  and  fine  appearance. 

Older. — Vines  very  vigorous  and  very  productive;  fruit  of  large 
size  and  good  quality,  and  the  fruiting  season  is  a very  long  one. 
Rather  too  soft  for  shipment,  but  excellent  for  the  near  market  and 
for  home  use.  The  most  productive  of  the  black-caps  grown  at  the 
station  the  past  season. 

Palmer. — Very  vigorous,  very  early  and  generally  productive. 
One  of  our  trial  stations  reports  it  as  being  the  most  productive  of  a 
number  of  popular  kinds  tried  the  past  year. 

Progress. — Very  similar  to  Palmer  in  appearance,  but  a little 
later  in  ripening. 

Shaffer. — An  old,  reliable  and  productive  berry  that  is  very  desir- 
able for  canning.  Its  dull  color  makes  it  a poor  berry  to  sell. 

Smith’s  Giant. — Very  late  in  season,  and  consequently  suffered 
badly  from  the  drouth.  Plants  made  a good  growth  and  set  consid- 
erable fruit  which  failed  to  mature. 

Smith’s  Prolific. — Vines,  good  size;  fruit,  medium  too  late  in  sea- 
son, a little  seedy  and  dry. 

Wade. — Of  fair  quality,  but  not  very  productive. 

Wonder. — Fruit,  very  poor;  vines,  not  vigorous. 

TABLE  LXXI.— Raspberries.— Variety  Tests  of  those  which  increase  by 

sucKering'. 


VARIETIES. 

Date  of 
Blooming. 

i 

i 

Date  of  First 
Picking. 

Date  of  Last 
Picking. 

Quality  (scale 
0 to  10). 

| Firmness 

(scale  Oto  10). 

Vigor  (scale  0 
to  10). 

Productiveness 
| (scaletO  to  10). 

June. 

July. 

July. 

Caroline 1 

I 6 

7 1 

28 

7 

4 

! 6 

5 

Champlain  

12 

9 

24 

9 

8 

7 

Clark 

10 

7 

28 

9 

*8 

9 

8 

Outhbert  

10 

9 

27 

9 

9 

9 

8 

Gladstone  

12 

7 

25 

4 

4 

10 

3 

Golden  Queen 

10 

9 

26 

9 

9 

9 

8 

Hansell  

10 

9 1 

28 

9 

9 

7 

9 

Kenyon’s  Seedling 

2 

12 

24 

7 

9 

9 

9 

Marlboro  

8 

6 

28 

6 

10 

7 

9 

•Reliance  

10 

10 

5 

9 

5 

Royal  Church 

5 

15  1 

| 24 

7 

6 

10 

. • 

•Superlative 

10 

9 

| 20 

5 

Thompson’s  Early 

10  1 

9 

| 24 

*9 

8 

9 

*8 

•Very  badly  affected  with  “Leaf  Curl  ” 


229 


NOTES  ON  THE  VARIETIES  OF  RASPBERRIES  WHICH  ARE 
PROPAGATED  BY  SUCKERS. 

Caroline. — Golden  yellow  color.  Vines,  low  and  bushy.  It  sets 
large  quantities  of  fruit,  which  is  rather  acid. 

Champlain. — Nearly  white  in  color  and  rather  sweet;  foliage,  very 
heavy  and  dark.  Vines  very  bushy  and  heavy.  Not  sufficiently  pro- 
ductive here  to  be  of  any  value. 

Clark.  — Bushes,  medium  size;  flavor  of  fruit  very  good.  A very 
good  variety  for  general  planting. 

Cutlibert. — An  old,  popular  variety  that  does  well  where  it  is 
healthy.  In  some  sections  it  is  badly  diseased. 

Golden  Queen. — Bushes,  medium  in  size,  productive;  fruit  large? 
golden  yellow  in  color  and  of  good  quality. 

Kenyon’s  Seedling. — Bushes,  medium  in  size,  quite  vigorous;  fruit, 
quite  large  and  firm,  but  crumbles  a little;  color,  deep  dark  red; 
quite  productive  on  bushes  that  were  large  enough  to  bear  well. 
Berries  cling  to  the  stems  very  closely  and  must  be  well  ripened  be- 
fore they  will  separate;  flavor,  fair. 

Logan. — Received  from  California  in  spring  of  1894.  Growth, 
very  vigorous.  In  appearance  it  closely  resembles  the  dewberry,  and 
is  propagated  the  same  way.  The  foliage  is  of  a dark  purplish  color 
and  very  healthy.  Have  not  fruited  it. 

Marlboro. — Perhaps  the  most  valuable  of  all  red  raspberries  for 
market,  although  of  inferior  quality.  Careful  attention,  however, 
should  be  given  to  having  all  the  sets  of  the  plant  very  healthy,  as 
it  is  quite  liable  to  the  disease  known  as  leaf  curl. 

Reliance. — Our  plants  of  this  kind  have  become  badly  diseased 
with  the  leaf  curl. 

Royal  Church. — Vines  recently  planted  are  very  vigorous  and 
healthy.  But  very  little  fruit  produced,  and  that  seemed  to  have  a 
tendency  to  crumble. 

Superlative. — Judging  from  its  appearance  heie,  I think  it  one 
of  the  most  worthless  varieties  ever  sent  out. 

Thompson’s  Early. — Vines,  healthy  and  vigorous;  fruit,  of  good 
size  and  color  and  very  sweet;  quite  productive.  It  seems  to  be  a 
promising  early  variety. 

Turner. — A reliable,  well  known  variety,  especially  desirable  for 
home  use,  and  recommended  as  best  for  severe  locations. 


230 


CANE  EXIST  OF  RASPBERRIES  (ANTHRACNOSE). 

On  account  of  the  adverse  season  of  1894,  the  cane  rust  (anthrac- 
nose)  and  the  disease  commonly  known  as  “leaf  curl”  were  unusu- 
ally destructive,  and  in  some  sections  of  the  state  seriously  lessened 
or  destroyed  the  crop.  Some  varieties  are  much  more  subject  to 
these  diseases  than  others,  and  few,  if  any,  kinds  are  entirely  exempt, 
from  them.  Cane  rust  is  probably  always  present  in  a small  way  in 
raspberry  plantations  (see  Fig.  8),  but  in  average  seasons  vigorous 


FIG.  8.  Raspberry  Cane  Affected  with  Cane  Rust. 


plants  are  able  to  resist  the  disease  and  mature  a crop  of  fruit,  while 
in  very  dry  seasons  the  plants  cannot  perfect  the  fruit,  the  wood  for 
the  next  year  and  the  disease,  and  as  a consequence  the  fruit  is  the 
part  that  is  especially  liable  to  suffer.  A peculiar  trait  of  this  dis- 
ease is  that  it  does  not  seem  to  affect  the  vigor  of  growth  of  the 
young  canes,  but  injures  the  crop  just  when  it  is  ripening.  Experi- 
ments are  in  progress  at  the  station  in  combating  these  diseases, 
and  we  seem  to  have  been  quite  successful  in  preventing  the  cane 
rust  (anthracnose). 


231 


Treatment  for  Cane  Rust  of  Raspberries. — Judging  from  the  re- 
sult of  experiments  in  the  prevention  of  cane  rust  at  the  University 
Farm  and  elsewhere,  it  would  seem  that  the  most  rational  treatment 
for  it  is  as  follows  : 

In  the  spring,  before  the  canes  start,  spray  them  with  a solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper  (blue  vitriol)  made  by  dissolving  one  pound  of  it 
in  fifteen  gallons  of  water.  Later,  spray  the  new  canes  with  Bordeaux 
mixture,  probably  about  three  times,  at  intervals  of  about  two  weeks, 
commencing  as  soon  as  the  new  canes  are  one  foot  high.  Care  should 
be  taken  not  to  get  the  Bordeaux  mixture  on  the  leaves  of  the  fruit- 
bearing canes,  as  they  are  quite  liable  to  be  burned  by  it. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Bulletin  No.  40. 


AGRICULTURAL  DIVISION. 

DECEMBER,  1894. 


GRAIN  AND  FORAGE  CROPS. 

Corn,  variety  tests,  Silage  of  Flint,  Sweet,  Southern  Ensilage  and  Dent,  compar- 
ed as  food  for  dairy  cows,  improved  varieties,  corn  cultivation  and  cultivator 
trials,  listing,  hilling,  pruning  the  roots  of  corn;  Wheat,  variety  tests,  varie- 
ties chosen  for  propagation,  varieties  originated  by  selection,  crossing  and 
selecting;  Barley,  variety  tests;  Flax,  variety  tests;  Field  Peas,  variety 
tests;  Millet,  variety  tests;  Succotash  of  oats  and  wheat  grown  together; 
Oats,  methods  of  seeding,  rolling  to  prevent  lodging;  Hay,  production  by 
seeding  annual  fodder  crops;  Seeding  Implement  Tests;  Wheat,  Oats, 
Barley  and  Flax,  time  and  depth  of  seeding;  Field  Management  and 
Rotation  of  Crops,  Smut  in  Wheat,  blue  stone  sprinkling  and  dipping 
methods  and  hot  water  treatment. 


ST.  ANTHONY  PARK,  RAMSEY  CO., 
MINNESOTA . 


ST.  PAUL: 

The  Pioneer  Press  Co., 
189*;. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA 


BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  HON.  JOHN  S.  PILLSBURY,  Minneapolis,  .....  1896 

The  HON.  GREENLEAF  CLARK,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul, 1900 

The  HON.  CUSHMAN  K.  DAVIS,  M.  A.,  St.  Paul,  ....  1900 

The  HON.  WM.  H.  YALE,  Winona, 1896 

The  HON.  JOEL  P.  HEATHWOLE,  Northfield, 1897 

The  HON.  O.  P.  STEARNS,  Duluth, 1896 

The  HON.  WILLIAM  M.  LIGGETT,  Benson, 1897 

The  HON.  S.  M.  OWEN,  Minneapolis, 1895 

The  HON.  STEPHEN  MAHONEY,  B.  A.,  Minneapolis,  . . . 1895 

The  HON.  KNUTE  NELSON,  St.  Paul, Ex  Officio. 

The  Governor  of  the  State. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PENDERGAST,  M.  A.,  Hutchinson,  . . .Ex  Officio 

The  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

CYRUS  NORTHROP,  LL.  D.,  Minneapolis, Ex  Officio. 

The  President  of  the  University. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  HON.  WM.  M.  LIGGETT,  Chairman. 
The  HON.  J.  S.  PILLSBURY. 

The  HON  S.  M.  OWEN. 

The  HON.  W.  W.  PENDERGAST. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

WM.  M.  LIGGETT,  ..........  Chairman. 

WILLET  M.  HAYS,  B.  S.  A.,  . . . Vice  Chairman  and  Agriculturist. 

SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  B.  S., Horticulturist. 

OTTO  LUGGER,  Ph.  D.,  Entomologist  and  Botanist. 

HARRY  SNYDER,  B.  S Chemist. 

T.  L.  HAECKER,  Dairy  Husbandary . 

M.  H.  REYNOLDS,  M.  D.,  V.  M., Veterinarian. 

THOS.  SHAW,  .........  Animal  Husbandry . 

J.  A.  VYE, Secretary. 

ANDREW  BOSS,  ........  Farm  Foreman. 


The  bulletins  of  this  station  are  mailed  free  to  all  residents  of  the  state  who 
make  application  for  them. 


FORAGE  AND  GRAIN  CROPS. 


WII/LET  M.  HAYS. 

Experience  with  field  crops  and  the  management  of  lands  in 
1894  has  illustrated  the  need  of  repeating  experiments  several  times 
in  order  to  obtain  results  of  much  value.  The  excessively  dry  sum- 
mer season  maue  valueless  at  least  fifty  per  cent  of  the  trials  begun 
and  lessened  the  value  of  most  of  the  others  at  the  University  Farm. 
Nearly  every  crop  grown  on  the  200  acres  of  tillable  land  on  the 
University  Farm  was  in  some  way  experimented  with,  while  on  over 
one-third  of  the  cultivated  area  the  land  was  divided  into  plots. 
The  labor  of  attending  to  these  several  hundred  plots  was  nearly 
all  done  by  young  men  who  attended  the  School  and  College  of 
Agriculture  during  winter  and  were  employed  at  farm  wages  dur- 
ing summer.  Never  before  had  I observed  such  a faithful,  trust- 
worthy and  efficient  lot  of  farm  hands  at  work  together.  The 
School  of  Agriculture  dignifies  labor,  and  these  young  men  were 
examples  daily  of  the  fact  that  our  school  is  giving  to  the  state  a 
class  of  trained  enthusiasts  in  farming.  Mr.  Warren  W.  Pender- 
gast  and  Mr.  Wm.  G.  Smith,  two  graduates  of  the  School  of  Agri- 
culture and  now  juniors  in  the  college  course  in  agriculture,  did 
especially  efficient  and  intelligent  service  in  the  management  of 
experiments  and  in  the  careful  work  of  breeding  farm  crops.  Each 
was  given  a month’s  experience  as  foreman  of  the  farm,  and  each 
proved  able  to  handle  men  and  care  for  business.  Mr.  Andrew 
Boss,  the  farm  foreman,  had  immediate  charge  of  most  of  the  de- 
tails of  the  experiments  of  the  division,  and  greatly  assisted  in 
planning  and  in  compiling  and  arranging  the  tabular  matter  of  the 
following  reports.  His  accuracy  and  efficiency  are  worthy  of  most 
hearty  commendation.  In  the  study  of  rotation  of  crops,  Prof. 
Harry  Snyder  has  joined  me,  and  the  experiments  somewhat  as 
outlined  in  the  last  part  of  this  report  will  be  carried  out  by  the 


234 


divisions  of  agriculture  and  chemistry.  In  the  spring  of  1894  the 
board  of  managers  of  the  State  Farmers’  Institutes  rented  of  Supt. 
O.  C.  Gregg  his  360  acre  farm  in  Lyon  county  and  turned  it  over 
free  to  the  experiment  station.  Under  the  terms  of  the  lease  Super- 
intendent Gregg  furnished  teams,  machinery  and  all  other  equip- 
ments needed.  Mr.  T.  A.  Hoverstad,  a graduate  of  the  school  and 
of  the  college  courses,  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  experiments,  and 
Mr.  Gregg  also  was  able  to  spend  a large  part  of  the  summer  at  the 
farm.  Here  a few  hundred  plots  were  devoted  to  experiments,  and 
in  spite  of  late  seeding,  caused  partly  by  the  strike  on  the  Great 
Northern  Railway,  a fairly  large  per  cent  of  the  experiments  were 
successful.  The  arrangements  for  renting  the  farm  were  not  per- 
fected until  rather  late  in  the  season.  Many  of  the  experiments 
were  duplicates  of  those  under  way  at  the  University  Farm.  The 
results  have  been  incorporated  in  the  following  report  with  those 
of  the  trials  at  St.  Anthony  Park,  and  are  designated  as  from 
“Coteau  Farm,”  the  name  by  which  Mr.  Gregg’s  homestead  is  known. 
While  the  farm  was  in  good  condition,  the  first  year’s  work  on  it 
was,  as  a matter  of  necessity,  in  part,  spent  in  planning  and  ar- 
ranging for  the  future.  The  land  is  fertile  and  proved  quite  uni- 
form and  well  adapted  to  plot  work.  Here  we  hope  to  make  promi- 
nent the  experiments  in  conserving  moisture  in  our  soil  in  drought, 
the  production  of  grasses  and  annual  forage  crops,  and  to  demon- 
strate practical  and  new  facts  regarding  field  and  farm  management. 
Mr.  Hoverstad  has  shown  his  fitness  lor  managing  experiment  work, 
and  our  thanks  are  due  Superintendent  Gregg  for  his  enthu- 
siastic aid  and  valuable  co-operation.  This  work  was  so  managed 
that  a net  cost  to  the  station  of  less  than  $500  was  incurred  during 
the  first  year. 

Good  progress  has  been  made  in  the  testing  of  varieties  of 
wheats,  corn,  oats,  and  other  staple  crops,  and  now  that  we  have  a 
number  of  tests  of  each  variety  and  have  determined  what  are  best,, 
the  proper  thing  seems  to  be  to  propagate  these  in  quantities  to 
distribute  to  the  farmers.  Choice  seed  of  a few  kinds  of  dent  corn 
is  already  on  hand,  and  in  a very  few  years  we  can  have  fairly  largp 
quantities  of  the  best  spring  wheats  which  we  have  been  able  to- 
find  in  the  world.  In  like  manner,  choice  varieties  of  other  crops 
can  soon  be  produced  in  quantities  large  enough  to  distribute  to 
many  farmers.  Not  content  with  the  best  kinds  of  corn,  wdieat,  oats, 
barley,  field  peas,  timothy,  etc.,  which  the  world  affords,  we  have 


235 


well  under  way  numerous  new  varieties  produced  by  selection  and 
by  a combination  of  crossing  and  selection.  The  best  of  these  newly 
originated  sorts  will  be  tried  in  comparison  with  kinds  collected 
from  every  available  source  which  have  proved  best,  and  if  found 
superior  the  new  kinds  will  be  grown  in  quantity  for  distribution 
to  farmers  of  the  state.  The  secretary  of  agriculture  has  recom- 
mended to  congress  in  his  last  annual  report  that  the  government  fur- 
nish each  state  with  its  proportion  of  the  money  now  expended  for 
seeds  and  allow  the  experiment  stations  the  franking  privilege,  that 
they  might  thus  be  able  to  send  out  improved  seeds  grown  especially 
for  the  conditions  prevailing  in  each  state.  AYith  the  start  we  already 
have  at  obtaining  and  breeding  superior  varieties  we  could  at  once 
make  excellent  use  of  the  share  of  the  money  that  would  come  to  this 
state.  The  distribution  of  seeds  on  the  plan  here  outlined  has  done 
much  in  Canadian  provinces  and  territories  to  increase  the  average 
yield  of  crops  for  the  entire  Dominion. 


VARIETIES  OF  CORX  FOR  MIXXESOTA. 

A study  of  the  varieties  of  corn  adapted  to  the  wants  and  con- 
ditions of  Minnesota  farmers,  begun  in  1888,  was  seriously  inter- 
fered with  in  the  fall  of  1890  by  the  destruction  by  fire  of  many  of 
the  notes  and  a stock  of  carefully  selected  seed  of  varieties  gathered 
in  previous  years.  A partial  collection  of  seed  was  again  made  in 
1891,  when  about  twenty-five  varieties  were  tried.  The  best  of  these 
were  used  and  more  good  varieties  have  since  been  collected.  Table 
LXXII.  shows  the  yield  of  those  found  best  through  a series  of  years 
and  others  more  recently  procured  to  test  with  them.  The  farmers 
of  the  southern  one-third  of  the  state  want  for  field  culture,  for  grain 
and  fodder,  medium  sized  dent  varieties  of  corn,  which  will  ripen 
by  the  15th  to  20th  of  September  and  will  yield  a large  amount  of 
grain.  The  stover  can  be  produced  so  cheaply  with  the  grain  that 
especial  attention  to  the  yield  of  stover  in  these  varieties  hardly 
needs  consideration.  The  larger  flint  varieties  and  the  few  large 
sweet  varieties  are  useful  in  special  cases  in  the  southern  one-third 
of  the  state,  as  on  wet,  cold  soils,  and  in  situations  not  so  well 
suited  to  the  growth  of  corn  as  are  most  parts  of  that  section.  The 
large  sweet  varieties  seem  especially  well  suited  to  grow  for  silage 
and  for  fodder  where  a large  yield  only  of  coarse  forage  is  desired. 
Where  corn  is  grown  for  ears,  however,  the  dent  varieties  are  the 


236 


best  we  have  found.  A crop  of  dent  corn  is  generally  made  up  of 
nearly  one-half  ears,  while  a crop  of  the  much  branching  sweet  or 
flint  corn  is  only  about  one-third  ears  and  two-thirds  fodder.  Dent 
varieties  are  much  easier  husked  than  flint  corn,  though  much  de- 
pends upon  the  variety  in  each  class.  For  the  central  third  of  the  state 
some  of  the  very  earliest  dent  varieties  of  corn  are  suitable  for  grow- 
ing on  good  arable  lands  in  rotation  with  small  cereals.  But  the 
larger  and  medium-sized  flint  varieties  will,  as  a rule,  be  quite  as 
profitable  in  this  section.  They  ripen  earlier  and  make  a large 
amount  of  fodder  per  acre.  Medium-sized  sweet  varieties,  which 
ripen  fairly  early,  can  also  be  developed  into  most  useful  fodder  crops 
for  the  center  of  the  state. 

For  the  northern  third  of  Minnesota  small,  early  maturing  flint 
and  sweet  varieties  of  corn  give  the  best  results  for  fodder,  and 
even  for  grain.  For  growing  thickly  for  fodder,  varieties  much  larger 
than  those  grown  for  grain  and  fodder  combined  can  be  used.  Small, 
early  varieties  of  dent  corn  may  be  found  which  are  good  yielders  of 
grain  and  of  fodder. 

All  our  farmers  should  pay  more  attention  to  corn,  and  learn 
how  it  will  make  cheap  fodder  and  grain,  even  in  the  most  north- 
ern sections  of  the  state;  and,  what  is  nearly  as  important,  that  it 
leaves  the  land  in  better  condition  for  wheat  and  other  small  grains 
than  does  even  the  summer  fallow.  Seed  of  varieties  best  suited  to 
northern  sections  for  fodder  can  best  be  grown  in  central  or  south- 
ern Minnesota.  Some  arrangement  should  be  perfected  by  wThich 
reliable  seedsmen,  or  other  reliable  parties,  will  know  what  kind  of 
seed  is  wanted  in  each  section  of  the  state,  so  that  farmers  in  each 
section  will  be  sure  of  getting  the  seed  corn  best  adapted  to  their 
needs.  In  the  northern  sections  they  can  raise  their  own  seed  of  the 
small,  early  varieties  during  years  when  early  frosts  do  not  occur. 

It  has  been  our  general  experience  that  flint  and  sweet  varieties 
produce  more  fodder  than  dent  varieties,  though  they  generally  yield 
less  grain.  Last  year  the  yields  were  much  lessened  by  the  drought. 
Some  years  since  experiments  were  conducted  with  dent,  sweet,  flint 
and  southern  corn  for  silage,  but  the  report  has  awaited  further 
experiments  on  varieties  before  publication  and  is  given  below. 

In  Table  LXXII.  are  shown  the  yields  of  varieties  of  corn  we  now 
have  on  hand.  Nos.  5,  6,  7 and  13  are  proving  superior  varieties, 
having  yielded  well  through  a series  of  years.  Of  some  of  these  we 
are  growing  large  quantities  of  seed,  and  hope  to  be  able  to  sell  or 
to  distribute  free  in  the  near  future. 


TABLE  LXXII.— Corn,  Variety  Tests. 


237 


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Long  Sweet. 


238 


SILAGE  OF  FLINT,  SWEET,  SOUTHERN  AND  DENT  CORN  COMPARED. 

In  1888  this  station  began  experiments  to  compare  the  various 
classes  and  varieties  of  corn  for  silage  adapted  to  Minnesota.  In 
a report  of  the  work  for  that  year  the  belief  was  expressed  that  “it 
is  best  to  grow  for  silage  in  each  latitude  those  kinds  of  dent  corn 
which  are  slightly  too  large  to  ripen  but  will  become  mature  enough 
for  silage,  or  will  reach  the  glazing  stage.”  Far  northward  the  hint 
varieties  which  will  reach  this  stage  may  be  used  for  silage,  thus 
pushing  the  corn  belt  far  beyond  its  present  line.  Further  experi- 
ments made  during  subsequent  years  go  to  substantiate  this  state- 
ment. Some  of  the  large  sweet  varieties  would  also  seem  worthy 
of  use  for  silage  in  the  southern  half  of  the  state,  and  some  small 
earlier  ripening  sweet  sorts  would  doubtless  serve  this  purpose  to  the 
northward.  Bather  larger,  later  maturing  varieties  of  dent  corn  than 
any  mentioned  in  Table  LXXII.  may  be  used  for  silage,  though  several 
varieties  of  dent  and  hint  com  there  described  yield  well  for  silage. 

In  1889  dent  and  hint  corn  were  grown  in  check-row  hills  in  the 
ordinary  held  way,  while  southern  ensilage  corn  was  grown  in  drills 
forty  inches  apart  and  stalks  averaging  eight  inches  apart  in  the 
rows.  The  varieties  of  dent  and  hint  corn  used  were  those  known 
to  ripen  in  this  neighborhood  a little  before  frosts.  The  dent  and 
hint  each  yielded  nine  and  three-fourths  tons  of  well  eared  silage  per 
acre,  while  the  southern  ensilage  corn  yielded  twenty-one  and  a 
half  tons  of  green  fodder  per  acre.  The  southern  ensilage  corn  con- 
tained 18.57  per  cent  of  water-free  substance,  while  the  fresh  dent 
silage  contained  23.17  per  cent  of  water-free  substance.  The  an- 
alysis of  the  hint  silage,  together  with  material  for  other  analyses, 
and  other  notes,  were  destroyed  by  the  burning  of  the  station  office. 
As  the  hint  silage  had  within  a fraction  of  one  per  cent  of  the  same 
dry  matter  as  the  dent  silage  the  same  figure  is  used.  Notes  of 
variety  tests  for  yield  per  acre  in  1889  and  1890,  including  more  than 
forty  varieties,  were  also  burned.  The  three  kinds  of  silage  were 
fed  to  cows  to  determine  their  relative  value  in  the  production  of 
butter  and  milk.  To  Group  I.,  composed  of  six  Holstein-Friesian 
cows,  the  southern  ensilage  corn  of  1889  was  fed  in  1890  in  com- 
parison with  silage  of  dent  corn.  To  Group  II.,  composed  of  one 
Shorthorn,  one  Jersey  and  one  grade  Guernsey  cow,  silage  of  hint 
corn  was  fed  to  compare  with  silage  of  dent  corn.  These  Holstein- 
Friesian  cows,  in  Group  T.,  were  kindlv  loaned  the  station  by  S.  Les- 
lie, Waseca,  Minn.,  who  loaned  Chuckle  No.  4:  T).  E.  Branham,  Litch- 


239 


field,  who  loaned  Speerstra  and  Sig  Hedrikje  2d,  Nos.  1 and  2;  I.  C. 
Wade,  Jamestown,  N.  D.,  who  loaned  Vinnie  3d  and  Nadine  Abbe* 
kirk,  Nos.  3 and  5,  and  N.  J.  Leavitt,  Waseca,  Minn.,  who  loaned 
Graceful,  marked  “ G ” in  Table  A;  H.  F.  Brown,  Minneapolis,  Minn., 
furnished  the  Shorthorn  cow,  Bell  Brown  No.  7,  in  Group  II. ; W.  D. 
Kichardson,  Garden  City,  Minn.,  loaned  a grade  Guernsey  No.  14, 
and  D.  W.  Casseday  of  Hutchinson  loaned  Hazel,  a Jersey  grade 
No.  15.  The  thanks  of  the  station  are  due  all  these  men. 

The  silage  was  fed  with  a given  proportion  of  grain  and  other 
fodder.  The  silage  of  dent  corn  was  used  as  a basis  with  which  to 
compare  both  of  the  other  kinds  of  corn.  Each  of  the  two  groups 
of  cows  was  fed  during  three  periods  of  twenty-one  days,  with  pre- 
liminary periods  of  seven  or  more  days.  The  dent  corn  was  fed 
during  the  first  and  third  periods  to  each  group.  During  the  second 
period  Group  I.  had  southern  ensilage  corn  silage  and  Group  H.  had 
flint  corn  silage.  By  this  method  the  average  results  of  the  first 
and  third  periods  were  compared  with  the  results  of  the  second 
period.  Since  the  cows  were  gradually  falling  off  in  milk  and  butter 
yield,  as  they  got  farther  along  in  the  period  of  lactation,  this  plan 
gave  a fair  comparison  of  the  two  kinds  of  silage  fed  to  either  group 
of  cows.  A year  later  silage  of  dent,  sweet  and  southern  ensilage 
corn  were  compared  in  the  same  way  as  is  reported  herewith. 

SOUTHERN  ENSILAGE  VS.  DENT  CORN  FOR  SILAGE. 

Group  I.  was  given,  during  the  first  and  third  periods,  all  the  cows 
would  eat  in  three  feeds  per  day  of  a ration  made  up  as  follows : 


Silage  of  dent  corn 40  pounds 

Bran 8 pounds 

Oil  cake 2 pounds 

Timothy  hay 3 pounds 


Previous  experience  and  reason  taught  that  more  of  the  southern 
corn  silage  should  be  given  during  the  second  period  than  was  put 
in  the  ration  above  of  the  dent  corn,  which  contained  considerable 
grain.  As  the  percentages  of  dry  matter,  23.17  and  18.57,  were  prac- 
tically as  five  is  to  four,  fifty  pounds  of  the  silage  of  southern  corn 
were  put  with  the  eight  pounds  bran,  two  pounds  oil  cake  and  three 
pounds  timothy  in  the  second  period  in  place  of  the  forty  pounds 
of  dent  silage  fed  in  the  first  and  third  periods.  The  feeding  was 
very  carefully  done  by  Charles  Iverr,  herdsman,  and  very  little  irreg- 
ularity occurred.  At  the  end  of  the  first  periods  and  during  the  pre- 


240 


TABLE  LXXIIL— Group  I.— Six  Holstein-Friesian  Cows. 

Fed  First  and  Third  Periods  a Ration  of  Forty  Pounds  Dent  Corn  Silage , Eight  Pounds 
Brany  Three  Pounds  Timothy  Hay  ( Chaffed)  and  Two  Pounds  Oil  Meal.  Fed  During 
the  Second  Period  Fifty  Pounds  Silage  of  Southern  Ensilage  Corn  in  Place  of  Forty 
Pounds  Dent  Corn  Silage  Fed  in  Periods  1 and  3. 

FIRST  PERIOD.— *J ANUARY  13TH  TO  FEBRUARY  2D. 


Number. 

Feed  Given. 

Milk  Given. 

Total  Butter  Fats. 

No.  1 

1,498 

708.25 

29.18 

No.  2 

1,330 

824.25 

28.93 

No.  3 

1,392 

624.75 

24.30 

No.  4 

1,329 

652.00 

26.08 

No.  5 

1,384 

527.00 

21.61 

No.  G 

1,684 

946.00 

33.01 

Totals 

8,617 

4, 282.25 

163.11 

SECOND  PERIOD.— FEBRUARY  18TH  TO  MARCH  10TH. 


No.  1 

1,928 

653.00 

25.47 

No.  2 

1,746 

1,811 

772.25 

26.87 

No.  3 

555.00 

21.64 

No.  4 

1,687 

505.5 

18.70 

No.  5 

1,251 

418.25 

16.94 

No.  G 

1,987 

749.5 

27.73 

Totals 

10,410 

1 

3,  653.5 

1 

137.35 

THIRD  PERIOD.— MARCH  18TH  TO  APRIL  7TH. 


No.  1 

1,554 

610.75 

26.27 

No.  2 

1,091 

648.75 

23.48 

No.  3 

1,491 

587.5 

23.03 

No.  4 

1,364 

489.00 

19.90 

No.  5 

1,312 

461.25 

18.37 

No.  G 

1,607 

724.75 

27.83 

Totals 

8, 419 

3, 555.00 

138.88 

Summary. 


Feed 

Given. 

Milk 

Given. 

Total  But- 
ter Fats. 

Lbs.  Feed 
to  1 Lb. 
Milk. 

Lbs.  Feed 
to  1 Lb. 
Butter. 

Lbs.  Milk 
to  1 Lb. 
Butter. 

Periods  1 and  3 (dent  corn) 

Period  2 (southern  ensilage  corn) 

17,  036 
10,410 

7,837.25 
3,  653.5 

302.0 

137.4 

2.17 

56.4 

25.95 

Summary. 

Silage  in  Period  2 reduced  to  same  dryness  as  in  Periods  1 and  3. 


Periods  1 and  3 (dent  corn) 

17, 036 
*8, 758 

7,837.25 

302.0 

2.17 

56.4 

25.95 

Period  2 (southern  ensilage  corn) 

3, 653.5 

137.4 

2.4 

63.7 

26.6 

♦The  water  in  the  daily  ration  in  Period  2,  when  southern  corn  silage  was  used,  was  more  than 
when  dent  corn  silage  was  fed  in  the  first  and  third  periods,  and  is  here  simply  eliminated  to  get  a com- 
parison of  dry  matter  of  silage,  the  grains  and  hay,  making  up  the  rest  of  the  ration,  remaining  the  same 
in  either  case. 


241 


TABLE  LXXIV.— Group  Ill.-Six  Native  Cows. 

Fed  First  and  Third  Periods  Dent  Corn  and  Second  Period  Southern  Corn  Silage  with  Grain 
and  Hay  same  as  Group  I. 

FIRST  PERIOD.— DECEMBER  27TH  TO  JANUARY  7TH,  INCLUSIVE. 


Number. 

Feed  Given. 

Milk  Given. 

Total  Butter  Fats. 

No.  4 

780 

239.25 

9.69 

No.  5 

612 

214.25 

9.86 

No  6 

720 

202.00 

7.53 

No.  7 

792 

256.00 

11.26 

No.  8 

792 

221.75 

9.98 

No.  9 

693 

205.25 

9.95 

Totals 

4,339 

1,338.5 

58.27 

SECOND  PERIOD.— JANUARY  14TH  TO  25TH,  INCLUSIVE. 


No.  4 

834 

239.00 

8.60 

No.  5 

713 

214.75 

8.22 

No.  6 

692 

161.25 

6.84 

No.  7 

900 

233.00 

9.44 

No.  8 

900 

197.5 

7.80 

No.  9 

784 

195.5 

8.60 

Totals 

4,823 

1,241 

49.5 

THIRD  PERIOD.— JANUARY  30TH  TO  FEBRUARY  10TH,  INCLUSIVE. 


No.  4 

766 

230.00 

8.74 

No.  5 

612 

205.00 

8.28 

No.  6 

640 

179.00 

7.52 

No.  7 

827 

233.25 

9.45 

No.  8 

827 

196.00 

8.23 

No.  9 

720 

189.5 

7.71 

Totals 

4,  392 

1,232.75 

49.93 

Summary, 


Feed 

Given. 

Milk 

Given. 

Total  But 
ter  Fats. 

Lbs.  Feed 
to  1 Lb. 
Milk. 

Lbs.  Feed 
to  1 Lb. 
Butter. 

Lbs.  Milk 
to  1 Lb. 
Butter. 

Dent  corn  silage  (Periods  1 and  3) 

8,781 
*4, 057 

2, 571 
1,241 

108.2 

3.4 

81.1 

23.8 

Southern  ensilage  corn  silage  (Period  2).. 

49.5 

3.3 

82.0 

25.1 

*Silage  in  Period  2 reduced  to  same  dryness  as  in  Period  1. 


liminary  feeding  for  the  second  period  one  or  two  cows  were  quite 
seriously  “off  their  feed,”  and  in  one  or  two  cases  during  the  course 
of  the  second  period  there  was  slight  indisposition,  but  on  the  whole 
these  Holstein-Friesian  cows  sustained  the  hardy  good  feeding  .repu- 
tation for  which  the  breed  is  noted. 

The  comparison  of  dent  versus  southern  corn  silage  was  again 
made  with  corn  grown  in  1890.  Six  “native”  cows,  picked  up  in 


242 


Swift  county  by  Col.  W.  M.  Liggett  to  supply  milk  for  the  school, 
were  fed  during  three  periods  of  twelve  days  each,  and  in  a manner 
similar  to  the  feeding  of  the  six  Holsteins  during  the  previous  win- 
ter. The  cows  stood  this  ration  well,  and  gave  a fair  test  of  the 
two  feeds  as  summarized  below.  Here  again,  as  the  relation  of  the 
dry  matter  in  the  two  was  about  as  five  is  to  four,  fifty  pounds  of 
southern  corn  silage  in  the  second  period  replaced  forty  pounds  of 
dent  silage  in  periods  one  and  three. 

Above  is  a summarized  statement  of  food  eaten,  milk  given  and 
butter  yield  as  calculated  from  chemical  analysis  of  the  milk,  and  also 
other  summaries  of  the  results. 

FLINT  VS.  DENT  COHN  SILAGE. 

To  compare  silage  of  dent  and  flint  corn,  Group  n.,  composed  of 
three  cows,  was  given,  during  the  first  and  third  periods  of  twenty- 
one  days  each,  forty  pounds  dent  silage  grown  in  1889,  eight  pounds 
bran,  two  pounds  oil  cake  and  three  pounds  timothy  hay.  As  the 
flint  corn  silage  had  practically  the  same  percentage  of  dry  matter 
as  the  silage  of  dent  corn  forty  pounds  of  flint  corn  silage  were 
given  in  the  second  period  in  place  of  the  forty  pounds  of  dent  corn 
silage.  The  dry  matter  in  both  kinds  of  silage  was  practically 
twenty  per  cent.  The  following  tabular  statement  shows  the  re- 
sults. 

When  tried  in  various  ways  the  cattle  showed  a greater  liking  for 
the  other  kinds  of  silage  than  for  silage  of  flint  com,  though  this 
com  was  cut  when  no  riper  than  the  dent  corn. 

SWE)ET  VS.  DENT  CORN  SILAGE. 

During  the  early  part  of  1891  two  cows  were  fed  silage  of  sweet 
corn  in  comparison  with  silage  of  dent  corn  grown  in  1890.  The 
dent  corn  was  similar  to  that  used  in  the  comparison  with 
southern  ensilage  com  in  two  trials  here  reported  and  the  one  trial 
of  dent  versus  flint  corn  also  reported  here.  As  there  was  little 
difference  (less  than  one  per  cent)  in  the  percentage  of  moisture  in 
these  two  kinds  of  silage,  forty  pounds  of  sweet  corn  in  the  second 
period  took  the  place  of  the  forty  pounds  of  dent  corn  silage  fed  in 
the  first  and  last  periods,  and  eight  pounds  bran,  three  pounds 
timothy  and  two  pounds  ground  oil  cake  was  the  grain  ration  mixed 
with  the  silage  in  this,  as  in  the  other  cases  above  mentioned.  These 
were  native  cows,  also  purchased  in  Swdft  county. 


243 


TABLE  LXXV.— Group  II.— Flint  vs.  Dent  Corn  Silage. 
FIRST  PERIOD.— JANUARY  17TH  TO  FEBRUARY  6TH,  INCLUSIVE. 


Number. 

Feed  Given. 

Milk  Given. 

Total  Butter  Fats. 

No.  7 

1,218 

913 

582.75 

24.48 

No.  14 

469.25 

23.79 

No.  15 

787 

303.23 

17.61 

Totals 

2,918 

1,355.25 

65.88 

SECOND  PERIOD.— FEBRUARY  18TH  TO  MARCH  10TH,  INCLUSIVE. 


No.  7 

1,448 

526.00 

22.88 

No.  14 

945 

391.75 

19.59 

No.  15 

943 

292.00 

17.08 

Totals 

3,336 

1,209.75 

59.55 

THIRD  PERIOD.— MARCH  18TH  TO  APRIL  7TH,  INCLUSIVE. 


No.  7 

1,335 

513.00 

21.34 

No.  14 

882 

340.25 

19.12 

No.  15 

825 

261.75 

15.36 

Totals 

3, 042 

1,115.00 

55.82 

Summary. 


Feed 

Given. 

Milk 

Given. 

Total  But- 
ter Fats. 

Lbs.  Feed 
to  1 Lb. 
Milk. 

Lbs.  Feed 
to  1 Lb. 
Butter. 

Lbs.  Milk 
to  1 Lb. 
Butter. 

Dent  corn  silage  (Periods  1 and  3) 

5, 960 
3,  336 

2, 470.25 

121 .7 

2.41 

,,  49.00 

20.3 

Flint  corn  silage  (Period  2) 

1,209.75 

59.55 

2.75  * 

**  56.00 

20.3 

SUMMARY. 


1.  A hundred  pounds  of  dry  matter  in  either  dent,  sweet  or 
southern  ensilage  corn  silage  proved  nearly  of  equal  value  for  pro- 
ducing milk  ana  butter  in  tnese  trials,  though  the  advantage  in  all 
cases  was  slightly  in  favor  of  the  silage  of  dent  corn.  This  corn  bore 
a fair  crop  of  ears. 

2.  Flint  corn  silage  did  not  prove  as  good  in  this  one  trial  for 
producing  milk  and  butter  as  dent  corn  silage. 

3.  Cattle  did  not  seem  to  relish  silage  of  flint  corn  as  well  as 
silage  of  the  other  three  classes  of  corn. 

4.  Where  a large  amount  of  silage  is  wanted  from  a small  area 
of  land  to  feed  with  cheap  mill  feeds,  these  results  would  indicate 
that  the  most  feed  can  be  procured  by  using,  in  any  given  locality, 
corn  so  large  that  it  will  barely  pass  the  roasting  ear  stage,  before 
frosts.  Here  large  field  corn  from  the  latitude  of  Missouri  would 
probably  make  the  most  feed  per  acre. 


244 


TABLE  LXXVI.— Group  IV.— Sweet  vs.  Dent  Corn  Silage. 

FIRST  PERIOD.— JANUARY  7TH  TO  18TH,  INCLUSIVE. 


Number. 

Feed  Given. 

Milk  Given. 

Total  Butter  Fats. 

No.  1 

701 

180.75 

7.23 

No.  2 

732 

337.5 

15.18 

Totals 

1,433 

518.25 

22.41 

SECOND  PERIOD.— JANUARY  31ST  TO  FEBRUARY  11TH. 


No.  1 

716 

190.25 

8.31 

No.  2 

827  ‘ 

321.25 

12.11 

Totals 

1,543 

511.5 

20.42 

THIRD  PERIOD.— FEBRUARY  15TH  TO  26TH,  INCLUSIVE. 

No.  1 

699 

176.25 

7.70 

No.  2 

874 

307.75 

12.61 

Totals 

1,564 

484.00 

20.31 

Summary. 


Feed 

Given. 

Milk 

Given. 

Total  But- 
ter Fats. 

Lbs.  Feed 
to  1 Lb. 
Milk. 

Lbs.  Feed 
to  1 Lb. 
Butter. 

Lbs.  Milk 
to  1 Lb. 
Butter. 

Dent  corn  silage  (Periods  1 and  3) 

2,  997 
1,543 

1,  002.25 

42.71 

2.99 

70.2 

23.5 

Sweet  corn  silage  (Period  2). 

511.5 

20.42 

3.02 

< 75.56 

25.5 

TABLE  LXXVII.— Grand  Summary.— Several  Kinds  of  Silage  Compared. 


Kind  of  Silage. 

Feed 

Eaten. 

Milk 

Given. 

Butter 

Fat 

Yielded. 

Lbs.  Feed 
to  1 Lb. 
Milk. 

Lbs.  Feed 
to  1 Lb. 
Butter. 

Lbs.  Milk 
to  1 Lb. 
ButterFat 

Group  1 — 

Dent  corn  ensilage 

17,036 
8, 758 

8,781 

4,057 

5, 960 
3,336 

2, 997 
1,543 

7,837.25 

302.00 

2.17 

56.4 

25.95 

Southern  ensilage 

3, 653.5 

2. 571.00 

1.241.00 

2, 470.25 
1,209.75 

137.4 

2.4 

63.7 

26.6 

Group  3— 

Dent  corn  ensilage 

108.2 

3.4 

81.1 

23.8 

Southern  ensilage 

49.5 

3.3 

82.00 

25.1 

Group  2— 

Dent  corn  ensilage 

121.7 

2.41 

49.00 

20.3 

Flint  corn  ensilage 

59.55 

2.75 

56.00 

20.3 

Group  4— 

Dent  corn  ensilage 

1,002.25 

42.71 

2.99 

70.2 

23.5 

Sweet  corn  ensilage 

511.5 

20.42 

3.02 

75.56 

25.5 

245 


5.  This  large  corn  will  yield  much  feed  if  planted  in  drills  thirty- 
six  to  forty  inches  apart,  the  stalks  averaging  six  to  eight  inches 
apart  in  the  row.  It  can  be  planted  by  means  of  the  ordinary  grain 
drill,  using  only  two  or  three  of  the  hoes  or  shoes.  The  surface  of 
the  ground  should  be  well  pulverized  before  planting  and  the  grain 
put  in  from  two  to  four  inches  deep,  approaching  four  inches  deep 
for  late  planting  or  on  droughty  land,  and  two  inches  deep  for  plant- 
ing early,  or  on  wet,  cold  land.  The  corn  should  be  dragged  every 
few  days  with  a slanting  tooth  or  a Scotch  harrow  until  four  or  six 
inches  high.  To  allow  for  the  harrow  taking  out  a few  plants,  in 
going  over  four  or  five  times,  plant  something  like  one-tenth  more 
seed  than  sufficient  to  make  the  plants  as  thick  as  desired.  When 
the  harrow  must  be  laid  aside  cultivate  medium  shallow  with  two 
horse  cultivator,  say  two  inches  deep  next  to  the  row  and  three 
inches  deep  in  the  middles  between  the  rows,  working  a little  dirt 
toward  the  drills  each  time.  Three  or  at  most  five  times  over  with 
the  cultivator  is  all  the  cultivation  needed  after  thorough  harrow 
work. 

6.  Where,  as  on  most  of  our  Minnesota  farms,  it  is  desired  to 
clean  more  land  of  its  weeds  with  a clean  corn  crop,  and  where  so 
much  mill  feed  cannot  well  be  fed  with  the  silage  (or  corn  stover), 
it  pays  to  grow  in  hills  for  silage  or  for  stover  and  grain,  varieties  of 
corn  that  will  nearly  or  quite  mature  so  as  to  get  more  grain . 

7.  To  raise  this  corn  for  grain  and  stover  or  silage  and  to  keep 
weeds  from  growing,  plant  on  land  well  pulverized  in  spring  to  a 
depth  of  three  or  four  inches — preferably  fall  plowred  six  or  seven 
inches  deep.  Plant  with  two-horse  check  row  planter  or  by  means 
of  a check-off  marker.  Hand  planting  or  hoe  planting,  if  intelligently 
done  (getting  seed  below  the  drag  teeth)  is  nearly  as  good.  Plant 
three  to  five  grains  in  hills  forty-two  to  forty-five  inches  apart  each 
wray.  Harrow  every  three  to  five  days  until  four  to  six  inches  high, 
as  this  is  a cheap  way  to  keep  hills  free  of  weeds.  Cultivate  two 
to  four  inches  deep  three  or  four  times  with  level  or  ordinary  culti- 
vator of  some  kind.  Use  care  to  not  seriously  prune  the  roots.  At 
each  cultivation  work  a little  soil  around  the  hills  to  kill  weeds  just 
starting  there. 

8.  Use  the  corn  in  the  rotation  to  prepare  the  land  for  wheat  or 
other  crop  of  small  gi;ain.  Corn  gets  great  good  and  no  harm  from 
fresh  manure  plowed  under,  thus  enabling  the  farmer  to  rot  his 
manure  in  the  soil  where  it  is  all  saved.  Manure  should  be  scattered 
thinly,  so  it  will  go  over  more  land,  do  more  good  and  no  injury  to 
following  crops  of  wheat  or  oats. 


246 


IMPROVED  VARIETIES  OF  CORN. 

Three  varieties  of  dent  corn  have  been  grown  for  a few  years 
with  a view  of  distributing  them  for  seed.  Each  year  these  varieties 
are  being  carefully  improved  by  selection.  A limited  amount  of  this 
seed  is  now  on  hand,  and  will  be  distributed  or  used  as  seed  for  pro- 
ducing larger  quantities  for  seed  another  year.  In  Bulletin  No.  11 
was  given  a plan  for  improving  dent  and  flint  varieties  for  ears 
and  stover  combined.  While  it  is  of  importance  that  the  experimen  t 
station  find,  improve  and  furnish  or  sell  seeds  to  farmers,  it  is  of 
far  greater  importance  to  show  farmers  of  each  section  how  to  find 
profit  in  improving  corn  and  selling  seed  of  improved  kinds.  The 
essential  facts  in  selecting  corn  may  be  stated  as  follows : Procure 
from  the  experiment  station  or  elsewhere,  possibly  from  your  own 
farm  or  from  a neighbor  farmer,  a kind  that  yields  well.  It  may 
pay  to  try  several  promising  kinds  and  select  only  the  best.  To  do 
this  get  a peck  or  more  of  seed  of  each  kind  and  the  first  year  plant 
only  a few  rows  of  each,  saving  most  of  the  original  seed  pure  with 
which  to  start  the  second  year.  The  varieties  growing  together  in 
trial  plots  become  badly  mixed  by  the  pollen  blowing  from  the 
tassels  of  one  variety  to  the  silks  of  another.  The  grain  is  the  valu- 
able product  in  most  parts  of  the  state.  The  ear,  like  the 
cow's  udder,  is  the  organ  that  must  be  intensified,  and  we  can  change 
this  more  rapidly  than  we  can  the  cow’s  udder,  since  we  have  every 
year  a new  generation  from  which  to  make  selections.  Out  of  the 
chosen  variety  select  the  best  ears  for  seed.  Plant  in  rich  fields 
thirty  or  more  rods  from  other  corn.  Manure  the  land  well,  fall 
plow  thoroughly,  prepare  the  seed  bed  in  fine  condition,  plant  early, 
rather  thinly  and  cultivate  well,  but  not  too  deeply. 

When  the  tassels  begin  to  form  destroy  all  of  them  on  weak 
plants  or  those  promising  only  small  ears,  by  pulling  the  tassels 
out  before  they  have  scattered  pollen.  This  insures  that  pollen 
only  from  good  stalks  furnishes  the  pollen  for  all  ears. 

When  nearly  ripe  go  through  with  basket  and  husk  off  all  the  best 
ears,  saving  out  the  choicest  ears  from  the  choicest  stalks.  Thus 
select  the  ears  in  two  classes,  that  for  general  planting,  and  the 
choicest  for  the  next  year’s  seed  corn  patch  to  be  again  selected 
in  the  same  manner. 

Pick  seed  from  standing  corn,  paying  attention  to  larger  size  or 
especial  earliness  as  seems  wisest,  as  the  earliest  plants  are  not 
always  the  best  yielding  plants.  Select  especially  for  large  yielding 


247 


plants  and  choose  those  as  nearly  true  to  one  type  as  may  be, 
though  do  not  put  type  above  yield  of  grain,  as  this  is  the  quality 
of  greatest  value.  In  a few  years  the  ears  and  stalks  can  be  re- 
duced to  great  uniformity.  Select  large,  well  formed,  solid  ears 
with  deep  grains,  and,  if  a dent  variety,  with  cob  large  enough  to 
carry  a good  number  of  rows.  Fire  dry  the  seed  and  place  where  it 
will  keep  perfectly  dry  till  planting  time.  The  seed  corn  patch 
should  be  one  or  several  acres  and  should  be  located  thirty  or  more 
rods  from  other  fields  of  corn. 

CORN  CULTIVATION. 

During  several  years  past  experiments  on  the  cultivation  of 
corn  have  been  under  way.  A part  of  this  work  has  been  reported 
upon  in  bulletins  Nos.  5 and  11.  Plot  tests  with  implements  have 
been  made.  The  effect  of  pruning  the  roots  with  a narrow,  strong 
knife  has  been  investigated,  and  studies  of  the  root  system  have  been 
made.  Listing  has  been  tried.  The  varieties  best  adapted  to  each 
purpose  have  been  studied  and  methods  of  the  improvement  of  some 
of  the  best  kinds  have  been  well  begun. 

PRUNING  THE  ROOTS  OF  CORN. 

In  1889  a number  of  plots  of  corn  were  rather  severely  root 
pruned,  and  as  compared  with  the  alternate  rows  not  pruned,  twelve 
and  one-half  bushels  per  acre  less  of  corn  was  produced.  The  same 
experiment  was  tried  again  in  1890,  and  also  in  1891.  The  pruning 
was  done  by  running  a strong  butcher  knife  blade,  set  in  a runner 
so  that  it  would  penetrate  the  ground  four  to  six  inches  and  be 
drawn  through  the  soil  a few  to  several  inches,  either  side  of  the 
hill  without  much  disturbance  of  the  soil.  The  following  tabular 
statements  show  the  results  for  several  years.  All  the  corn  was 
cultivated  shallow  with  Tower’s  cultivator,  and  as  alternate  single 
rows  or  alternate  two  rows  make  up  the  plots  comparing  pruned 
and  unpruned,  the  plots  are  assumed  to  be  alike  in  all  respects  ex- 
cept as  affected  by  the  pruning. 


248 


TABLE  LXXVIII.— Root  Pruning*  Corn  in  1889. 


Plot. 

Grains. 

Fodder. 

Pounds. 

Bushels  per 
Acre. 

Pounds. 

Tons  per 
Acre. 

1 Pruned  four  times 

284 

34 

255 

1 1-6 

2 Not  root  pruned 

401 

48 

375 

1 4-6 

3 Pruned  three  times 

253 

3034 

300 

1 2-6 

4 Not  root  pruned 

417 

50 

305 

1 2-6 

5 Pruned  two  times 

326 

39 

300 

1 2-6 

6 Not  root  pruned 

402 

4834 

400 

1 5-6 

7 Pruned  once 

308 

37 

340 

1 3 6 

8 Not  root  pruned 

399 

48 

350 

1 3-6 

Average  root  pruned  plots 

293 

35 

299 

1 1-3 

Average  of  plots  not  root  pruned 

405 

4834 

357 

1 3-5 

Note,— Once  pruning  means  that  at  the  time  of  plowing  the  knife  passed  on  either  side  of  the 
pruned  rows,  going  five  inches  deep  six  inches  away  from  the  hill.  Twice  pruning  mfeans  that  tho 
pruning  was  done  the  sesond  time  when  the  corn  was  cross  plowed  and  three  or  four  means  that  the 
pruning  was  done  at  the  third  and  fourth  times  over  with  the  cultivator. 


TABLE  LXXIX.— Root  Pruning  Corn  in  1890. 


Grain  on  Plots, 
Lbs. 

Decrease  Lbs. 
per  Plot  by 
Pruning. 

Decrease  of 
Grain  per 
Acre  Bus. 

Fodder  on  Flot* 
Bundles. 

Decrease  by 
Pruning,  Lbs. 

Decrease  of  Fod- 
der per  Acre.  | 

1 Pruned  four  times  four  inches  deep  and  five  inches  away 
from  hill 

660 

750 

898 

930 

855 

870 

765 

840 

830 

885 

90 

4 

1,660 

1,720 

1,880 
2,  050 

1,860 

1,910 

1,610 

1,925 

1,770 

1,935 

60 

180 

2 Not  root  pruned 

3 Pruned  four  times  four  inches  deep  and  three  inches  away 
from  hill  

32 

170 

510 

4 Not  root  pruned 

5 Pruned  at  second  and  third  plowing  six  inches  away  and  six 
inches  deep 

15 

34 

50 

150 

6 Not  root  pruned 

7 Pruned  both  ways  at  third  plowing  five  inches  away  and  five 
inches  deep 

75 

55 

334 

*34 

315 

945 

8 Not  root  pruned 

9 Pruned  one  way  at  fourth  plowing  six  inches  away  and  six 
inches  deep 

155 

465 

10  Not  root  pruned 

Average  loss  from  root  pruning 

234 

34  ton 

TABLE  LXXX.— Root  Pruning  Corn  in  1891. 


249 


The  following  tabular  statement  shows  results  obtained  for  the 
three  successive  years  in  pruning  corn  with  a shallow-going  imple- 
ment and  kept  free  of  weeds : 


TABLE  LXXXI.— Summary  Root  Pruning*  Corn. 


- 

1889. 

1890. 

1891. 

Yield. 

Loss. 

Yield. 

Loss. 

Yield. 

Loss. 

Grain,  bushels  per  acre { Not  r£ot  pruned 

Stover  T„  per  acre { Not  r£)t  pruned 

48 

13-5 

13 

4-15 

34% 

26% 

*Ve 

2% 

% 

41% 

43% 

1 

1 

1% 

In  another  trial  in  1889,  four  bushels  less  per  acre  were  grown  on 
plots  pruned  as  compared  with  those  not  pruned.  The  most  striking 
injury  to  the  crop  is  observed  for  the  first  of  the  three  years.  During 
1890  and  1891,  however,  only  a few  bushels  less  of  corn  and  about 
the  same  relative  amount  of  stover  were  grown  on  the  plots  where 
root  pruning  was  done  than  on  those  not  pruned.  The  pruning  was 
not  quite  as  severe  in  1890  and  1891  as  the  first  season.  The  only 
other  differing  conditions  observed  were  that  the  soil  was  compara- 
tively dry  when  the  pruning  was  done  in  1889,  and  there  was  a 
fair  or  abundant  amount  of  moisture  during  the  other  two  years  at 
the  time  of  cultivating.  Corn  certainly  has  a wonderful  power  to 
send  out  new  roots  to  replace  those  cut  off.  As  the  pruning  did 
no  good  in  any  year  and  did  very  great  injury  on  many  of  the  plots, 
the  evidence  on  the  whole  is  in  favor  of  not  cultivating  the  corn 
deeply  close  to  the  plants.  On  the  other  hand,  very  shallow  culti- 
vation is  not  advisable,  as  a small  per  cent  of  the  roots  can  be  broken 
without  as  serious  results  to  the  crop  as  allowing  weeds  to  grow 
and  leaving  too  thin  a blanket  of  loose  earth  that  will  not  last  and 
serve  all  season  as  a dirt  mulch.  The  better  way  is  to  cultivate 
two  or  three  inches,  or  rarely,  w here  many  weeds  are  to  be  covered, 
let  the  cultivator  go  four  inches  deep  in  the  middles  between  the 
rows.  By  following  the  above  rule  as  to  depth  and  by  hilling  up  the 
corn  half  an  inch  or  an  inch  at  each  plowing  the  shovels  next  to  the 
row  may  be  slightly  raised  each  succeeding  time  of  cultivating  the 
corn.  This  will  avoid  going  deep  near  the  hill. 


250 


HILLING  CORN. 

In  1889  two  plots  of  corn,  which  had  been  kept  level  the  fore  part 
of  the  season  with  Tower’s  cultivator,  were  hilled  up  by  means  of  a 
hoe’  at  the  last  cultivation.  Their  average  yield  "was  just  the 
same  as  plots  made  up  of  the  alternating  rows  which  were  not 
hilled. 

In  1890  a trial  gave  an  average  difference  of  less  than  one  bushel 
per  acre  in  favor  of  the  hilled  corn  and  250  pounds  more  of  fodder 
per  acre  on  the  plots  not  hilled. 

In  1891  the  amount  of  fodder  was  the  same  on  hilled  plots  and 
on  plots  not  hilled,  while  the  plots  not  hilled  had  two  and  one-half 
bushels  per  acre  more  of  grain. 

In  so  far  as  the  effect  on  the  yield  is  concerned  hilling  of  itself 
seems  to  have  little  or  no  influence  where  the  weeds  are  kept  down 
on  all  plots.  As  a means,  however,  of  destroying  newly  started 
weeds,  moderate  hilling  is  an  aid.  At  each  cultivation  half  an  inch 
or  an  inch  of  loose  dirt  worked  in  around  the  plants  does  much  to 
smother  the  Pigeon  Grass  and  other  newly  started  weeds  which  come 
up  in  and  near  the  hill.  By  regarding  hilling  as  simply  a means  of 
killing  weeds,  the  plowman  will  better  handle  his  cultivator  or  hoe 
than  if  he  thinks  it  for  some  other  purpose.  Hilling  to  more  than 
three  or  four  inches  above  the  general  level  is  often  unwise,  as  the 
land  is  thus  left  very  rough  for  seeding  to  a succeeding  crop. 

CORN  CULTIVATOR  TRIALS. 

The  subjoined  tablar  statement  gives  the  figures  developed  during 
a trial  of  corn  cultivators.  In  1888  a piece  of  land  was  divided  in 
twenty-four  one  tenth  acre  plots,  and  each  of  the  cultivators 
named  in  the  table  was  used  in  cultivating  two  or  more  of  them. 
Alleyways  between  each  plot  allowed  of  turning  without  treading 
down  the  corn  in  the  plots  proper.  In  1889  the  entire  field  was  cul- 
tivated uniformly  with  one  implement,  Tower’s  surface  cultivator, 
and  the  yield  of  corn  and  fodder  for  each  plot  was  determined.  In 
1890  the  various  implements  were  again  used  on  the  same  plots 
as  in  1888.  And  the  table,  besides  giving  the  relative  yields  of  each 
plot,  gives  also  a comparison  of  the  yields  when  cultivated  with 
the  several  implements  as  compared  with  their  yield  during  the  in- 
termediate year  when  all  were  planted  and  cultivated  alike.  Even 
a plot  test  made  in  this  way  is  not  always  satisfactory  to  one  who 
constantly  observes  the  growth  of  the  crops.  In  many  cases  there 


*251 


was  far  more  apparent  difference  in  the  corn  on  different  parts  of 
the  same  plot  than  on  the  different  plots.  The  table  shows  especial- 
ly well  for  Tower’s  surface  cultivator,  Robert’s  blades  and  Weir’s 
tongueless  cultivator. 


TABLE  LXXXII.—  Comparison  of  Corn  Cultivators. 


1888. 

1890. 

Average  for  First 
and  Third  Years 
When  Differently 
Cultivated. 

Yield  1889  When  All 
Were  Cultivated 
Alike  With  Tow- 
er’s Cultivator. 

Gain  or  Loss  Com- 
pared with  Inter- 
mediate Year, 
Bushels  per  Acre. 

Bushels  grain  per  acre — 

Robert’s  Blades 

51 

52% 

53 

51% 

50 

43% 

44% 

8 

Whir’s  Tongneless 

47 

5% 

10 

Rotary  Disk 

42 

46% 

61 

44% 

55 

45% 

Tower’s  Surface 

49 

45 

Bash  Surface 

45 

51 

48 

51 
2 % 

—3 

Tons  fodder  per  acre — 

Robert’s  Blades .. 

3 % 
3 

3% 
3% 
3% 
2 % 

1 % 

Weir’s  Tongueless 

3% 

2 % 

1% 

Rotary  Disk 

3 

3% 

2% 

1% 

% 

1% 

Tower’s  Surface 

3 

2% 
3 A 

2/8 

Bash  Surface 

3% 

3 1 

2% 

Til 

5 

Tower7 s surface  cultivator  and  Roberts  blades  cultivated  the 
land  medium  shallow,  but  well.  Weir’s  tongueless  cultivator  has  the 
ordinary  two  shovels  on  a side,  like  the  old-fashioned  double  shovel 
cultivator,  and  with  it  the  soil  was  cultivated  in  grooves  four  to  five 
inches  deep,  as  is  the  custom  with  most  farmers. 

In  1891  Mr.  Andrew  Boss,  foreman,  cultivated  every  twro  alter- 
nate rows  with  Weir’s  tongueless  and  Tower’s  surface  cultivator, 
with  the  following  results: 


TABLE  LXXXIII.— Weir’s  Tongueless  vs.  Tower’s  Surface  Cultivator. 


a 

o 

a 

Gain  by  Deep 
Cultivation. 

a 

o 

CD 

'd 

3 . 

j§5 

Loss  by  Deep 
Cultivation. 

1.  Weir’s  cultivator,  deep  shovels,  five  inches  deep 

and  two  and  one-half  inches  away  each  side 

2.  Tower’s  cultivator,  shallow 

560 

495 

495 

495 

65 

385 

425 

380 

380 

40 

3.  Weir’s,  three  inches  deep  and  four  inches  away 
either  side 

4.  Tower’s  cultivator,  shallow 

252 


In  1891,  in  a field  of  corn,  the  alternating  pairs  of  rows  were 
treated  as  shown  in  Table  LXXXIY.  This  shows  slightly  better  yields 
of  grain  for  Weir’s  than  Tower’s  cultivator  in  one  of  the  two  com- 
parisons, and  just  the  opposite  is  true  of  the  yields  of  stover  for 
deep  than  for  the  shallow  cultivating,  while  the  yield  of  stover  was 
about  the  same.  Pruning,  however,  in  both  trials  resulted  in  lessen- 
ing the  yield  of  grain,  and  averaging  the  two  trials  the  yield  of 
stover  was  about  the  same.  A slightly  lessened  yield  of  grain  re- 
sulted where  the  corn  was  hilled  high  around  the  stalks  as  com- 
pared with  plots  where  the  soil  was  cultivated  level,  but  the  yield  of 
stover  was  about  the  same.  The  plot  on  which  the  “aerial,”  or 
brace  roots,  were  cut  yielded  considerable  more  of  grain  and  slightly 
more  of  stover  than  the  compared  plot  not  so  pruned. 


TABLE  LXXXIV.— Cultivation, Depth,  Pruning*  Roots,  Hilling,  Implements.  1891 


Plot. 


Pruned. 

Hilled. 


f a.  Weir’s  deep  shovel,  five  inches  deep  and  two  and  one-half  inches  away  each  side 
1 { b.  Tower’s 

}a.  Weir’s  deep  shovels,  three  inches  deep  and  four  inches  away  on  either  side 

b.  Tower’s 

a.  Pruned  five  inches  deep  and  six  inches  away  either  side  with  knife 

b.  Not  pruned 

J a.  Hilled  six  inches  high  around  stalk 

4 1 b.  Not  hilled 

f a.  Pruned  once  five  inches  deep  and  four  inches  away  either  side  with  knife 

5 j b.  Not  pruned 

j a.  Brace  roots  cut 

6 ( b.  Brace  roots  not  cut 


Weight 
of  Corn. 

Weight 

of 

Stover. 

560 

385 

495 

425 

495 

380 

495 

380 

475 

335 

490 

275 

530 

340 

560 

345 

500 

325 

520 

410 

640 

430 

545 

420 

The  table  below  shows  the  relative  adaptability  of  the  different 
cultivators  to  keep  corn  planted  in  various  ways  free  of  weeds  as  re- 
ported in  Bulletin  No.  5.  The  land  was  rather  foul  with  weeds,  none  of 
which  were  removed  except  as  each  cultivator  succeeded  in  destroy- 
ing them,  and  notes  were  taken  after  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 
times  the  plots  were  gone  over  with  the  cultivator. 

By  using  a “v”  or  trough-shaped  fender  made  of  a six  inch  and  a 
seven-inch  board,  each  four  feet  long,  and  dragged  upside  down  by 
a string  over  the  row  of  young  corn  the  first  and  second  times,  Tow- 
er’s cultivator,  the  spring  tooth  cultivators  and  the  Bash  surface 
cultivator  did  especially  fine  work  in  listed  corn.  Listed  corn,  how- 
ever, can  be  successfully  cultivated  with  any  of  the  implements 
above  mentioned. 


253 


TABLE  LXXXV.- Effectiveness  of  Each  Cultivation  in  Keeping  the  Plots 
Clean  of  Weeds  Expressed  in  Per  Cent. 


Hills  Cultiva- 
ted, Deep. 

1 

Hills  Cultiva- 
ted, Shallow. 

Drilled. 

Listed. 

First  and  second  cultivation— 

Weir’s  Tongueless 

98 

88 

90 

80 

Rotary  Disk 

90 

85 

80 

Tower  Bros 

95 

95 

75 

Bash  Surface 

80 

75 

95 

*Bash  Surface 

90 

90 

80 

Third  cultivation— 

Weir’s  Tongueless 

98 

90 

90 

85 

Rotary  Disk 

95 

95 

80 

Tower  Bros 

95 

95 

80 

Bash  Surface 

78 

75 

80 

Robert’s  Blades 

98 

90 

90 

Fourth  cultivation — f 

Weir’s  Tongueless 

98 

90 

88 

90 

Rotary  Disk 

98 

88 

88 

Tower  Bros 

98 

88 

88 

Bash  Surface 

80 

75 

75 

Robert’s  Blades 

98 

92 

90 

The  several  cultivators  were  used  in  the  fields  on  the  station 
farm  and  were  tried  in  soddy  land,  in  com  stalk  land,  as  well  as  in 
stubble  land  and  some  were  used  in  cultivating  potatoes  and  other 
crops,  thus  giving  them  a general  comparison.  Lehr’s  spring  tooth 
cultivator  was  secured  too  late  to  enter  all  the  competitive  trials 
above  mentioned. 

Tt  has  five  spring  tooth  shovels  on  either  side,  the  spring  teeth 
or  shovels  being  patterned  after  those  on  the  common  spring  tooth 
harrow.  The  Albion  eagle  claw,  having  four  spring  beams  on  either 
side,  with  two-inch  wide  shovels  instead  of  the  spring  forming  part 
of  the  shovel,  was  also  procured.  Owing  to  a loss  of  some  parts  and 
a delay  in  transit,  this  excellent  implement  was  not  carefully  tested. 
The  Conkling  automatic  cultivator,  with  three  shovels  on  a side, 
proved  to  be  an  improvement  over  the  implements  with  two  shovels 
on  a side. 

As  compared  with  the  ordinary  corn  cultivator,  having  two  shov- 
els on  a side,  I feel  justified  in  saying  that  we  have  cultivators  which 
do  not  so  seriously  prune  the  roots,  but  do  cultivate  the  corn  quite 
as  well.  Those  on  the  spring  tooth  plan  and  the  Tower’s  surface 
cultivator  will  as  effectually  clean  out  the  weeds,  if  the  land  has  been 
properly  prepared  before  planting,  as  will  those  of  the  double  shovel 
pattern.  These  cultivators  are  not  quite  as  useful  as  the  double 
shovel  pattern  for  other  uses  on  the  farm,  but  where  the  farmer 


254 


has  a good  pulverizer,  like  a Disk  harrow,  he  rarely  needs  his  two- 
horse  corn  cultivator  except  for  summer  tillage.  The  cultivators, 
with  four  or  five  small  shovels  on  a side,  gave  best  all  around  satis- 
faction. 

LISTING  CORN. 

Listing  corn  as  compared  with  planting  on  level  ground  has  been 
tried  two  years.  A number  of  plots  each  year  were  cultivated  with 
the  different  cultivators  here  for  trial  in  comparison  with  plots 
planted  on  level  ground.  In  no  case  did  a single  plot  of  the  listed 
corn  yield  as  much  as  the  plots  drilled  or  hilled  beside  it.  On  the 
average  the  crops  were  about  ten  per  cent  less  than  the  crops  on 
land  not  listed.  We  simply  repeat  our  statement  made  after  experi- 
menting with  listing  corn  here  in  1888  that,  “This  method  is  adapted 
to  dry,  warm  countries,  as  Kansas,  where  much  of  the  corn  is  planted 
with  the  lister,  but  here  at  the  north  we  want  the  seed  and  roots 
near  the  top  of  the  ground.  Some  dry  seasons  in  the  southwestern 
part  of  the  state  this  method  might  prove  best,  and  further  trials 
will  be  given.” 


WHEATS— VARIETY  TESTS  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  VARIETIES. 

In  1889  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  began  the  collection 
and  testing  of  varieties  of  spring  wheats  from  all  localities  wiiere 
we- might  expect  to  find  kinds  suited  to  our  climate  and  soils.  Prof. 
D.  N.  Harper  and  the  writer  collected  about  150  samples,  most  of 
them  being  small  mail  samples.  Through  the  assistance  of  the 
American  consuls  in  Russia  and  Hungary,  many  samples  of  wheats 
were  secured  from  those  countries.  Prof.  Wm.  Saunders,  Ottawa, 
Canada,  director  of  the  Dominion  experiment  farms  of  Canada,  and 
Mr.  S.  A.  Bedford,  superintendent  of  the  Manitoba  experiment  farm, 
Brandon,  made  material  additions  to  the  list.  Mr.  C.  A.  Zavitz,  of 
the  Ontario  agricultural  college,  Guelph,  and  Prof.  Luther  Foster, 
then  at  South  Dakota  agricultural  college,  also  Prof.  James  Wilson, 
of  Iowa  agricultural  college,  Ames,  gave  us  a number  of  wheats  for 
trial.  The  150  samples  first  collected  were  planted  in  1890  at  War- 


255 


ren,  Marshall  county,  on  lands  belonging  to  Messrs.  March  and  Spald- 
ing. This  land  is  typical  Eed  River  Valley  soil.  The  rainfall  was 
sufficient  for  only  a moderate  crop  in  the  neighborhood.  The  varie- 
ties were  grown  in  such  small  plots  that  no  yields  were  recorded. 
Some  kinds  proved  to  be  winter  wheats,  and  others  were  of  such 
inferior  quality  that  they  were  at  once  discarded.  Samples  of  all 
the  better  kinds  were  harvested  by  hand,  and  these,  with  others 
collected  later,  were  sown  in  1891  at  Glyndon,  Clay  county,  ten 
miles  east  of  Moorhead  and  Fargo,  on  the  farm  of  Mr.  J.  Buckham. 
A fire,  which  burned  the  station  laboratory  during  the  fall  of  1890, 
has  destroyed  letters  and  other  records  giving  the  names  of  the 
various  kinds  of  wheat  received  from  Russia  and  other  foreign 
countries.  Consequently,  in  1891,  the  records  of  each  kind  were 
made  by  using  the  name  of  the  town  where  they  were  planted  and 
our  original  laboratory  entry  number,  thus:  Glyndon  676,  or  abbre- 
viated to  “G.  67 6.” 

The  land  chosen  at  Glyndon  was  a sandy  loam.  It  had  grown  a 
dozen  or  less  crops  of  wheat,  and  the  year  before  was  manured  and 
bore  a crop  of  potatoes.  The  seed  whs  sown  in  narrow  long  plots 
with  a Superior  shoe  press  drill  on  the  well  prepared  soil  and  as 
the  land  had  few  weeds,  all  varieties  were  given  an  equal  chance. 
The  harvesting  was  carefully  performed  by  means  of  hand  sickles, 
and  threshing  was  done  with  flails.  In  1892  and  1893  all  the  best 
wheats  grown  at  Glyndon  in  1891  were  grown  by  the  writer,  at  the 
North  Dakota  experiment  station  at  Fargo,  together  with  other 
varieties  of  spring  wheat  collected  from  various  sources.  Prof.  J. 
H.  Shepperd,  of  that  institution,  again  grew  the  most  promising 
varieties  in  1894.  The  soil  at  Fargo  is  typical  of  the  Red  River  val- 
ley, and  all  three  years  the  fields  of  wheat  in  the  vicinity  were 
below  the  average  for  the  past  decade.  In  1894  Mr.  T.  A.  Hoverstad 
grew  all  the  best  of  these  varieties  on  good  land  at  our  Coteau  sub- 
experiment  farm  in  Lyon  county,  and  thirty-three  of  them  were 
grown  by  the  writer  on  Rev.  S.  Currie’s  farm  at  Euclid,  Polk  county, 
Minn.,  fifteen  miles  north  of  Crookston,  on  good  Red  River  valley 
land. 

In  Table  LXXXVI.  are  collected  part  of  the  facts  relative  to 
the  yields  of  the  most  promising  of  the  more  than  200  kinds  of  wheats 
we  used  in  these  several  tests.  Some  of  these  have  now  been  in  six 
or  seven  variety  tests,  at  Warren,  in  1890;  Glyndon,  1891;  Fargo, 
1892,  1893  and  1894;  and  at  Euclid  and  at  Coteau  Experiment  Farm 
in  1894. 


256 


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259 


BEST  VARIETIES  OF  WHEAT  SELECTED  FOR  PROPAGATION  AND  DISTRIBUTION. 

In  Table  LXXXVII.  are  collected  the  facts  relating  to  twenty-two 
of  the  varieties  which  have  averaged  best  in  all  these  tests.  The  three 
first  in  the  table  yielded  best  on  the  average  for  six  yields  running 
over  four  years.  The  next  five  yielded  best  of  those  five  times  in 
the  variety  tests.  The  next  six  were  the  best  of  those  grown  four 
times.  The  next  group  of  eight  were  the  best  yielders  grown  at 
Fargo  in  1892  and  1898  and  at  Coteau  farm  in  1894.  We  have  shown 
in  the  table  the  yields  of  Fife  Xo.  66,  and  of  two  stocks  of  Blue  Stem  Xos. 
51  and  146,  grown  for  comparison  with  the  new  wheats.  Other  samples 
of  Fife  grown  at  different  times  in  comparison  did  not  yield  as  large 
yields  as  the  sample  or  “stock’7  known  in  our  notes  as  “Power’s  Fife.77 
This  Fife  was  really  orignated  a decade  ago  from  a single  plant  by  Mr. 
James  Holes  of  Fargo,  X.  D.,  and  shows  what  a little  effort  at  careful 
selection  will  accomplish. 

These  twenty-two  varieties  are  nearly  all  hard  wheats  and  ap- 
parently of  good  quality.  Xearly  all  of  them  yielded  better  than 
the  best  selected  fife  and  blue  stem  which  we  could  find  in  the 
Xorthwest.  It  is  believed  that  we  have  here  the  basis  of  a number 
of  varieties  which  will  develop  into  strong  rivals  of  blue  stem  and 
fife,  now  the  only  wheats  grown  in  considerable  quantity  in  the 
region  of  Xo.  1 hard  wheat.  These  twenty-two  varieties  are  to  be 
planted  again,  and  at  least  a number  of  them  propagated  in  quan- 
tities sufficient  for  distribution  to  farmers  for  further  trial  within 
a few  years.  The  results  indicate  that  most  of  these  wheats  will 
make  better  yielders  than  fife  and  blue  stem  and  be  of  equal  quality, 
thus  keeping  up  our  record  for  Xo.  1 hard  wheat. 

The  grading  of  these  wheats  was  done  by  Mr.  Tunnell,  deputy 
state  grain  inspector,  Minneapolis,  and  by  Mr.  Henderson  of  the 
Fargo  Roller  Mills,  Fargo,  X.  D.  Many  of  the  wheats  coming  from 
Russia  seem  to  be  of  the  same  specific  character  as  our  red  fife, 
known  over  the  Xorthwest  as  Scotch  fife,  and  by  other  similar 
names.  The  tradition  is  that  this  wheat  came  to  the  Xorthwest 
many  years  ago  by  Scotch  Canadians  getting  small  samples  from 
Russia.  Our  experience  with  wheat  picked  up  by  consuls  in  the 
Russian  markets  confirms  the  belief  that  our  class  of  wheats  known 
as  fife,  Scotch  fife,  or  red  fife,  came  to  us  originally  from  Russia. 
Of  the  first  lot  of  wheats  marked  in  the  notes  as  Glyndon,  or  “G 
676,”  except  the  smooth  white  chaffed  kinds,  which  in  berry,  straw 
and  spike  resemble  fife,  comparatively  few  have  been  found  worthy 
to^keep  in  the  trials  for  more  than  a year  or  two.  While  we  shall 


TABLE  LXXXVII.— Wheat— Varieties  Selected  for  Further  Propagation  and  Distribution. 

Best  Yields  of  Varieties  Tested  Six  Times. 


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261 


continue  to  welcome  new,  promising  foreign  spring  wheats  for  trial, 
we  shall  henceforth  direct  our  energies  more  to  the  improvement  of 
those  we  already  have  and  which  have  proved  best  adapted  to  our 
conditions.  We  have  been  a little  disappointed  that  one  or  more 
of  the  200  varieties  and  over  which  we  have  sown  did  not  show 
much  larger  average  yields.  Even  if  we  could  find  a soft  wheat 
which  would  yield  five  bushels  more  per  acre  than  the  kinds  we  now 
grow  we  should  find  profits  in  raising  it,  as  the  income  of  money  per 
acre  would  be  more  than  we  now  get  for  our  famous,  but  rather  low 
yielding,  hard  wheats.  We  would  heartily  welcome  a large  yield- 
ing soft  spring  wheat  for  consumption  and  to  sell  for  feed.  Some 
of  these  new  varieties  have  averaged  one  to  three  bushels  per  acre 
more  than  fife  or  blue  stem,  but  their  milling  qualities  are  yet  to 
be  tested.  Our  farmers  certainly  do  not  wish  to  give  up  the  idea 
that  present  yields  of  wheat  in  Minnesota  are  all  that  an  intelli- 
gent people  should  hope  for  from  our  rich  soils,  while  Eastern 
farmers  are  securing  fifty  to  one  hundred  per  cent  better  yields 
on  their  worn  lands  to  which  commercial  fertilizers  must  be  sup- 
plied. Wise  systems  of  rotations,  so  managed  that  wheat  will  be 
grown  only  on  lands  especially  prepared  for  it,  either  by  cultivation 
or  kind  of  crop  raised,  as  grass,  etc.,  do  much  to  bring  up  averages 
and  give  us  more  clear  profits.  As  noted  elsewhere  in  this  report 
we  are  starting  extensive  experiments  to  find  out  and  illustrate 
the  best  ways  of  managing  fields  to  make  clear  profits  at  farming. 
But  besides  good  methods  of  raising  wheat  we  want  the  best  varie- 
ties. If  a variety  can  be  found,  o.  if  one  can  be  originated,  which 
will  increase  the  average  yields  only  a peck  per  acre  a great  object 
will  be  accomplished.  But  an  increase  of  several  bushels  per  acre 
would  mean  millions  of  dollars  to  our  farmers,  and  this  seems  within 
the  range  of  possibilities.  For  the  present,  south  of  the  Northern 
Pacific  Railway  and  in  sections  north  of  that  line  where  early  frosts 
do  not  usually  kill  late  wheat,  or  on  light  quick  lands,  our  farmers 
should  use  mainly  blue  stem  for  seed.  Fuither  north  it  is  better 
to  sow  fife  wholly  or  partly  as  it  matures  early.  Where  blue  stem 
will  ripen  it  will  yield  more  wheat  on  the  average,  and,  though  it 
sells  for  a slightly  lower  price  than  fife,  it  yields  more  money  per 
acre.  Owing  to  the  looseness  of  its  chaff,  blue  stem  is  not  so  well 
adapted  to  stand  long  after  it  is  ripe  as  is  fife,  and  on  the  large 
farms  this  is  sometimes  a disadvantage,  as  the  crop  cannot  always 
be  cut  just  when  ripe.  Care  in  shocking  and  stacking  is  also  more 
important  with  blue  stem,  as  the  loose  chaff  causes  it  to  shell  very 


262 


readily.  Ordinarily  the  period  of  ripening  is  almost  as  extended  as 
the  period  of  seeding,  thus  allowing  the  reaping  to  be  done  as  fast 
as  the  grain  ripens.  It  is  more  important  to  cap  shocks  of  blue  stem 
wheat  than  of  fife,  because  in  open  shocks  the  grain,  not  having  close 
chaff,  is  bleached  by  dews  and  rains.  The  chaff  of  fife  remains  close 
to  the  berry,  while  many  of  the  blue  stem  grains  are  more  than  half 
exposed  to  the  air  by  the  chaff  spreading  away.  Most  of  the  best 
wheats  in  Table  B have  chaff  which  holds  as  well  or  better  than 
the  chaff  of  fife,  as  shown  by  the  notes. 

In  Table  LXXXVII.  the  22  varieties  which  yield  best  are  so  arranged 
that  they  may  be  compared.  Each  one  of  these  six  tests,  except  the 
one  in  1891  at  Glyndon,  has  been  under  conditions  where  yields  have 
not  been  large  in  the  neighborhood,  and  the  average  of  all  the 
yields  appears  small.  Each  year  some  good  fife  and  blue  stem  wheat, 
which  are  well  known  to  all  our  farmers,  have  been  grown  on  adjacent 
plots  under  like  condition  to  serve  as  a basis  for  comparison. 

VARIETIES  ORIGINATED  BY  SELECTION. 

In  1892  I chose  from  the  varieties  of  wheat  five  kinds  which  had 
yielded  best  at  Glyndon  in  1891,  and  also  the  best  samples  of  fife 
and  blue  stem  obtainable.  Four  hundred  kernels  of  each  kind  were 
selected  and  each  kernel  was  planted  by  itself  twelve  inches  apart 
each  way.  Thus  each  plant  had  ample  room,  and  the  same  as 
every  other  plant.  Part  of  this  selected  wheat  was  grown  at  Fargo, 
and  part  at  Power,  N.  D.  When  in  blossom  all  the  plants  were  in- 
spected and  some  of  the  best  were  chosen  to  be  crossed  by  hand 
pollenization.  When  ripe  the  plants  were  again  inspected,  the 
number  of  heads  counted,  the  height  of  plants  and  length  of  heads 
were  recorded,  and  other  features  noted.  Ten  out  of  each  400  were 
chosen  as  the  most  promising  yielders  of  good  wheat.  These  were 
harvested  and  the  grain  was  shelled  out  of  each  plant  and  weighed. 
It  was  observed  that  the  variation  of  the  400  plants  was  very  great. 
Greater  surprise  came,  however,  when  the  weights  of  the  grain 
from  the  ten  selected  plants  were  compared.  In  Power’s  Fife,  for 
example,  the  crops  of  the  ten  carefully  chosen  plants  ranged  from 
three  and  one-half  to  thirteen  and  one-half  grams  of  wheat  per 
plant,  and  in  other  varieties  the  variation  was  nearly  as  great. 
This  selection  was  begun  on  the  theory  that  the  plants  which  yield 
the  most  wheat  are  the  best  from  v hich  to  originate  large  yielding 
varieties.  The  best  yielders  [of  these  plants  were  chosen,  and  in 
1893  one  or  more  hundred  kernels  from  each  were  planted,  a foot 


263 


apart  each,  at  Fargo.  These  plants  did  not  have  a uniform  chance 
owing  to  an  unfortunate  rain,  so  that  the  yields  of  the  rows  were 
not  comparable.  Some  of  the  best  plants  were  again  chosen  to 
carry  on  further  the  selection  of  individual  plants,  but  the  most  of 
the  wheat  from  each  of  the  best  rows  was  harvested  in  bulk.  The 
wheat  from  thirty-six  of  these  rows  was  planted  with  a Dowagiac 
drill  at  the  university  experiment  farm  in  1894  and  was  harvested 
and  threshed.  The  season  was  so  Tery  dry  that  the  quality  of  all 
wheat  on  the  university  farm  was  poor.  The  yields  were  not  large, 
but  none  were  worse  in  either  respect  than  wheat  grown  from  the 
best  fife  and  blue  stem  under  like  conditions. 


TABLE  LXXXV ill.— W neat,  Selected  Varieties. 


University 

Number. 

Original  Stock. 

No.  of  Individ- 
ual Plant  in 
1892. 

Length  of  j 

Head. 

Height. 

•** 

05 

CO 

oT 

x) 

sS 

O 

Yield  in  Grains 
from  1 Ker- 
nel, 1892. 

Yield  in  1894. 

147 

Power’s  Fife 

108 

3 

30 

2 N. 

9. 

10.9 

148 

Pviwer’s  Fife 

108 

2/4 

30 

2 N. 

9. 

11.3 

1 4'J 

Power’s  Fife 

108 

3 

31 

2 N. 

9. 

11.4 

150 

Power’s  Fife 

103 

3 

32 

2 N. 

13.8 

12.8 

151 

Power’s  Fife 

76 

3 

32 

2 N. 

11.8 

13.2 

152 

Power’s  Fife 

76 

3^ 

33 

2 N. 

11.8 

11.5 

153 

Glyndon,  818 

2476 

3 

31 

2 N. 

9. 

14.4 

154 

Glyndon,  818 

2540 

2% 

33 

2 N. 

15.5 

8.2 

155 

Glyndon,  818 

2510 

3 

30 

2 N. 

15.5 

14.4 

156 

Glyndon,  818 

2592 

334 

31 

2 N. 

11.3 

17.9 

157 

Glyndon, 7^3 

1277 

3 

32 

2 N. 

11. 

18.3 

158 

Glyndon,  753 

1277 

3 

31 

2 N. 

11. 

16.6 

159 

Haynes’  Blue  Stem 

501 

3/4 

36 

Rej. 

18.1 

15. 

160 

Ha  wan 

5014 

3 

31 

2 N. 

15.6 

161 

Haynes’  B ne  Stem 

551 

3>4 

36 

Rej. 

19.3 

15! 

162 

Glyndon,  75 < 

1326 

3 

32 

2 N. 

13.8 

16.6 

163 

Glyndon  811 

2001 

3 

29 

2 N. 

15.4 

33. 

164 

Wellman’s  Fife  (clos*5  groove) 

334 

28 

3 N. 

15. 

165 

Wellman’s  Fife  (Bradley’s  close  groove) 

334 

30 

2 N. 

12^8 

166 

Power’s  Fife... 

234 

27 

2 N. 

11.1 

167 

G vndon,  761 

1701 

2% 

27 

2 N. 

16, 

11*7 

168 

Glyndon,  81 1 

3 

28 

3 N 

15.3 

169 

Haynes’  BHieStem.. 

476 

334 

39 

3 N. 

19.1 

15.4 

170 

Haynes’  Blue  Stem 

476 

3 

30 

3 N. 

19.1 

12. 

171 

Ha  wan 

4914 

234 

25 

3 N. 

26.2 

172 

Wellman’s  Fife  (Bradley’s  open  groove) 

334 

31 

3 N. 

11.3 

173 

Haynes’  Blue  Stem 

551 

3 

32 

3 N. 

19.3 

13.3 

174 

H’yndon,  811 

2022 

3 H 

33 

3 N. 

6. 

12.5 

175 

Havnes’  Blue  Stem 

476 

3 yA 

33 

3 N. 

19.1 

12.5 

176 

Glyndon,  761 

1695 

2% 

30 

2 N. 

14.7 

14.2 

177 

Havnes’  Blue  stem  (deep  crease) 

410 

2/4 

30 

2 N. 

15.4 

16.1 

178 

Glvndon,  761 

1695 

3 

31 

3 N. 

10.9 

13.6 

179 

Havnes’  BIup  S*em 

464 

3 

30 

3 N. 

16.6 

11.4 

180 

H ivnes’  Bine  ^tem 

551 

3 

31 

3 N. 

19.3 

15.8 

181 

McKendrie’s  Fife 

802 

3 

29 

2 N. 

13. 

14.2 

182 

Glyndon,  753 

1326 

2% 

28 

3 N. 

13.8 

10.7 

In  Table  LXXXVIII.  are  given  the  yields  and  quality  of  all  these 
wheats.  There  is  no  reasonable  doubt  but  that  the  quality  of  all  will 
be  good  if  grown  under  favorable  conditions.  Column  2 in  Table 
LXXXVIII.  gives  the  name  of  the  variety  from  which  the  seed  of  each 


264 


selected  variety  was  cnosen,  and  the  number  under  which  it  may  be 
found  in  Table  LXXXYI.  is  given.  In  column  3 is  given  the  nursery 
book  number  of  the  original  individual  plant  in  1892  at  Power,  X.  D., 
from  which  the  selected  variety  sprang. 

Again,  in  1893,  at  Fargo  the  best  plants,  of  many  thousand  grown 
a foot  apart  each  way,  wTere  chosen  from  the  several  hundred  of  each 
selected  stock  found  best  the  year  before.  Part  of  these  were 
planted  at  Fargo  by  Professor  Shepperd  in  1894,  and  he  kindly  al- 
lowed me  to  bring  part  to  Minnesota  that  we  might  co-operate  and 
divide  any  good  varieties  thus  originated.  Numerous  new  varieties 
based  on  a single  large  yielding  plant,  separately  grown  in  1893,  are 
now  on  hand  in  quantities  large  enough  to  be  tested  in  the  field. 
While  most  of  the  varieties  secured  from  various  parts  of  the  world 
are  discarded  as  not  so  desirable  as  fife  and  blue  stem,  we  have 
originated,  by  the  plan  above  mentioned,  many  new  varieties.  These 
new  varieties  are  simply  selected  stocks  from  our  better  kinds  of 
wheat.  We  have  still  other  numerous  new  varieties  which  are 
selected  from  the  results  by  cross  pollenization  of  different  kinds  of 
wheat.  But  these  are  not  yet  produced  in  quantities  sufficient  for 
us  to  place  them  in  field  tests.  With  a good  arrangement  of  thresh- 
ing machinery  the  annual  cost  of  testing  each  variety  is  indeed  very 
slight.  The  plans  for  improving  varieties  of  wheat  and  other  small 
grains,  which  this  station  is  now  carrying  out,  are  far  more  com- 
plete and  comprehensive  than  any  heretofore  recorded  in  this  coun- 
try, so  far  as  we  know.  By  work  no  more  thorough  nor  more  careful 
European  experimentors  and  seed  growers  have  so  developed  sugar 
beets  that,  instead  of  a juice  with  six  per  cent  of  sugar  at  the  be- 
ginning, they  now  have  varieties  which  average  twelve  to  fifteen. 

WHEATS— CROSSING  AND  SELECTING. 

Besides  originating  varieties  by  selecting,  many  crosses  of  wheat 
have  been  made.  The  following  general  plan  has  been  followed  in 
making  most  of  our  crosses:  The  best  plants,  growing  a foot  apart 

each  way  to  allow  all  equal  development,  are  chosen  from  the 
best  stocks,  or  selected  kinds  of  wheats,  using  only  those  which  are 
at  the  right  stage  of  development  to  be  pollenized.  In  cross-polleniz- 
ing  one  or  more  spikes  or  “heads”  are  chosen  from  each  of  the  two 
kinds  to  be  crossed.  All  the  upper  part  of  the  spike  is  cut  away; 
also  a few  of  the  spikelets  at  the  base  of  the  spike.  The  middle  smaller 
flower  of  each  spikelet  is  pulled  out,  thus  leaving  the  strongest  pair 
of  flowers  on  each  of  six  or  more  spikelets,  or  in  all  twelve  to  twenty 


265 


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flowers  on  each  spike  or  head.  The  anthers  are  then  removed  from 
these  flowers  and  transferred  inside  the  glumes  of  the  other  plant 
from  which  the  stamens  have  been  removed.  All  flowers  which  are 
so  ripe  that  the  anthers  have  opened  are  discarded  and  removed. 
The  spike  or  head  of  wheat  which  has  been  treated  or  “handled”  is 
then  wrapped  with  a piece  of  paper  to  size  of  ordinary  toilet  paper 
which  is  tied  with  a string  above  and  below  the  head.  As  a rule, 
only  six  to  ten  per  cent  of  the  flowers  thus  pollenized  produce  kernels. 
And  we  are  not  certain  that  each  grain  produced  is  in  all  cases  a 
cross.  Self-fertilization  may,  in  rare  cases,  occur  before  the  anthers 
are  removed  from  the  flower.  But  by  this  method  many  kernels  can 
be  produced  with  a small  amount  of  labor,  and  upon  trial  the  next 
year  only  the  promising  plants,  or  those  showing  the  cross  are  re- 
tained. 

Table  LXXXIX.  gives  yields  and  other  facts  relative  to  the  sev- 
eral varieties  used  as  original  stocks  in  originating  new  varities  of 
wheat  by  crossing;  also,  by  selecting.  Others  of  our  best  varieties, 
having  now  been  several  times  tested  as  to  yield  and  quality,  will 
serve  as  a basis  from  which  to  again  start  at  selecting  and  crossing 
to  make  other  improved  kinds  of  wheat.  This  line  of  experiment- 
ing is  not  without  its  disappointments  and  difficulties,  the  time  re- 
quired to  obtain  results  being  long,  but  it  promises  very  valuable  re- 
sults. 

Breeding  wheat  is  most  interesting  work,  and  a few  general 
facts  are  here  worthy  of  statement.  The  wheat  flower  is  perfect, 
in  that  it  has  both  male  and  female  organs.  These  lie  together 
in  the  nearly  developed  flower  between  the  flowering  glume  and 
the  palea.  When  the  flower  has  nearly  reached  the  stage  when 
fertilization  takes  place  the  anthers,  or  male  organs,  which  are 
small  sacks  filled  with  pollen  grains,  break  open  and  the  gran- 
ular, globular  pollen  grains  fall  upon  the  feather-like  female  or- 
gan. These  pollen  grains  germinate  on  the  moist  surface  of  the 
stigma,  or  female  organ.  The  tube-like  growth  from  the  pollen 
grain  penetrates  the  stigma  and  extending  downward  grows 
into  the  sack-like  ovary  in  which  the  kernel  of  wheat  is  to  be 
formed.  Here  the  contents  of  the  pollen  tube  unite  writh  the  female 
germ  or  ovule  in  the  ovary,  and  by  this  union  of  the  two  sexual  ele- 
ments the  new  kernel  is  started  int  o being.  In  reality  a new  wheat 
plant  is  generated  by  the  union  of  these  two  elements.  In  nature 
the  flower  of  wheat  fertilizes  itself.  Henry  de  Yilmorin,  the  great 
French  seedsman  of  Paris,  says:  “Not  once  in  ten  thousand  cases 
does  the  grain  of  wheat  result  from  the  pollen  being  supplied  by 
another  flower  from  the  same  or  another* plant.” 


267 


In  originating  a new  kind  of  wheat  by  first  finding  a good  va- 
riety, planting  many  selected  kernels  each  a foot  or  so  apart  and 
then  selecting  from  these  plants  the  one  that  yields  best,  we  make 
the  one  plant  the  single  parent  of  an  entire  kind  of  wheat.  This 
plant  bears  several  hundred  seeds,  each  of  which  has  both  as  its 
male  and  as  its  female  parent  the  same  plant.  When  these  seeds 
are  planted  each  of  these  in  turn  has  a common  male  and  female 
parent,  which  in  turn  has  as  its  male  and  female  parent  the 
original  plant  selected  as  the  basis  of  the  variety.  In  the 
third  generation,  likewise,  each  plant  traces  back  to  the  original 
plant  which  was  its  only  “great  grandfather”  and  “great  grand- 
mother” combined  in  the  one  plant.  The  variety  originated  in  this 
way  is,  in  the  stockbreeder’s  parlance,  all  of  one  “blood”  with  no 
“outcrosses,”  and  “inbreeding”  of  the  most  “incestuous”  kind  here 
takes  place.  Objection  has  been  raised  to  this  way  of  originating 
wheat.  The  objectors  assume  that  such  pure  inbreeding  would 
result  in  weakness  and  that  the  wheat  wTould  soon  “run  out.”  But 
it  must  be  remembered  that  in  any  variety  of  wheat  this  same  in- 
breeding  by  self-fertilization  is  the  constant  method  of  generation. 
The  only  difference  is,  that,  in  the  ordinary  variety,  there  may  be  a 
large  number  of  original  plants  from  which  all  the  grains  have 
originating  by  self-fertilization.  And  should  the  wheat  from  some 
of  these  original  “stocks”  be  larger  or  heavier  in  berry  than  from 
others,  the  careful  use  of  the  “screen”  and  “blast”  in  the  fanning 
mill,  or  other  seed  wheat  cleaning  machine,  would  discard  the  poor 
and  retain  the  good.  This  selection  of  seed  in  bulk  might,  and  prob- 
ably does,  gradually  make  the  variety  better  in  size  or  weight  of 
berry,  and  through  these  qualities  might  increase  the  yield  of  the 
variety.  But  the  more  rational  way  to  select  good  original  stock, 
it  would  seem,  is  to  grow  separately  many  individual  plants,  and 
choose  those  which  have  the  greatest  vigor  and  yield  the  most  grain. 
The  product  of  one  grain  can  be  increased  to  many  bushels  in  a few 
years.  The  possibilities  of  improving  the  variety  by  the  selection 
of  seed  wheat,  oats,  barley  and  rye,  by  means  of  the  ordinary  seed 
cleaning  machine  are  overestimated  by  some.  There  are  far  greater 
possibilities  in  the  selection  of  seed  corn  where  nearly  every  stalk 
is  the  product  of  cross  fertilization,  and  each  grain  on  the  stalk 
in  turn  is  the  product  of  the  plant  bearing  the  ear  and  serving  as 
the  female  parent,  and  of  some  neighboring  plant  from  which  the 
male  germ  was  carried  by  the  air.  Here  each  plant  for  many  gen- 
erations back  has  usually  been  the  product  of  two  not  closely  related 


268 


plants.  Corn  instead  of  having  been  closely  inbred  or  self-fertilized 
is  the  product  of  cross-fertilization,  and  each  grain  on  the  stock  is  an 
example  of  what  the  stockbreeder  would  call  “scrub  breeding,” 
little  or  no  natural  selection  taking  place.  While  corn  plants  usu- 
ally lack  in  uniformity,  the  plants  of  a variety  of  wheat  are  gen- 
erally very  much  alike  in  all  botanical  characters,  varying  however, 
in  yield,  as  mentioned  above.  Very  often  a sample  or  field  of  wheat 
is  composed  of  more  than  one  variety,  each  with  its  distinct  botani- 
cal characters.  In  this  case  there  are  no  plants  found  with  charac- 
ters intermediate  between  the  two  kinds  of  wheat,  thus  showing 
that  no  crossing  occurs.  A small  amount  of  blue  stem  wheat  hav- 
ing been  mixed  with  fife  often  results  in  a few  years  of  careful  se- 
lection over  screens  in  the  smaller  fife  seeds  being  screened  out 
and  the  variety  changed  more  and  more  to  blue  stem.  This  might 
occur  in  case  of  two  varieties  where  the  wheat  having  the  larger 
kernels  was  really  the  smaller  yielder  and  in  other  ways  the  least 
desirable  of  the  two  kinds.  Likewise  the  larger  or  heavier  kernels 
of  wheat  might  be  thus  selected  in  annually  cleaning  the  wheat  and 
the  yield  of  wheat  not  increased.  If  the  large  grains  were  selected 
by  using  the  screen  rather  than  the  heavy  ones  by  using  the  blast, 
the  quality  might  even  be  made  poorer.  Yield  per  acre  is  a far 
more  important  consideration  than  either  size  of  berry  or  hardness. 

A New  Seed  Gleaning  Machine  was  made  out  of  an  old  implement. 
Separating  the  heaviest  seeds  of  wheat ‘or  other  seed  grain  is  not 
always  well  accomplished  by  the  fanning  mill  or  by  Beeman’s  Wheat 
Grader,  or  other  machines  which  assort  the  grain  mainly  on  the  basis 
of  the  size  of  the  kernels.  In  using  the  fanning  mill  considerable 
“wind”  should  be  used  that  the  blast  may  carry  away  all  really  light 
grains.  Von  Berg,  a Russian,  showed  at  the  World’s  Fair  a centri- 
fugal machine  for  grading  wheat.  We  imitated  it  almost  exactly  by 
using  the  Strowbridge  Broadcast  or  “Shot-gun”  Seeder.  Instead  of 
attaching  it  to  the  hind  end  gate  of  a lumber  wagon  box,  it  was 
set  up  in  one  corner  of  a large  room  in  the  barn.  The  belt  running 
it  from  a sprocket  wheel  on  the  wagon  wheel  was  left  off  and  in- 
stead a hand  crank  was  placed  on  the  shaft.  The  crank  was  turned 
and  the  grain  was  allowed  to  run  rapidly  through  the  adjustable 
opening  at  the  bottom  of  the  grain  hopper.  This  wrheat,  dropping 
on  the  rapidly  revolving  fans,  was  thrown  across  the  room.  That 
going  farthest  was  found  to  be  not  only  a few  pounds  heavier  per 
bushel  than  that  falling  nearer  the  machine,  but  was  practically 
clean  of  all  trash  and  weed  seeds.  This  machine  as  well  as  being 


269 


a better  seed  grader  than  a fanning  mill  was  also  a much  more  rapid 
means  of  cleaning  and  grading  the  seed  grain.  This  machine  is 
usually  inferior  to  drills  for  seeding,  but  for  preparing  seed  we  knowT 
of  nothing  equal  to  it. 

In  Selecting  Individual  Plants  to  originate  new  varities  of  wheat 
it  is  to  be  proved  whether  the  largest  yielding  plants  will  produce 
varieties  which  will  be  relatively  large  yielders,  but  by  first  test- 
ing each  kind  several  times  in  variety  field  tests  we  need  not  dis- 
tribute them  until  we  are  certain  of  their  abilities  to  yield  large 
crops. 

The  selection  of  plants  to  make  new  varieties  did  not  stop  with 
the  first  generation,  but  the  plants  grown  from  seeds  of  the  best 
plants  chosen  the  first  year  have  been  saved  the  second  year,  and 
the  third  season  their  crop  was  grown  in  quantities  large  enough 
to  be  placed  in  the  variety  field  tests  Likewise  the  ten  best  plants 
grown  in  the  third  year  have  been  selected,  the  crop  weighed  and 
the  best  of  these  will  be  grown  in  quantity  to  put  in  the  field  test 
the  fourth  year. 

Along  with  this  continuous  selection  to  secure  new  varieties  we 
are  conducting  experiments  to  aid  in  the  study  of  laws  relating 
to  heredity  in  grains  and  to  learn  the  best  means  to  use  in  improv- 
ing cereals.  We  hope  for  rather  more  from  a given  amount  of 
labor  expended  in  the  selection  than  in  the  crossing  of  varieties  of 
grains,  though  the  possibilities  would  seem  rather  greater  from 
stocks77  first  broken  up  in  their  blood  lines  by  cross  breeding. 

Grosses  of  various  kinds  of  these  wheats  have  been  made,  though 
the  number  which  appear  to  be  genuine  crosses  is  not  large.  These 
crosses  are  being  propagated  and  the  best  resulting  plants  selected 
from  which  to  start  varieties  to  be  tested  in  field  trials  in  the  same 
manner  as  those  above  mentioned  where  crosses  were  not  thus  pro- 
duced. These  crossed  wheats  wall  differ  from  the  others  in  an  es- 
sential particular.  In  those  simply  selected  because  of  large  yields 
the  plants  are  hermaphroditically  inbred  for  many  generations,  pos- 
sibly for  many  decades.  In  these  the  refreshing  vigor  supposed  to 
rise  from  more  or  less  “radical  crossing77  will  be  taken  advantage 
of,  if  it  is  an  advantage.  In  these  crosses  it  is  supposed  that  the 
inheritance  of  different  blood  lines  wall  result,  as  we  find  is  the  case 
in  animal  crosses,  in  unusual  variation.  It  will  be  the  province  of 
the  experiments  to  determine  which  are  the  valuable  variations 
or  sports,  and  to  perpetuate  them.  Finding  some  valuable  sports 
should  not  be  as  difficult  a task  as  we  find  it  to  be  in  breeding  ani- 


270 


mals,  because  here  we  are  able  to  deal  at  little  expense  with  many 
individuals.  Having  found  a plant,  or  generations  arising  from  a 
plant,  which  had  as  its  valuable  variation  the  quality  of  producing 
under  field  conditions  large  crops,  it  would  seem  easy  to  perpetu- 
ate the  variety  and  its  good  yielding  habit.  There  is  prevalent 
among  farmers  a belief  that  varieties  or  samples  of  cereal  grains 
long  grown  under  unfavorable  conditions  will  run  out,  become  of 
poor  quality  and  unable  to  yield  large  crops.  This  is  a subject 
worthy  of  extended  experiment.  Modern  theories  of  heredity  would 
cause  one  to  presume  that  the  inherited  qualities  of  the  self -ferti- 
lized plants  would  change  only  mdeed  very  slowly.  It  would  seem 
that  a variety  arising  from  a single  plant  and  each  plant  propagat- 
ing itself  by  self-fertilization,  would  be  almost  as  changeless  as  the 
successive  trees  grafted  from  an  original  apple  seedling,  in  which 
case  division  of  the  original  plant  and  not  sexual  generation  is  the 
mode  of  propagation.  So  far  as  sexual  generation  is  concerned,  the 
original  seedling  apple  tree,  potato  vine  or  geranium  is  the  only 
individual,  and  the  other  trees,  vines  or  shrubs  are  only  its  branches 
which  have  taken  root  and  produced  stems.  The  degeneration  of 
varieties  of  potatoes  twenty  to  forty  years  after  their  introduction 
as  seedlings  suggests  that  the  life  of  the  potato  vine,  propagated 
annually  by  means  of  its  tubers  (really  branches),  may,  in  that  num- 
ber of  years,  reach  the  period  wre  call  old  age.  It  is  thought  by 
some  that  something  may  be  accomplished  by  selection  even  in  cut- 
tings, as  of  the  apple.  The  possibilities  of  taking  advantage  of 
variations  in  plants  originating  from  self -fertilized  fiowers  are  cer- 
tainly greater  than  is  the  case  with  cuttings.  And  in  crosses  between 
varieties  like  those  we  have  made  between  fife  and  blue  stem,  so 
different  that  one  has  a smooth  chaff  while  the  other  has  chaff  vel- 
vety with  hairs,  we  expect  marked  variations.  The  testimony  of 
other  experiments  is  that  a few  generations  of  crossed  wheats  are 
required  before  the  selection  will  result  in  uniform  characteristics. 
By  dealing  with  the  individual  plants  wre  can  discover  in  a very  few 
years  those  which  are  the  larger  yiolders  and  which  “breed  true 
to  a type.”  So  far  our  cross-bred  wheats  have  accidentally  been 
subjected  to  conditions  giving  the  plants  an  unequal  chance,  and 
therefore  only  this  general  discussion  is  here  attempted.  The  writer 
is  especially  anxious  to  enter  into  communication  with  all  who 
have  had  experience  in  methods  of  crossing  and  the  careful  selec- 
tion of  cereal  grains,  clovers  and  grasses. 


271 


BARLEY— VARIETY  TESTS. 

With,  our  lessened  profits  in  wheat  and  special  grain  farming, 
more  interest  is  centering  in  crops  to  be  used  as  food  for  live  stock. 
Barley  which  is  not  colored  or  slightly  off  odor  or  flavor  from  be- 
coming wet  from  the  time  it  ripens  till  it  is  marketed  brings 
a very  good  price  per  acre  in  the  markets  for  malting  purposes. 
Experiments  show  that  a ton  of  barley  is  nearly  as  valuable  to 
feed  most  animals  as  a ton  of  corn.  Owing  to  its  liability  to  fer- 


TABLE  XC-  Barley,  Variety  Tests,  1894. 


Variety. 

Source. 

Height. 

Botanical  Notes. 

| Days  Maturing. 

Yield  per 
Acre. 

Grade. 

1 

Yield  at  Far- 
go, 1893. 

o 

CCS 

p-2* 

03  y- 

Cm 

O 

^ • 
£ i 
a © 

5a 

o o> 

W" 

3(2 

M 

£ 

U 

w 

.2  • 
*3 

o 

£ 

cS 

w 

a 

M 

o 

Manshury 

Fargo 

24 

3.0 

2 

85 

78 

1 , 060 

9.2 

3 

Manshury 

Fargo 

21 

2.5 

6 

85 

71 

1,060 

13.3 

4 

Salzer’s 

8 argo  

20 

3 K 

2 

85 

78 

620 

12.1 

3 

New  Zealand 

Fargo 

21 

2 

85 

83 

790 

8.5 

4 

Manshnry 

Fargo  

24 

234 

6 

85 

71 

9 1 0 

14.3 

4 

Champion  of  Veimont. 

Fargo  

24 

3.0 

2 

95 

71 

880 

10.8 

4 

Carter’s 

Fargo  

20 

2 

85 

78 

910 

8.2 

4 

Imperial 

Fargo 

27 

3.0 

6 

85 

71 

970 

11.0 

4 

Chevalier 

Fargo  

21 

3.0 

2 

85 

78 

1,200 

10  4 

4 

Improved  Black 

Fargo 

VI 

2.0 

6 

65 

71 

1,400 

18.7 

2 

Black  Hulless 

Fargo 

24 

]% 

6 

65 

71 

970 

19.3 

1 

Excelsior 

South  Dakota 

24 

2>| 

6 

80 

71 

970 

15.2 

3 

Chevalier 

Brandon  

21 

3.0 

2 

85 

78 

1, 190 

12.7 

4 

French  Chevalier 

Brandon 

21 

3 34 

2 

85 

78 

1,260 

15.4 

4 

Danish 

Brandon 

21 

3.0 

2 

85 

78 

1, 100 

10.4 

4 

Petschara 

Brandon 

27 

2% 

6 

85 

70 

1,040 

13.7 

4 

Thanet 

Brar  don 

21 

3.0 

2 

85 

78 

1,  . 30 

11.8 

4 

Oderbruck  

Brandon 

21 

1% 

6 

85 

71 

850 

17.7 

4 

Gold  Thorpe 

Brandon  

21 

3.0 

2 

85 

84 

860 

5 0 

4 1 

Odessa.' 

Brandon  

27 

6 

85 

71 

1, 170 

23.5 

3 

Sharp’s  Improved 

Brandon 

24 

3 y2 

2 

85 

78 

1,760 

16.0 

4 

Golden  Grains 

Brandon 

21 

3.0 

2 

85 

78  j 

1,600 

14.5 

4 

Manshury 

Brandon 

28 

2^ 
3 yo 

6 

8"> 

71 

1,560 

21 .6 

4 

Canadian  Thorpe 

Brandon 

21 

2 

85 

77 

1 , 320 

14.1 

4 

Manshury 

Brandon  

28 

2 <1 

6 

85 

71 

1, 700 

22.9 

4 

Success  or  Beardless.  .. 

South  Dakota 

21 

m 

6 

85 

71 

780 

19.1 

3 

1,016 

24.58 

Bernard’s 

Pipestone,  Minn.. 

24 

2 34 

6 

85 

71 

1,600 

20.8 

4 

1,242 

‘,0.73 

Highland  Chief. 

Station 

21 

6 

65 

77 

1,200 

12.5 

4 

1,305 

17.77 

Black 

Station 

21 

6 

65 

71 

1,  380 

21.2 

2 

1,507 

24.16 

Oderbruck 

Guelph  .. 

20 

67 

17.3 

Mandscheuse 

Guelph 

20 

70 

11.3 

French  Chevalier 

Guelph  .. 

20 

j 

78 

1.8 

Imp.  Chyne 

21 

I 

78 

4.1 

Thanet 

21 

i 

78 

6.9 

Scotch  Improved, 

Guelph 

21 

j 

66. 

17.7 

Empress 

Guelph 

22 

i 

78 

1.8 

German  Golden 

Guelph 

22 

! 

80 

3.0 

Common  Six  Rowed... 

19 

1 

67 

9.2 

1 

ment  the  odor  and  flavor  of  the  barley  are  often  impaired  and  ani- 
mals do  not  relish  such  injured  barley  as  a large  part  of  the  food 
ration.  All  things  considered,  barley  is  one  of  the  most  important 


272 


crops  we  have,  feixty-nine  samples,  representing  all  the  promising 
classes  of  barley,  were  secured  from  the  North  and  South  Dakota 
Experiment  Stations,  from  the  Dominion  Experiment  Farm  at 
Brandon,  Man.,  and  from  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  at 
Guelph,  as  shown  in  Table  XC.  We  hope  to  find  some  of  these 
kinds  of  barley  which  will  be  especially  promising  for  propagating 
to  distribute  to  farmers.  We  have  placed  the  better  kinds  in  our 
grain  nursery  to  make  improved  kinds  by  selecting  and  crossing. 

In  1894  thirty-nine  varieties  of  barley  were  sown  on  the  Uni- 
versity Farm.  At  the  University  Farm  the  excessively  wet  spring 
made  all  our  planting  late,  and  the  summer  being  very  dry  the 
crop  was  cut  very  short.  Four  varieties  yielded  over  twenty  bush- 
els per  acre,  viz.:  Odessa,  28.5  bushels;  Manshury,  av.  22.2  bushels: 

Black,  21.2  bushels;  and  Bernards,  20.8  bushels.  Three  yielded 
between  eighteen  and  twenty  bushels  per  acre,  namely  : Black  Hul- 
less,  19.3;  Success,  19.1;  and  Improved  Black,  18.7. 

FLAX— VARIETY  TESTS. 

Tests  of  varieties  of  flax  were  commenced  at  the  university  farm 
and  Coteau  farm  in  1894  with  a view  to  discovering  the  best  kinds 
to  grow  for  seed,  for  seed  and  fibre  combined,  and  for  fibre  alone. 
The  droughty  season  made  the  trials  somewhat  unsatisfactory,  espe- 
cially the  test  of  fibre  production.  Foreign  seed  obtained  originally 
from  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  was  tried,  some 
from  various  seedsmen,  and  some  selected  from  good  crops  grown 
by  farmers.  A few  of  these  varieties  were  grown  in  1893  at  Fargo, 
N.  D. 

In  Table  XCI.  are  arranged  the  facts  so  far  as  we  have  tested  the 
yields,  the  days  required  to  mature,  etc.  Number  6 in  Table  XCI. 
certainly  seems  of  enough  promise  as  an  especially  good  yielder  of 
seed,  and  also  of  fibre,  to  justify  us  in  propagating  it  and  in  using 
it  for  a basis  in  trying  to  make  new  varieties  by  selection  and  possi- 
bly by  crossing.  White  blossomed  Dutch  flax  is  apparently  not 
well  adapted  to  use  in  our  rather  dry  climate.  Some  years  since 
much  advice  was  given  that  we  use  flaxseed  imported  from  Russia 
from  which  to  grow  fibres,  or  that  which  had  been  grown  only  one 
or  two  years  in  Western  Europe,  where  it  is  the  custom  to  get 
annually  part  of  the  seed  from  Riga  and  other  parts  of  Russia.  It 
seems  quite  wrong  for  us  to  depend  on  such  a remote  source  for  our 
flaxseed  to  grow  fibre,  even  if  Russia  has  a superior  climate  in 
which  to  produce  flax  seed.  The  figures  in  the  accompanying  ta- 


273 


ble  indicate  that  the  Northwest  is  quite  as  good  a source  of  flax- 
seed for  this  country  and  possibly  for  the  growers  of  iiax  fibre  in 
Western  Europe  as  is  Russia.  Wre  find  no  records  of  efforts  to 
improve  flax  by  crossing  plants,  nor  even  by  the  selection  of  indi- 
vidual plants,  and  we  shall  endeavor  to  not  only  propagate  the  best 
seed  we  can  find  but  also  inaugurate  experiments  to  improve  flax 
by  careful  breeding. 

TABLE  XCI.— Flax,  Variety  Tests. 


o 


"o 

P 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 
9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 


Variety. 

Source. 

1 to 

Days  Maturing  at 
University  Farm 

Yield. 

1 Average  of  Two 
1 Yields. 

o 

ft 

tn 

oS 

'C  05 
% 00 

1 Average  of  Three  j 
| Yields. 

Grain — 
Coteau. 

Uni.  Farm. 

1 Height. 

Days  Matt 
Coteau. 

Straw. 

Grain. 

Imported  Belgian 

U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agric’l’r. 

21 

70 

64 

3.9 

1. 182 

6.7 

5.3 

Imp.  White  Blossom  Dutch 

U.  S.  Dept,  of  AgricTr 

19 

70 

64 

2.6 

1,324 

10.2 

6.4 

Salzer’s  Dakota  Grown 

Fargo 

19 

70 

64 

4.4 

1 , 485 

6.9 

5.7 

14.4 

8.6 

Imported  Riga 

Fargo 

21 

70 

64 

2.5 

1,709 

8.3 

5.4 

10.0 

6.9 

American  Flax 

Badger  State  Seed  Farm 

21 

64 

1,831 

10.9 

Fargo  Flax 

Fargo 

18 

70 

64 

4.8 

1,812 

9.1 

7.0 

16*1 

10.6 

Russian  Flax 

18 

64 

1,606 

8.5 

Imported  Pure  Riga 

Fargo 

20 

70  i 

64 

2.8 

1,855 

9.1 

6.0 

White  Blossom  Dutch 

Fargo 

17 

70 

64 

2.1 

1,045 

11.5 

6.8 

12.4 

8.7 

♦Belgian  Riga 

19 

64 

2.6 

1,555 

8.5 

5.6 

No.  1 

University  Farm 

17 

64 

1, 945 

8.8 

No.  2 

University  Farm 

22 

64 

1,724 

9.0 

No.  3 

Univei  sir.y  Farm 

22 

64 

1,888 

8.5 

Belgian  Flax 

N.  B.  & G.  Co 

18 

70  I 

2.4 

Belgian  Flax 

N.  B.  & G.  Co 

18 

TO 

2.6 

♦Grown  in  Flanders,  1891. 


PEAS,  FIELD— VARIETY  TESTS. 

During  several  years  past  we  have  been  testing  varieties  of 
field  peas  and  studying  the  best  ways  of  planting  them  and  have 
devise  d a better  means  of  harvesting  the  ripe  peas. 

Table  XCII.  gives  the  yields  of  the  varieties  planted  at  the  uni- 
versity farm.  Owing  to  drought,  making  the  crop  light,  and  to  a 
high  wind  which  blew  the  harvested  peas  about,  thus  mixing  those  on 
adjacent  plots,  records  of  yields  at  the  Coteau  farm  were  not  made. 
The  small  white  field  peas,  the  somewhat  larger  white  field  peas, 
as  Prince  of  Wales,  Blue  and  Green  field  peas,  and  both  white  and 
black  eyed  marrowfats,  as  offered  by  our  seedsmen,  are  nearly 
always  fair  yielders.  In  this  table  are  a number  of  the  best  varie- 
ties we  used  in  variety  tests  during  the  past  years.  They  are 
marked  as  coming  from  the  university  farm  and  Fargo,  and  with 
them  are  a number  of  varieties  found  best  after  several  years’ 
trial  at  the  Canadian  Experiment  Farm  at  Brandon,  Man.  These 
were  kindly  furnished  us  by  Supt.  S.  A.  Bedford.  The  yields  in 


1894  have  been  very  low  for  all  kinds,  and  are  reported  here  to 
show  which  kinds  yield  best  under  very  droughty  conditions.  The 
yields  of  the  varieties  grown  by  me  in  1892  and  1893  are  given, 
showing  how  these  varieties  yielded  on  a heavy  soil  in  the  wet 
season  of  1893  at  Fargo,  N.  D.,  and  their  average  yields  in  1892  at 
Power,  Richland  county,  on  sandy  soil,  with  a fairly  good  supply 
of  rain  and  on  good  soil  with  a fair  supply  of  rain  at  Michigan  City, 
Nelson  county,  N.  D.  While  peas  yield  poorly  at  times,  our  experi- 
ments with  them  indicate  as  good  average  yields  per  acre  on  our 
wheat  soils  as  we  obtain  of  wheat. 

TABLE  XCII.— Peas,  Variety  Tests. 


| University  No. 

Variety. 

Source. 

Size  of  Peas.  J 

Form  of  Ripe 
Peas. 

Color  of  Ripe 
Peas. 

| 1 >ays  Maturing.  | 

| Length  of  Vine. 

Evenness  of  j 

Ripening. 

Yield  at  Univer- 
sity Farm. 

Yield,  1893,  at 
Fargo. 

Yield,  1892,  Dak.  1 
Av.of  two  Local.! 

1 

Mummy  

Brandon  

70 

18 

90 

2.7 

2 

Multiplier 

Brandon 

71 

20 

85 

3.3 

3 

Crown 

Brandon  

67 

20 

90 

4 

Prussian  Blue 

Brandon  

71 

19 

90 

4.5 

5 

Centennial 

Brandon 

70 

19 

85 

4.2 

6 

Pride 

Brandon  

65 

15 

90 

4.3 

7 

White  Canada  Field 

Brandon  

65 

25 

85 

2.7 

8 

White  Eyed  Marrowfat 

University  Farm... 

Medium 

Smooth. 

Wh  ite. 

73 

26 

90 

3.2 

9 

White  Canada  Field 

University  Farm... 

Medium 

Smo'  th. 

White. 

68 

16 

90 

6.5 

10 

Black  Eyed  Marrowfat 

University  Farm... 

Small. 

Smooth. 

White. 

7 

20 

85 

1 9.8 

11 

Prince  of  Wales 

University  Farm... 

Large. 

WriDk. 

White. 

70 

15 

90 

4.3 

12 

Blue  Imperial 

University  Farm... 

Large. 

Smooth. 

Blue. 

69 

20 

90 

6.2 

13 

Golden  Vine 

Fargo.  

Medium 

Smooth. 

White. 

71 

24 

75 

4.2 

20.9 

41.2 

14 

Black-Eyed  Marrowfat 

Fargo  

Large. 

Smooth. 

White. 

70 

25 

75 

5.2 

17.3 

33.6 

15 

Alpha 

Fargo  

Medium 

Smooth. 

Blue. 

70 

13 

90 

8.6 

16 

Bliss’  Evergreen  

Fargo  

Large. 

Wrink. 

Blue. 

70 

14 

85 

8.2 

16.1 

20.2 

17 

Horsford’s  Market  Garden. 

Fargo  

Medium 

Wiink. 

Blue. 

66 

13 

85 

5.7 

12.9 

30.0 

18 

Yorkshire  Hero 

Fargo 

Large. 

Wrink. 

Whre. 

71 

20 

85 

5.3 

14.3 

27.7 

19 

Blue  Prussian 

Fargo  

Medium 

Smooth. 

Blue. 

73 

20 

85 

4.3 

10.9 

40.1 

20 

Egypt  an  Mummy 

Fargo  

Medi*  m 

Smooth. 

White. 

71 

20 

90 

7.7 

11.9 

34.6 

21 

Cr<*wn  

Fargo  

Small. 

Smooth. 

Blue 

68 

15 

75 

7.*> 

13.7 

41 .0 

22 

Golden  Vine 

Fargo ..... 

Small. 

Smooth. 

V\  hite. 

71 

23 

75 

5.7 

13.7 

33.0 

23 

White  Canada  Field 

Fargo  

Small. 

Smooth. 

White. 

67 

19 

90 

9.2 

24 

Prince  of  Wales 

Fargo  

Large. 

Wrink. 

White. 

65 

18 

90 

9.2 

16. 61 

45.8 

25 

Pride  of  the  Market 

Fargo  

Large. 

Wrink. 

Blue. 

66 

19 

85 

8.2 

15.9 

25.2 

26 

Green  Canada  Field 

Fargo 

Medium 

Smooth. 

Blue. 

70 

25 

90 

7.8 

10.0 

27 

Blue  Field  

Fargo 

Medium 

Smooth. 

Blue. 

78 

25 

90 

8 3 

21.1 

28 

Audubon  

Audubon  

Medium 

Smooth. 

Blue. 

78 

24 

90 

7.0 

29 

Potter 

Brandon  

78 

23 

90 

6.7 

30 

Canadian  Beauty 

Brandon  

Large. 

Smooth. 

White. 

78 

29 

90 

9.7 

31 

Prince  Albert 

Brandon  

Medium 

Smooth.1 

White. 

78 

24 

85 

6 6 

MILLET— VARIETY  TESTS. 

A collection  of  varieties  of  millets  was  made  in  the  spring  of 
1894,  and  plots  of  each  were  planted  at  the  university  farm  and  at 
the  Coteau  farm.  At  the  university  farm  the  drought  prevented  ua 
getting  any  results,  the  seed  not  even  germinating.  Table  XCIII. 
shows  the  yields  of  several  varieties  at  the  Coteau  farm.  Under 
the  rather  droughty  conditions  prevailing  there  the  past  s a:  on  it  will 


275 


be  observed  that  one  of  the  smaller  varieties  of  millet  yielded  the 
most  hay.  By  an  unintentional  planting  of  Dhoura  with  the  mil- 
lets we  were  fortunate  enough  to  give  this  non  saccharine  sorghum 
a trial  with  millets  as  a hay  producer.  It  may  even  prove  useful 
as  an  annual  pasture  crop,  something  often  needed  in  cases  where  a 
crop  of  grass  for  pasture  has  failed  to  make  a stand.  California 
or  broom  corn  millet  yielded  only  about  as  much  as  the  average 
millets.  This  so-called  millet,  however,  is  of  great  interest.  It  is 
not  a true  millet,  but  belongs  to  the  genus  panicum  (Panicum  milea- 
cerum)  rather  than  to  Setaria.  The  argument  strongly  presented 
against  millet  as  a food  for  horses,  on  account  of  its  active  effect 
on  the  kidneys,  will  doubtless  not  be  held  against  this  panicum 
milleaceum.  It  bears  heavily  of  seed,  and  under  some  conditions 
may  prove  profitable  as  a grain  crop  to  raise  for  seed.  More  favora- 
ble seasons  wall  tell  us  more  definitely  of  the  value  of  these  two 
promising  new  annual  fodder  plants. 

TABLE  XCIII.-Millet,  Variety  Tests,  1894. 


Variety. 


-d  U, 

- — D o 

.2  cLo 


1 Hungarian  Grass 

2 German  Millet 

3 California  Millet 

4 German  Millet 

5 White  French 

6 Dhoura,  or  Large  African 

7 Salzer’s  Dakota  Grown.... 


4,  820 
2, 190 
3,360 
3, 031 
3,  000 
2,  580 
3,490 


WHEAT  AND  OATS  MIXED,  SUCCOTASH. 

In  1891  a study  was  begun  of  the  economy  of  sowing  wheat  and 
oats  together.  Nine  plots  forty-five  rods  by  less  than  two  rods  were 
sown  to  wheat,  to  oats,  and  to  wheat  and  oats  mixed  iu  several  propor- 
tions on  corn  stubble.  The  grain  was  all  cultivated  in  with  a corn 
cultivator  and  the  land  made  smooth  by  using  the  Scotch  harrow. 
The  conditions  were  good  for  a large  crop.  The  land  is  naturally 
well  underdrained,  and  having  been  in  clover  prior  to  raising  a 
crop  of  corn,  it  was  in  good  heart.  In  places  the  land  was  so  rich 
that  the  oats  lodged  quite  badly.  The  amount  of  lodging  on  each 
plot,  as  also  the  yield  of  each  kind  of  grain  and  of  the  straw  is 
shown  below. 

By  accident  the  proportions  of  wheat  and  oats  in  the  succotash 
crop  were  not  preserved. 


276 


TABLE  XCIV— Succotash  of  Wheat  and  Cats  Mixed. 


Plot. 

Amount  Seed  Sown. 

PerCent  Straw 
Lodged. 

Pounds  Grain 
per  Acre. 

Bushels  Wheat 
per  Acre. 

Bushels  Oats 
per  Acre, 

1 

Oats,  3%  bushels  per  acre 

5 

3, 109 

97 

2 

Oats,  234  bushels,  and  wheat,  34  bushel  per  acre 

3 

3’  196 

3 

Wheat,  134  bushels  per  acre 

None. 

2,463 

41.0 

4 

Oats,  234  bushels;  wheat,  % bushel  per  acre 

15 

3, 060 

5 

Oats,  3 bushels  per  acre 

33 

3, 001 

94 

6 

Oats,  15  9 bushels;  wheat,  7 9 bushel  per  acre 

33 

2,697 

7 

Wheat,  34  bushel  per  acre 

3 

2, 199 

36.6 

8 

Oats,  % bushel;  wheat,  % bushel  per  acre 

2 

2,  654 

9 

Oats,  3 bushels  per  acre 

25 

2,632 

82%. 

Average  of  wheat  alone 

2,  331 

38.8 

Average  of  oats  alone 

2,  914 

91 

Average  of  succotash 

2,902 

As  the  wheat  is  but  little  more  valuable  for  feed  than  oats  the 
advantage  of  the  mixed  crop  over  oats  in  this  single  case  is  very 
small.  Not  much  would  be  gained  in  this  case  by  separating  them 
by  means  of  an  “angle  mill,”  made  to  separate  oats  from  wheat. 

METHODS  OF  SEEDING  OATS. 

In  1891  ten  plots,  each  forty-five  rods  long  and  containing  nearly 
one-half  acre  were  sown  to  oats,  of  the  Welcome  class,  to  test 
three  methods  of  seeding.  The  land  had  been  in  corn  the  year 
previous,  was  naturally  well  underdrained  and  was  in  good  heart. 
The  corn  stalks  had  all  been  removed,  and  the  seed  was  sown  with 

TABLE  XCV.—  Manner  of  Covering-  Oats  Sowed  Broadcast. 


Plot. 

Manner  of  Seeding  on  Corn  Stubble. 

Oats,  per  Acre, 
Bushels. 

Straw, perAcre, 
Pounds. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Cultivated  in  with  norn  cultivator 

82 

3,107 
3, 490 
3, 510 
3,360 
3, 895 
3,781 
3,  727 
2,  936 
3,575 
3, 152 

Harrowed  in  on  spring  plowed  land 

85 

Plowed  under  four  inches  deep  with  cross  plow... 

82 

Same  as  No.  1 

82 

5 

Same  as  No.  2 

81 

6 

7 

Same  as  No.  3 • 

89 

Same  as  No.  1 

92 

72 

8 

9 

Same  as  No.  2 

Same  as  No.  3 .....  ... 

83 

10 

gjjjg  gg  No.  1 

74 

Average  of  plots  ^cultl^at^d  in” 

8234 

79i< 

3,330 
3,  443 
3,622 

Average  of  plots  sowed  on  top  of  spring  plowing 

Average  of  plots  plowed  under, * 

84% 

277 


a broadcast  seeder,  each  plot  having  four  seeder  widths.  Nos.  1^ 
4,  7 and  10  were  sown  in  the  unprepared  corn  stubble  land  and  were 
“cultivated  in”  with  an  ordinary  two-horse  corn  cultivator,  followed 
by  the  Scotch  harrow.  Nos.  2,  5 and  8 were  first  plowed  and  the 
oats  sowed  on  the  spring  plowing,  and  “harrowed  in.”  On  Nos.  3, 
6 and  9 the  oats  were  sown  on  the  corn  stubble  and  plowed  under 
three  or  four  inches  deep  with  a stirring  plow,  the  land  being 
smoothed  over  with  the  harrow.  The  table  gives  the  manner  of 
seeding  and  the  yield  of  straw  and  grain. 

The  results  are  surprisingly  uniform.  The  conditions  were  good 
for  a large  crop  of  oats.  Doubtless  had  the  season  been  unfavorable 
one  or  two  of  the  methods  would  have  been  found  best. 

ROLLING  OATS  TO  PREVENT  LODGING. 

In  1891  a field  of  oats,  which  had  been  seeded  in  a uniform 
manner,  by  sowing  the  seeds  on  corn  stubble  and  cultivating  it 
under  with  a corn  cultivator  and  then  smoothing  with  the  drag,  was 

TABLE  XCVI.— Rolling-  Oats  to  Prevent  Lodging-. 


| Plot. 

Bushels 
Oats  per 
Acre. 

Pounds 
Straw  per 
Acre. 

1 

2 

Rolled  twelve  inches  high 

84 

2, 573 
3,013 
2, 706 
3,147 
2, 280 

Not  rolled 

85 

3 

Rolled  when  eight  inches  high 

76 

4 

Not  rolled 

5 

Rolled  when  twelve  inches  high 

6 

7 

Not  rolled 

} 3* 

2,  880 

Rolled  when  eight  inches  high 

2,440 

Average  of  plots  not  rolled 

80 

3, 013 
2,  573 

Average  of  plots  rolled  when  eight  inches  high 

69 

Average  of  plots  rolled  when  twelve  inches  high 

7% 

2,427 

divided  into  seven  plots  each  two  by  thirty  rods.  On  plots  1 and 
5 the  oats  were  rolled  down  with  a two-horse  roller  of  medium 
weight  when  the  plants  stood  twelve  inches  high.  On  plots  3 and 
7 the  oats  were  rolled  dowTn  when  eight  inches  high.  And  plots 
2,  4 and  6 were  not  rolled,  but  served  as  check  or  control  plots  to 
compare  with  those  on  which  the  roller  was  used,  to  test  whether 
rolling  would  prevent  lodging  and  cause  a better  yield  of  oats. 

The  oats  which  were  subjected  to  pressure  by  the  roller  did  not 
ripen  as  soon  within  about  two  days  as  those  undisturbed.  The 
land  was  quite  rich  and  the  oats  on  all  the  plots  went  down  in 
spots. 


278 


The  oats  rolled  when  eight  inches  high  stood  up  somewhat  better 
than  those  not  rolled  or  those  rolled  when  12  inches  high.  The 
oats  on  all  rolled  plots  were  not  so  tall  by  a few  inches  as  those  not 
rolled  and  the  yield  of  straw  as  well  as  of  grain  was  lessened  by 
rolling. 

TABLE  XCVII.— Hay  of  Mixed  Annual  Crops. 

Oats  and  Peas  Mixed  for  Hay. 


| No.  of  Plot. 

Grain. 

Purpose. 

Days  Maturing 
for  Hay. 

Weight  of  Hay 
Per  Acre. 

1 

Oats,  80  pounds 

J lay 

69 

69 

2,130 

2,270 

1,890 

1,960 

1,470 

1,480 

2 

Oats,  64  pounds 

Hay 

3 

Oats,  56  pounds;  peas,  30  pounds 

69 

4 

Oats,  50  pounds;  peas,  30  pounds 

69 

5 

Peas,  180  pounds 

69 

6 

Peas,  120  pounds 

69 

Flax  and  Millet  Mixed  for  Hay. 


| No.  of  Plot. 

Grains  Sown. 

Days  Maturing 
! for  Hay. 

Yield  Hay  per 
Acre. 

1 

Flax,  25  pounds;  millet,  25  pounds 

42 

440 

2 

Flax,  18  pounds;  millet,  25  pounds 

42 

370 

3 

Flax,  25  pounds;  millet,  15  pounds 

42 

430 

Peas  and  Flax  for  Hay. 


No.  of  Plot. 

Grain  per  Acre. 

Days  Maturing 
for  Hay. 

Yield  of  Hay  1 

per  Acre. 

1 

Peas,  U bushels;  flax,  1 peck 

57 

760 

2 

Peas,  2 bushels;  flix,  1 peck 

57 

820 

3 

Peas,  1J  bushels;  flax,  1 peck 

52 

790 

4 

Peas,  2 bushels;  flax,  1 peck 

52 

600 

5 

Peas,  H bushels;  flax,  1 peck 

48 

340 

6 

Peas,  2 bushels;  flax,  1 peck 

48 

740 

279 


HAY  PRODUCTION  BY  SEEDING  ANNUAL  CROPS. 

In  1894  millet,  oats,  peas  and  flax  were  each  sown  alone,  and 
they  were  also  mixed  in  various  combinations  and  in  different  pro- 
portions to  find  how  best  to  make  crops  of  hay  by  the  use  of  an- 
nual forage  crops.  The  land  chosen  at  the  university  farm  is  grav- 
elly and  with  the  severe  drought  no  crop  resulted.  At  the  Coteau 
farm,  however,  some  of  the  plots  did  fairly  well,  though  drought 
there  also  did  considerable  injury.  The  oats,  and  the  oats  and 
peas  in  combination,  produced  most,  while  the  other  crops  pro- 
duced very  poorly.  Certainly  for  very  droughty  conditions  none  of 
these  crops  promise  large  yields  of  hay.  We  have  started  experi- 
ments also  in  the  growing  of  pasturage,  as  well  as  soilage  crops  for 
midsummer  feeding  by  the  use  of  annual  forage  crops. 

GRAIN  SEEDING  IMPLEMENT  TESTS-TIME  OF  PLANTING. 

WHEAT. 

In  the  spring  of  1894  on  the  university  farm  seven  plots  were 
sown  to  wheat  and  a like  number  to  oats,  two  with  shoe  drill,  two 
with  chain  drill,  two  with  hoe  drill,  two  with  broadcast  seeder  and 
one  with  press  drill.  One  of  each  of  the  pairs  was  sown  medium 
early,  on  April  23d,  and  one  on  May  4th,  rather  late  in  the  season. 
Early  seeding  of  still  other  plots  with  each  machine  was  prevented 
by  constant  light  showers  which  kept  the  land  muddy.  The  soil 
was  a rich  clay  loam,  fall  plowed  and  in  good  condition.  In  the 
early  seeding  of  wheat  there  was  little  difference,  the  several  ma- 
chines ranking  in  the  following  order:  hoe  drill,  press  drill,  Dow- 
agiac  shoe  chain  drill  and  broadcast  seeder.  The  extremely  dry 
season  caused  a very  short  yield  of  grain.  In  the  later  planting 
the  press  drill,  unfortunately,  was  not  used.  The  chain  drill  plot 
yielded  8.1  bushels,  the  hoe  drill  plot  yielded  7.2  bushels,  and  the 
broadcast  seeder  plot  gave  a yield  of  only  5.5  bushels  per  acre. 

In  straw,  the  yields  in  the  early  planted  plots  were  equally 
large  where  the  press  and  hoe  drills  were  used,  and  six  per  cent 
less  where  the  wheat  was  seeded  with  the  chain  shoe  drill  and  the 
broadcast  machine.  In  the  later  planting,  the  hoe  drill  gave  the 
largest  yield  of  straw  and  the  broadcast  seeding  the  smallest 
amount  of  straw  per  acre. 

OATS. 

In  the  earlier  seeding  to  oats  there  was  the  largest  yield  on 
the  plots  sown  with  the  hoe  drill,  the  shoe  chain  drill  stood  next, 
the  broadcast  seeder  next  and  the  press  drill  last.  In  the  later 


280 


seeding  the  hoe  drill  is  again  decidedly  in  the  lead,  the  shoe  drill 
next  and  the  broadcast  decidedly  the  lowest  in  yield. 

In  the  yields  of  straw  the  implements  rank,  for  the  earlier 
planting,  as  follows:  hoe  drill,  press  drill,  shoe  chain  drill  and 
broadcast  seeder;  and  for  the  late  planting  thus:  hoe  drill,  shoe 
chain  drill,  and  broadcast  seeder.  In  Table  XCYIII.  are  collected  the 
results  of  an  experiment  in  1893  and  a similar  trial  in  1894. 


TABLE  XCVIII.— Wheat  Implements  for  Sowing-,  Time  of  Sowing-. 


No.  of  Plot.  1 1 

Implement. 

Date  Sown. 

Amount  seed  per 
Acre. 

Days  Maturing. 

Per  cent  Stand. 

Yield  per 
Acre. 

j Average  of 
Each  Machine 
for  Both  Dates. 

Yield, 

1893. 

Average 
for  two 
years. 

Pounds 

Straw. 

Bushels 

Grain. 

Pounds 

Straw. 

Bushels 

Grain. 

Pounds 

Straw. 

Bushels 

Grain. 

Pounds 

Straw. 

Bushels 

Grain. 

1 

Havana  drill 

Apr.  23... 

1.5 

85 

85 

1,780 

10.3 

1,780 

10.3 

3 

Dowagiac  shoe-chain  drill.. 

Apr.  23... 

1.1 

86 

75 

1,692 

10.21 

9.1 

4 

Dowagiac  shoe-chain  drill.. 

May  4.... 

1.5 

81 

82 

1,262 

8.1/ 

1, 477 

5 

Hoe  drill 

Apr.  23... 

1.4 

86 

80 

1,781 

10.7) 

6 

Hoe  drill 

May  4.... 

1.3 

81 

82 

1,364 

7.2/ 

1, 572 

8.9 

1,362 

13.35 

1,467 

11.12 

7 

Broadcast  seeder 

Apr.  23... 

1.7 

86 

78 

1,700 

10.0  ( 

8 

Broadcast  seeder 

May  4.... 

1.3 

81 

75 

932 

5.5  \ 

1, 316 

7.7 

1, 575 

15.56 

1, 445 

11.63 

Average  of  all  machines  ) 

Apr.  23... 

86 

1,738 

10.3 

for  each  date ) 

May  4.... 

82 

1,090 

6.2 

Oats.— Implements  for  Sowing— Time  of  Sowing. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 


Havana  drill 

Apr.23... 

2.2 

86 

90 

1,634 

North  Star  seeder..  

May  4.... 

1.6 

82 

82 

1,103 

Dowagiac  shoe-chain  drill.. 

Apr.23... 

2.5 

86 

88 

1,631 

Dowagiac  shoe-chain  drill.. 

May  4.... 

2.3 

82 

80 

1,277 

Hoe  drill 

Apr.23... 

2.0 

86 

85 

1,795 

Hoe  drill 

May  4.... 

1.6 

81 

82 

1,330 

Broadcast  seeder 

Apr.23... 

2.4 

86 

82 

1,361 

Broadcast  seeder  

May  4.... 

1.4 

82 

78 

1,090 

Average  of  all  machines ) 

Apr.23... 

86 

1,605 

for  each  date j 

May  4.... 

81 

1,200 

29.1 

1,  b34 

29.1 

26.7 

32.8) 

29.8/ 

1,103 

1,454 

26.7 

31.3 

3,  278 

61.03 

2,190 

43.86 

34.5  1 
39.7  f 

1,562 

37.1 

3,085 

57.46 

2,323 

47.28 

32.2) 

23.7/ 

32.1 

1,225 

27.9 

3, 221 

61.25 

2,  223 

44.57 

30.0 

During  the  past  several  years  a number  of  experiments  have 
been  conducted  in  Minnesota  and  by  other  experiment  stations  in 
the  Northwest,  under  conditions  more  or  less  droughty,  to  test 
the  different  ways  and  machines  for  sowing  spring  grains.  An  im- 
mense amount  of  experimenting,  some  of  it  very  costly,  has  also 
been  done  by  the  farmers  and  by  manufacturers  of  wheat  seeding 
machinery.  The  broadcast  seeder  was  largely  supplanted  a decade 
or  more  ago  by  the  hoe  drill,  and  now  shoe  drills  have  nearly  sup- 
planted the  hoe  drills  in  the  Northwest. 

Broadcast  seeders  of  several  patterns  are  still  in  use  by  some 
and  on  heavy  moist  soils,  and  especially  for  very  early  sown  they 
are  very  useful.  The  labor  of  seeding  is  least  when  the  broadcast 
machine  is  used.  On  soils  like  much  of  that  in  the  Bed  River  Val- 
ley no  harm  seems  to  come  from  “mudding”  in  the  grain,  as  there 


281 


the  puddled  soil  when  dry  “slacks”  into  dust  as  would  chunks  of 
quick  lime.  By  using  the  broadcast  machine  earlier  than  it  is  pos- 
sible to  use  the  drill  because  of  rains  and  muddy  soils  early  in 
spring,  Red  River  Valley  farmers  sometimes  get  their  crops  planted 
early  and  have  a better  crop  than  if  they  wait  until  the  soil  is  dry 
enough  to  use  the  drill.  Where  the  soil  has  not  that  peculiar  prop- 
erty of  again  breaking  up  into  fine  particles  when  dried  after  pud- 
dling, this  use  of  the  broadcast  seeder  followed  by  the  drag  is  not 
advisable.  Broadcasting  seems  to  be  as  good  a plan  of  seeding  as 
any  when  there  is  an  abundance  of  moisture  in  the  surface  of  the 
soil.  When  the  soil  is  rather  dry  the  drill  is  better  than  the  broad- 
cast seeder.  The  class  of  drills  known  as  hoe  drills,  which  have 
shovels  attached  to  the  bottom  of  a tube  through  which  the  seeds 
fall  into  the  furrow  just  behind  the  point  of  the  small  shovel  are 
excellent  for  some  conditions.  In  seeding  among  corn  stalks  they 
work  better  than  “shoe”  drills,  as  the  shoes  or  runners  cannot  cut 
through  the  tough  stalks.  Where  th€  stubble  land  is  fall  plowed, 
so  that  the  stubble  of  corn  or  small  grain  is  turned  under,  the  shoe 
drill  is  preferable.  These  drills  are  provided  with  shoes  or  runners 
fashioned  like  those  used  on  two-horse  corn  planters  and  are  of 
various  sizes.  The  four-horse  machine  has  sixteen  and  twenty-two 
shoes  six  to  nine  inches  apart. 

There  are  two  general  classes  of  shoe  drills,  those  with  a press 
wheel  following  each  shoe  and  those  without.  A chain  is  hung  so 
as  to  drag  after  the  shoe  on  some  of  the  best  drills  which  have  no 
press  wheel.  Several  kinds  of  these  press  shoe  and  chain  drills  are 
proving  very  useful.  The  form  of  shoe  found  best  is  what  is  known  as 
the  V shaped  shoe.  The  shoes  which  have  a broad  base  and  opening 
dropping  the  seeds  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  nearly  an  inch  wide 
are  found  to  work  badly  in  muddy  soil.  By  so  shaping  the  heel 
of  the  shoe  that  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  is  V shaped  the  shoe  does 
not  clog  up  with  soft  mud.  In  heavy  lands  the  farmers  will  find 
the  chain  shoe  drill  most  satisfactory,  while  on  droughty  lands,  espe- 
cially in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  state,  where  the  rainfall  is 
least,  the  press  shoe  drill  is  best.  Grass  seeding  attachments  can 
be  procured  with  nearly  or  quite  all  grain  drills. 

OATS— THICKNESS  OF  SEEDING— TIME  OF  SOWING. 

In  1894  twelve  plots  of  oats  were  sowed  to  determine  the  amount 
of  seed  that  should  be  used  per  acrv?  and  the  best  time  of  seeding, 
with  a view  to  getting  results  through  a number  of  years  on  these 


282 


two  practical  questions.  Table  XCIX.  shows  that  two  and  one- fourth 
bushels  of  seed  per  acre  resulted  in  the  largest  yield  of  grain  and 
two  and  three-fourths  bushels  of  seed  gave  the  largest  yield  of 
straw.  The  average  yield  of  the  six  plots  sowed  April  25th  was  a 
bushel  more  per  acre  than  on  the  six  plots  sowed  twelve  days 
later.  The  yield  of  straw  was  also  larger  with  the  earlier  seeding. 
The  oats  sowed  April  25th  ripened  five  or  six  days  earlier  than  those 
which  had  been  sowed  twelve  days  later. 

TABLE  XCIX.— Oats,  Amount  Seed  per  Acre  and  Time  of  Sowing*. 


, No.  of  Plot. 

Date  Sown. 

Amount  Seed  per 
Acre. 

Days  Matur- 
ing. 

Yield  per  Acre. 

Average. 

Straw. 

Grain. 

Straw. 

Grain. 

1 

April  25 

bushels.. 

89 

1,320 

32.21 

31.7 

2 

May  7 

1 1Z  bushels... 

80 

1,2C0 

31.2  1 

1,260 

3 

April  25 

I3/?  bushels . _ 

86 

1, 180 

33.4  [ 

35.4 

4 

May  7 

l3/j  bushels 

80 

1,350 

37.5  ) 

1, 265 

5 

April  25 

2 bushels 

86 

1,605 

46.81 

1,452 

39.8 

6 

May  7 

2 bushels 

80 

1,300 

32.8  } 

7 

April  25 ,. 

2%  bushels 

86 

1,600 

43.4  1 

1,427 

44.2 

8 

May  7 

2%  bushels 

80 

1,255 

45.1  } 

9 

April  25 

2^  bushels 

86 

1,555 

40.51 

1,519 

41.1 

10 

May  7 

2-%  bushels 

80 

1,480 

41.8  J 

11 

April  25 

2%  bushels 

86 

1,720 

40.01 

1,545 

40.7 

12 

May  7 

2%  bushels 

80 

1,370 

41.5/ 

a . ,,  f April  25...**^^. 

86% 

1,496 

39.4 

Average  yield  j ? 

80 

1,326 

38.3 

WHEAT,  OATS,  BARLEY  AND  FLAX— TIME  AND  DEPTH  OF 

PLANTING. 


An  experiment  was  started  in  1894  to  determine  the  depth  at 
which  wheat,  oats,  barley  and  flax  should  be  planted  and  the  time 
at  which  the  planting  should  be  done.  One  plot  was  sown  early 
and  another  later  at  each  of  the  following  named  depths:  Three- 

fourths,  one  and  one-half,  two  and  one-half  and  three  and  one-half 
inches. 

In  Table  C.  are  collected  the  facts  as  to  depth  and  time  of  seed- 
ing and  the  yields.  All  were  on  rich  open  clay  soil,  fall  plowed  and 
fairly  compact,  but  in  fine  tilth.  To  get  at  general  laws  for  our 
state,  and  for  its  different  soils  and  climatic  conditions,  these  trials 
need  repeating  at  other  times  here  and  at  other  places.  Many 
light  rains  in  early  spring  caused  all  our  planting  to  be  rather  late. 
The  drought  made  all  yields  very  small.  The  wheat  planted  three 
and  one-half  inches  deep  yielded  best  in  grain,  while  that  planted 
three-fourths  inch  deep  yielded  much  the  larger  amount  of  straw. 


2«3 


The  yield  of  wheat  was  larger  with  the  greater  depths,  while  in 
case  of  the  straw  directly  the  opposite  is  true.  The  four  plots  of 
wheat  sown  April  27th  yielded  four  and  one-half  bushels  more 
grain  and  650  pounds,  or  one-half  more,  straw  per  acre  than  did  the 
four  plots  sown  ten  days  later.  "Wheat  planted  May  7th  ripened 
two  days  later  than  that  which  had  been  planted  ten  days  earlier. 

The  oats  planted  one  and  one-half  to  two  and  one-half  inches 
deep  yielded  the  best  in  grain.  Those  planted  one  and  one-half 
inches  deep  yielded  the  most  straw  and  those  planted  only  three- 
fourths  inch  deep  gave  the  next  best  yield,  while  that  planted 

TABLE  C.— Grains,  Time  of  Planting1,  Depth  of  Planting. 


| No.  of  Plot.  1 1 

Kinds  of  Grain. 

Date  Sown. 

Depth  Sow’n. 

! C 

1 £ 

a 

s 

SQ 

>» 

ce 

| Per  Cent.  Stand1  1 

Yield  per 
acre. 

Av.  Yield 
per  Acre. 

Straw. 

j Grain. 

Straw. 

Grain. 

1 

April  27 

inch 

88 

80 

! 3, 155 

20.8 

) 

9 

May  7 

^4  inch 

81 

80 

! ),  260 

20.0 

/ 

2, 207 

20.4 

3 

April  27 

134  inches 

88 

82 

: 1,700 

21.9 

) 

4 

Wheat 

May  7 

134  inches 

. 81 

82 

; 1,180 

19.4 

\ 

1,440 

20.6 

5 

Wheat.  ... 

April  27 

234  inches 

.!  89 

80 

1,460 

23.1 

1 

6 

Whp.at 

May  7 

234  inches 

1 81 

80 

1,070 

19.7 

\ 

1,265 

21.4 

7 

Wheat 

April  27..  

3%  inches 

, 93 

78 

i 1,130 

30.3 

> 

8 

Wheat 

May  7 

3%  inches 

81 

80 

1,270 

19.7 

1,200 

25.0 

April  27 

89 

1 841 

24.1 

Average  yield < 

May  7 

j 81 

l)  187 

19  !7 

9 

(. 

Oats 

April  27 

54  inch 

' 87 

80 

2,010 

43.4 

) 

10 

Oats 

May  7 

% inch 

' 81 

80 

1,  510 

32.8 

1,775 

38.1 

11 

Oats 

April  27 

inches 

87 

' 82 

2,790 

44.1  J 

12 

Oats 

May  7.. 

134  inches 

81 

1 82  i 

j 1,640 

36.2  f 

2,  215 

40.1 

13 

Oats 

April  27 

23|  inches 

87 

! 82 

| 1,700 

46.8  / 

14 

Oats  

May  7 

234  inches 

81  I 

I 82 

1,640 

33.1  \ 

1, 670 

39.9 

15 

Oats 

April  27 

334  inches.. 

' 87 

82 

1 1,640 

42.5' 

) 

16 

Oats 

May  7 

334  inches 

81 

80 

1,540 

33.1 

\ 

1,590 

37.8 

Average  yield { 

April  27 

87 

2, 045 

44.2 

May  7 

! 81 

l)  590 

33.8 

17 

\ 

Barley 

April  27 

54  inch 

- 80 

85 

2, 120 

24.5' 

) 

18 

Barley 

May  7 

54  inch 

82 

1,  340 

22.1 

\ 

1,730 

23.3 

19 

Barley 

April  27 

134  inches 

1 80 

88 

1,080 

23.3s 

20 

Bariev 

May  7 

inches 

7 1 

80 

1,  740 

26.3  j 

\ 

1,410 

24.8 

21 

Barley 

April  27 

2t£  inches 

80 

85 

1,500 

22.9  l 

1 

22 

Barley 

May  7 

234  inches.. 

1 71 

75 

1,  400 

27.1 } 

1,  450 

25.0 

23 

Barley. 

April  27 

334  inches 

80 

85 

1,770 

31.9  I 

24 

Bariev 

May  7 

'334  inches 

71 

75 

1,340 

26.3  r 

1, 555 

29.1 

Average  yield j 

April  27 

1 80 

1,670 

25.7 

May  7 

71 

1,  455 

25.4 

25 

Flax 

April  27 

3A  inch 

88 

85 

1,600 

10.7  1 

1 

26 

Flax 

May  7 

54  inch 

78 

80 

970 

7.6  1 

f 

1,285 

9.1 

27 

Flax 

April  27 

1 inches..  . 

' 88 

85 

1,380 

11.1 1 

28 

Flax  

May  7 

l1/^  inches 

78 

80 

870 

7.6  J 

r 

1, 125 

9.3 

29 

Flax 

April  27 

inchps..  . . 

88 

85  ’ 

1,250 

9.8] 

30 

Flax 

May  7 

2t£  inchps 

78 

75  j 

960 

7.8  J 

r 

1, 115 

8.8 

31 

Flax 

April  27 

3/4  inches 

88 

80 

1,270 

9.61 

1,185 

32 

FJax 

May  7 

3V*.  inches 

78 

75  1 

1,100 

7.1  J 

r 

8.3 

Average  yield j 

April  27 

88 

1,375 

10.3 

May  7... 

78 

975 

7.5 

284 


three  and  one-half  inches  deep  yielded  least  of  both  grain  and 
straw.  The  average  of  the  four  plots  planted  April  27th  is  44.2 
bushels  per  acre,  while  the  average  of  the  corresponding  four  plots 
planted  ten  days  later  is  10.4  bushels  less.  The  straw  on  the  earlier 
planted  plots  is  nearly  one-third  more  per  acre  than  on  the  plots 
planted  later.  Oats  planted  May  7th  ripened  four  days  later  than 
that  which  had  been  planted  ten  days  earlier. 

The  barley  planted  three  and  one-half  inches  deep  gave  decidedly 
the  best  yield  of  grain,  while  that  planted  shallower  gave  the  larg- 
est crop  of  straw.  The  yield  of  grain  was  practically  the  same  on 
the  plots  planted  May  7th  as  on  those  planted  ten  days  earlier, 
but  the  early  planted  plots  yielded  the  most  straw.  Barley  planted 
May  7th  ripened  only  one  day  earlier  than  that  which  had  been 
planted  ten  days  earlier. 

The  flax  yielded  best  in  grain  and  straw  where  planted  shallow. 
The  flax  planted  April  27th  yielded  decidedly  better  both  in  grain 
and  in  straw  than  that  planted  ten  days  later.  Flax  planted  May 
7th  ripened  on  the  same  day  as  that  which  had  been  planted  ten 
days  earlier. 

Earlier  planting  produced  better  yields  than  later  in  fourteen 
out  of  sixteen  pairs  of  plots  compared,  the  two  exceptions  being 
two  of  the  four  pairs  of  barley  plots. 

FIELD  MANAGEMENT  AND  ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

In  our  older  counties  the  pioneer  lack  of  system  in  field  manage- 
ment has  been  replaced.  Instead  of  the  constant  cropping  to  wheat, 
found  to  no  longer  pay,  farmers  now  grow  a variety  of  crops.  But 
there  is  a great  lack  of  definite  knowledge  of  the  relative  net  profits 
from  each  crop,  counting  labor  and  land  at  cost.  We  know  little 
of  the  relative  net  profits  from  any  rotation  of  crops.  We  have  no 
definite  knowledge  of  the  condition  in  which  one  crop  leaves  the 
land  for  each  other  crop.  And  other  questions  of  vital  importance 
in  getting  profits  out  of  our  fields  have  not  as  yet  been  worked  out 
by  careful  experiments.  A study  of  field  management,  to  have 
much  value,  must  be  done  in  a comprehensive  manner.  The  various 
staple  crops  must  be  grown  in  numerous  combinations.  A few 
years  will  not  suffice,  but  each  cycle  of  all  rotations  used  in  the 
experiment  should  be  repeated  a few  times.  Since  the  state  is 
composed  of  sections  widely  differing  as  to  soil  and  climate,  the 
management  of  fields  must  differ  in  the  several  parts.  Some  of 
the  simpler  standard  rotations  should  be  tried  in  the  several  sec- 
tions of  the  state,  and  others  adapted  to  the  peculiar  conditions  of 


285 


the  respective  localities  should  also  be  carried  out  in  comparison. 
This  way  of  studying  the  questions  of  how  to  manage  fields  is  be- 
ing recognized  in  other  states.  We  are  not  necessarily  interested 
in  how  much  a field  will  produce  of  any  crop,  but  how  much  of  net 
profit  there  is  for  the  owner.  The  same  is  true  of  a rotation  run- 
ning through  a series  of  years.  We  want  that  combination  of  crops 
in  the  rotation  with  which  the  farmer  can  make  the  most  money 
and  leave  his  land  in  good  condition.  There  are  many  other  prob- 
lems in  field  management  aside  fr<  m the  question  of  what  crops 
shall  enter  the  rotation.  We  want  to  know  how  deep  to  plow  in 
the  fall  and  in  spring  on  each  kind  of  soil  for  each  crop.  And  we 
want  spring  and  fall  plowing  compared.  How  to  treat  the  furrow 
slice  that  it  will  reconnect  its  capillary  forces  with  the  subsoil  is 
of  importance.  And  how  to  manage  the  upper  few  inches  of  the 
furrow  slice  that  it  will  act  as  a mulch  to  conserve  the  moisture 
in  the  soil  is  a problem  of  much  int<  rest.  The  relative  merits  of 
the  different  ways  of  seeding  grains  need  to  be  tested.  The  best 
time  for  seeding  each  kind  of  grain  and  the  depth  at  which  the 
seed  should  be  placed  are  not  clearly  known  for  each  condition  of 
soil  and  climate.  The  economy  or  loss  in  burning  stubble  of  small 
grains  has  not  been  made  clear  by  scientific  demonstration.  We 
are  comparatively  ignorant  as  to  when  and  how  to  use  the  harrow 
on  newly  planted  small  grains.  And  the  experiments  along  the 
line  of  intercultural,  or  summer  tillage  have  by  no  means  exhausted 
that  subject.  New  ways  of  using  old  crops  and  the  introduction 
of  new  crops,  as  yet  but  little  tried,  offer  a large  field  for  study 
and  practical  trial.  Methods  of  harvesting  and  curing  crops  and 
their  preservation  forms  a most  important  part  in  careful  field 
management.  The  policy  of  turning  the  larger  part  of  field  crops 
into  live  stock  products  and  returning  the  carefully  husbanded 
manure  to  the  soil  which  bore  the  crop  has  a vital  relation  to  mak- 
ing the  field  management  continuously  successful.  The  crops  to 
which  it  is  best  to  apply  manure,  the  manner  of  preparing  and  ap- 
plying it  and  the  amount  per  acre  to  use  are  more  questions  re- 
garding which  our  farmers  are  not  fully  informed.  Ere  many  years 
land  plaster  will  have  been  found  useful  on  some  of  our  soils  for 
certain  crops,  and  we  will  see  the  w isdom  of  purchasing  the  slaugh- 
ter house  fertilizers,  now  shipped  out  of  our  state  to  enrich  other 
commonwealths.  Experiments  on  the  value  of  manure  and  how 
to  make  profits  by  using  it  will  cjuse  our  farmers  and  gardeners 
to  place  a higher  value  on  the  great  amounts  of  fertility  now  being 


286 


wasted  in  our  barnyard  manure  heaps  and  in  heaps  of  manure 
thrown  out  of  our  cities  and  towns.  Only  by  careful  experiments 
can  we  learn  which  crops  are  best  to  grow  for  green  manure,  and 
we  require  actual  figures  to  emphasize  the  value  of  these  crops. 
The  management  of  fields,  so  as  to  destroy  and  keep  in  subjection 
weeds,  is  a phase  of  the  problem  worthy  of  much  study.  How  to 
make  the  field  conditions  unsuited  to  injurious  insects,  and  even 
to  lessen  the  injury  from  plant  diseases,  bring®  up  questions  of 
vital  importance.  Only  a part  that  we  should  know  regarding 
grasses  and  clovers  for  pastures  and  meadows  and  annual  plants 
for  forage  crops  has  been  learned  from  the  practical  experience  of 
farmers  or  by  experimenters.  Practical  experience  regarding  these 
crops  is  dearly  bought,  and  the  experimenter  finds  that  gathering 
practical  facts  goes  slow  and  at  the  expense  of  a large  amount  of 
experimenting. 

Some  of  these  questions  require  -only  a few  experiments  running 
through  a few  years.  Others  require  not  only  many  trials  but  that 
the  experiments  shall  be  carried  on  for  a long  time  and  under  varied 
conditions.  To  settle  most  of  the  que  stions  mentioned  above  would 
give  us  data  with  which  to  begin  the  creation  of  farm  book-keep- 
ing, or  a system  of  accounts  adapted  to  our  keeping  track  of  farm 
business.  Cpmparatively  few  of  these  questions  can  be  taken  up 
in  the  near  future,  as  a few  things  well  done  have  far  more  value 
than  many  things  only  poorly  started. 

ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

The  divisions  of  Agriculture  and  Agricultural  Chemistry  have 
undertaken  the  joint  study  of  rotations  of  crops. 

In  the  spring  of  1894  forty-four  plots  each  two  by  eight  rods, 
one-tenth  acre,  were  laid  off  on  fairly  uniform  land  on  the  northeast 
corner  of  the  university  farm.  The  land  is  a medium  heavy  clay 
loam  or  slightly  modified  till  soil  of  good  fertility,  naturally  well 
underdrained  and  able  to  retain  a large  amount  of  capillary  mois- 
ture through  periods  of  severe  drought.  The  plots  are  in  four  se- 
ries running  east  and  west  and  containing  eleven  plots  each,  these 
running  north  and  south.  Between  each  series  the  ends  of  the 
plots  are  separated  by  alleys  a rod  wide,  and  between  each  pair 
of  plots  are  alleys  twelve  feet  wide,  an  alley  two  feet  wide  separat- 
ing the  two  plots  of  the  pair.  This  separates  the  plots  and  enables 
the  teamster  to  reach  all  plots  in  using  any  machine  without  un- 
necessary tramping. 

The  land  on  which  these  plots  were  laid  out  had  grown  barley  in 
1893,  oats  in  1892  and  had  been  in  clover  and  timothy  meadow 


Series. 


II 


1894 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 


Wheat 
Corn 
Barley 
Barley 
Millet 
Wheat 
Corn 
Potatoes 
Mangles 
Peas  « 
Wheat 


1895. 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 


Rotation  foe  Each  Plot. 


Wheat 
Peas  b 
Oats 
Oats 
Barley 
Wheat 
Corn 
Potatoes 
Mangles 
Peas 
Wheat 


♦Tim.  a ~ — 

Bro  21 1 7r-  mead™  2.  oats  1,  (ma^T^ 

rbeatl.bromusl  or  more,  oats,,  corn  ^ P#r acre>  1« 

C^heatl,  timothy  2,  oats  1,  cora  Io. 

*Clo./heat3'C,OTerlor2.oats1>Cornl(I. 

*Clo.af* i‘6atl’meadoff2>  millet,  a. 

*Clo.  aTtr01  Pl0t’ 8ame  as  N».  I.  Series  I. 

*Clo.  £ *'  meadow  2,  oats  1,  mangles  I a. 

*Clo.featl’meado,r2-  oats  1,  rape  I a. 

*do.  ratl'mead0^  2,  oats  l,  potatoes,  e 
*Clo.  f63'  *’  “ead0w  2-  oats  l,  sunflower  1 „ 

— Dtr01  P'0t>  Same  38  No.  1,  Series  I. 


*Clo. 

B 

Ti 

Til 


♦Clo 


* Timothy  8 lbs.,  red  clover  6 lbs.  a 
peas  thickly  in  drills  30  inches  apart. 


t n*r°l  Plot,  same  as  No.  J,  Series  X. 
r“  !>  P*a8l.  barley  l,  clover  ,. 
ley  °ats  1,  timothy  2. 

ley  1,  oats  1,  timothy  2 y. 

let  1,  barley,,  corn  l,  oats  j. 

trol  plot,  same  as  No.  1,  Series  I. 
,(ain  hills  continuously. 

[lt°es  continuously. 

*Ies  continuously. 

.field, in  drills, continuously. 

rol  Plot,  same  as  No. ,,  series  I. 


•TABLE  Cl.— Statement  Showing  Experiments  in  Rotation  of  Crops. 


a 

GO 

Plot. 

1894. 

1895. 

1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

1902. 

Rotation  fob  Each  Plot. 

I 

1 

Wheat 

Wheat 

♦Tim.  and  Clo. 

Meadow 

Oats 

Corn  a 

Wheat 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Wheat  1 yr.,  meadow  2,  oats  1,  (manure  8 tons  per  acre)  corn  la. 

2 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Bromus 

Meadow 

Oats 

Corn  a 

Wheat 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Wheat  1,  bromus  1 or  more,  oats  1,  corn  1 a. 

3 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Timothy 

Meadow 

Oats 

Corn  a 

Wheat 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Wheat  1,  timothy  2,  oats  1,  corn  1 a. 

4 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Clover. 

Oats 

Corn  a 

Wheat 

Clover 

Oats 

Corn  a 

Wheat  1,  clover  1 or  2,  oats  1,  corn  1 a. 

5 

Wheat 

Wheat 

*Clo.  and  Tim. 

Meadow 

Oats 

Millet  a 

Wheat 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Wheat  1,  meadow  2,  oats  1,  millet  1 a. 

6 

Wheat 

Wheat 

*Clo.  and  Tim. 

Meadow 

Oats 

Corn  a 

Wheat 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Control  plot,  same  as  No.  1,  Series  I. 

7 

Wheat 

Wheat 

♦Clo.  and  Tim. 

Meadow 

Oats 

Mangles 

Wheat 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Wheat  1,  meadow  2,  oats  1,  mangles  1 a. 

8 

Wheat 

Wheat 

♦Clo.  and  Tim. 

Meadow 

Oats 

Rape  a 

Wheat 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Wheat  1,  meadow  2,  oats  1,  rape  1 a. 

9 

Wheat 

Wheat 

♦Clo.  and  Tim. 

Meadow 

Oats 

Potatoes  a 

Wheat 

Moadow 

Meadow 

Wheat  1,  meadow  2,  oats  1,  potatoes  1 a. 

10 

Wheat 

Wheat 

♦Clo.  and  Tim. 

Meadow 

Oats 

Sunflower  a 

Wheat 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Wheat  1,  meadow  2,  oats  1,  sunflower  1 a 

11 

Wheat 

Wheat 

♦Clo.  and  Tim. 

Meadow 

Oats 

Corn  a 

Wheat 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Control  plot,  same  as  No.  1,  Series  I. 

ii 

' 1 

Wheat 

Wheat 

♦Clo.  and  Tim. 

Meadow 

Oats 

Corn  a 

Wheat 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Control  plot,  same  as  No.  1,  Series  I. 

2 

Corn 

Peas  b 

Barley 

Clover 

Corn 

Peas  6 

Barley 

Clover 

Corn. 

Corn  1,  peas  1,  barley  1,  clover  1. 

3 

Barley 

Oats 

Timothy 

Meadow 

Barley 

Oats 

Timothy 

Timothy 

Barley 

Barley  1,  oats  1,  timothy  2. 

4 

Barley 

Oats 

Timothy  y 

Timothy 

Barley 

Oats 

Timothy'y 

Timothy 

Barley 

Barley  1,  oats  1,  timothy  2 y. 

5 

Millet 

Barley 

Corn 

Oats 

Millet 

Barley 

Corn 

Oats 

Millet 

Millet  1,  barley  1,  corn  1,  oats  1. 

6 

Wheat 

Wheat 

♦Clo.  and  Tim. 

Meadow 

Oats 

Corn  a 

Wheat 

Clo. and  Tim. 

Meadow 

Control  plot,  same  as  No.  1,  Series  I. 

7 

Corn 

Corn 

Corn 

Corn 

Corn 

Corn 

Corn 

Corn 

Corn 

Corn  in  hills  continuously. 

8 

Potatoes 

Potatoes 

Potatoes 

Potatoes 

Potatoes 

Potatoes 

Potatoes 

Potatoes 

Potatoes 

Potatoes  continuously. 

9 

Mangles 

Mangles 

Mangles 

Mangles 

Mangles 

Mangles 

Mangles 

Mangles 

Mangles 

Mangles  continuously. 

10 

Pease 

Peas 

Peas 

Peas 

Peas 

Peas 

Peas 

Peas 

Peas 

Peas,  field,  in  drills,  continuously. 

11 

Wheat 

Wheat 

♦Clo.  and  Tim. 

Meadow 

Oats 

Corn  a 

Wheat 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Control  plot,  same  as  No.  1,  Series  I. 

* Timothy  8 lbs.,  red  clover  6 lbs.  a Eight  tons  stable  manure  per  acre,  b Sow  broadcast,  c Top  dress  with  eight  loads  stable  manure  after  cutting  first  crop  of  bay.  d Dent  corn,  hills  in  ordinary  way.  e Plant  field 
peas  thickly  in  drills  30  inches  apart,  y Top  dress  timothy  after  mowing  first  hay  crop. 


TABLE  Cl.  Continued. 


OS 

H 

QQ 

Plot. 

1894. 

1895. 

1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

1902. 

Rotation  for  Each  Plot. 

in 

1 

Wheat 

Wheat 

*Tim.  and  Clo. 

Meadow 

Oats 

Corn  a 

Wheat 

♦Tim.  and  Clo. 

Meadow 

Control  plot,  same  as  No.  1,  series  I. 

2 

Wheat  / 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat  continuously,  fall;  plow  early. 

3 

Wheat  g 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Wheat  continuously;  sow  6 lbs.  red  clover  with  wheat. 

4 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Clover 

Wheat 

Clover 

Wheat 

Clover 

Wheat 

Clover 

Wheat  1,  clover  1;  plow  under  second  crop. 

5 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Clover 

Wheat 

Clover 

Wheat 

Clover 

Wheat 

Clover 

Wheat  1,  clover  1;  save  second  crop  clover  for  seed  or  hay. 

6 

Wheat 

Wheat 

*Tim.  and  Clo. 

Meadow 

Oats 

Corn  a 

Wheat 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Control  plot,  same  as  No.  1,  series  I. 

7 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Pasture/ 

Pasture 

Pasture 

Pasture 

Pasture 

Pasture 

Pasture 

Wheat  1,  permanent  pasture/. 

8 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Meadow  x 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Wheat  1,  permanent  meadow,  x 

9 

Millet 

| Millet 

Clover  k 

Millet 

Clover 

Millet 

Clover 

Millet 

Clover 

Millet  hay  1,  clover  1,  plow  under  second  crop. 

10 

Rape 

Rape  l 

Rape 

Rape 

Rape 

Rape 

Rape 

Rape 

Rape 

Rape  continuously,  drill,  pasture  off. 

11 

Wheat 

Wheat 

*Tim.  and  Clo. 

Meadow 

Oats 

Corn  a 

Wheat 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Control  plot,  same  as  No.  1,  series  I. 

IV 

1 

Wheat 

Wheat 

♦Tim.  and  Clo. 

Meadow 

Oats 

Corn  a 

Wheat 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Control  plot,  same  as  No.  1,  series  I. 

2 

Wheat 

Wheat 

♦Tim.  and  Clo. 

Meadow 

Oats 

Green  Manure 

Wheat 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Wheat  1,  *meadow  2,  oats  1,  green  manure  1 m. 

3 

Flax 

Flax 

♦Tim.  and  Clo. 

Meadow 

Oats 

Corn  a 

Flax 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Flax  1,  *meadow  2,  oats  1,  corn  1 a. 

4 

Barley 

Barley 

Meadow  n 

Pasture 

Pasture 

Corn  a 

Pea  Hay 

Barley 

Meadow 

Barley  1,  meadow  1 n,  pasture  2,  corn  1,  field  pea  hay  1. 

5 

Corn  Soilage 

1 Rye  and  Rape 

Barley 

Pasture  n 

Pasture 

Pasture 

Corn  Soilage 

Rye  and  Rape 

Barley 

Corn  1 o,  rye  and  rape  1,  barley  1;  pasture  1 n. 

6 

Wheat 

Wheat 

*Tim.  and  Clo. 

Meadow 

Oats 

Corn  a 

Wheat 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Control  plot,  same  as  No.  1,  series  I. 

7 

Corn  Soilage 

Rye 

Pasture  n 

Pasture 

Pasture 

Barley 

Peas 

Corn  Soilage. 

Rye 

Corn  1 a,  rye  1,  pasture  3 n,  barley  1,  peas  1. 

8 

Barley 

Barley 

Pasture  n 

Pasture 

Pasture 

Corn  a 

Barley 

Pasture 

Pasture 

Barley  1,  pasture  3 n,  corn  1 a. 

9 

Wheat 

Wheat 

*Tim.  and  Clo. 

Meadow 

Oats 

Corn  o 

Wheat 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Wheat  1,  *meadow  2,  oats  1,  (tankage)  corn. 

10 

Wheat 

Wheat 

♦Tim.  and  Clo. 

Meadow 

Wheat 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Wheat 

Meadow 

Wheat  1,  *meadow  2. 

11 

Wheat 

Wheat 

♦Tim.  and  Clo. 

Meadow 

Oats 

Corn  a 

Wheat 

Meadow 

Meadow 

Control  plot,  same  as  No.  1,  series  I. 

/Fall  plow  early,  g Fall  plow  early  and  seed  in  spring  with  the  wheat  6 lbs.  red  clover  per  acre,  h Plow  under  second  crop,  letting  it  seed  first,  if  possible,  i Save  second  crop  for  seed  or  hay.  / Red  clover,  3 lbs.; 
timothy  4 lbs.;  red  top,  1 lb.;  Kentucky  blue  grass,  7 lbs.;  orchard  grass,  3 lbs.;  brome  grass,  2 lbs.;  alsike  clover,  ] lb.;  white  clover,  1 lb.  k Plow  under  second  crop  late  iu  fall.  I Plant  in  drills  and  weigh  green  crop; 
get  at  value  by  pasturing  off  like  areas,  m Plow  under  crop  of  mixed  oats  and  millet  early  in  summer,  and  late  in  fall  a crop  of  rape,  n Seed  to  timothy,  8 lbs.;  red  clover,  4 lbs.;  alsike  clover,  1 lb.  o Tankage  to  equal 
the  commercial  fertilizer”  valuation  of  stubble  manure  used  on  check  plots,  x Red  clover,  4 lbs.;  alsike  clover,  1 lb.;  timothy,  4 lbs.;  orchard  grass,  7 lbs.;  brome  grass,  3 lbs. 


Series. 


atinued. 


Rotation  for  Each  Plot. 


Control  plot,  same  as  No.  1,  series  I. 

Wheat  continuously,  fall;  plow  early. 

Wheat  continuously;  sow  6 lbs.  red  clover  with  wheat. 
Wheat  1,  clover  l;plow  under  second  crop. 

Wheat  1,  clover  1;  save  second  crop  clover  for  seed  or  hay. 
Control  plot,  same  as  No.  1,  series  I. 

Wheat  1,  permanent  pasture^'. 

Wheat  1,  permanent  meadow,  x 

Millet  hay  1,  clover  1,  plow  under  second  crop. 

Rape  continuously,  drill,  pasture  off. 

Control  plot,  same  as  No.  1,  series  I. 


Control  plot,  same  as  No.  1.  series  I. 

Wheat  1,  *meadow  2,  oats  1,  green  manure  1 to. 

Flax  1,  *meadow  2,  oats  1,  corn  1 a. 

Barley  1,  meadow  1 n,  pasture  2,  corn  1,  field  pea  hay  1. 
Corn  1 a,  rye  and  rape  1,  barley  1,  pasture  1 n. 

Control  plot,  same  as  No.  1,  series  I. 

Corn  1 a,  rye  1,  pasture  3 nt  barley  1,  peas  1. 

Barley  1,  pasture  3 nt  corn  1 a. 

Wheat  1,  *meadow  2,  oats  1,  (tankage)  corn. 

Wheat  1,  *meadow  2. 

Control  plot,  same  as  No.  1,  series  I. 


nfill  1 Vptow  undeVseoomUroVlate  Tftmt“ed°'nh*7,  J Eed  c,0Ter.  3 lbs.; 


287 


during  a number  of  years.  The  land  is  not  thought  to  be  as  uni- 
form in  quality  as  is  desirable.  Plots  1,  2,  3 and  4,  series  2,  and  plot 
4,  series  3,  are  in  a slight  depression  which  we  suppose  gives  them 
the  advantage  of  more  moisture  in  dry  seasons  and  somewhat  richer 
soil.  Below  is  given  a general  statement  of  the  plan  of  work. 

Plots  1,  6 and  11  of  each  series  are  designated  as  control  or 
check  plots,  thus  giving  twelve  plots  all  seeded  to  the  same  practical 
rotation.  These  are  in  three  rows  one  extending  along  the  east  and 
one  along  the  west  of  all  the  series  and  one  through  the  middles, 
all  running  north  and  south.  This  plan  distributs  the  control  plots 
in  such  manner  that  the  yields  or  profits  on  any  plot  can  be  com- 
pared with  the  average  from  all  twelve  control  plots  or  with  the 
averages  from  the  several  control  plots  immediately  surrounding  it 
On  the  twelve  control  plots  the  following  plan  of  rotation  has  been 
instituted:  Wheat  is  sown  the  first  year,  and  with  this  crop  the 

land  is  seeded  down  by  sowing  with  the  spring  wheat  six  pounds 
red  clover  and  eight  pounds  timothy  seed.  The  second  and  third 
years  meadow  is  grown  and  the  fourth  year  oats.  The  fifth  and 
last  year  of  the  rotation  corn  is  planted,  and  the  land  previous  to 
fall  plowing  the  oats  stubble  under  for  the  corn  is  given  eight  tons 
of  barnyard  manure  per  acre.  Follow  ing  the  corn  the  wheat  again 
begins  the  rotation  of  these  same  crops.  These  twelve  control 
plots  all  being  each  year  seeded  to  the  same  crop  will  give  not  only 
the  average  figures  with  which  to  compare  the  results  of  the  dif- 
ferent rotations,  but  will  give  also  the  range  of  variations  due  to 
the  location  of  the  plots  in  the  field.  These  variations  may  prove 
very  useful  when  summarizing  the  results  of  the  experiments, 
and  may  show  how  great  yields  and  profits  must  differ  to  show  a 
decided  superiority  of  one  crop  of  one  rotation  over  another. 

Table  01.  gives,  in  tabular  form,  the  proposed  rotation  on  each 
of  the  forty-four  plots.  The  notes  below  the  table  give  facts  re- 
garding grass  mixtures,  manuring  and  other  special  features  of 
treatment.  These  rotations  cannot  be  adhered  to  perfectly  in  this 
climate  because  of  the  occasional  periods  of  drought  which  destroys 
the  young  plants  of  grass  and  occasionally  of  annual  crops.  The 
rotations  are,  as  a rule,  on  a somewhat  shorter  plan  than  is  gen- 
erally practiced,  possibly  shorter  than  is  wise.  Just  as  in  practical 
farming,  however,  they  will  be  lengthened  by  the  rather  frequent 
failures  to  get  catches  of  grasses  and  clovers,  necessitating  reseed- 
ing. Last  year  the  very  severe  drought  necessitates  our  again 
seeding  many  plots  to  annual  crops  w7ith  which  to  again  seed  down 


288 


to  grasses  and  clovers.  The  effort  has  been  made  to  try  rotations 
suited  to  many  specific  purposes.  And  each  rotation  represents 
only  one  or  a very  few  questions.  It  is  found  best  to  try  only  one 
experiment  at  a time  and  we  have  tried  to  avoid  making  the  rota- 
tions so  that  each  would  endeavor  to  tell  many  things  poorly,  but 
one  or  a very  few  things  well.  These  plans  of  rotations  will  doubt- 
less be  found  very  crude  later  on.  Each  series  is  so  situated  in  the 
field  that  if  desired  other  plots  with  more  rotations  may  be  added, 
and  suggestions  as  to  specific  rotations  for  special  purposes  will 
be  most  thankfully  received. 

In  another  field  seventy-two  plots  of  three-twentieths  acre  each 
were  planted  to  the  following  six  crops,  corn,  wheat,  flax,  potatoes, 
mangels  and  field  peas,  twelve  plots  in  duplicate  of  each.  These 
crops  extended  in  long  belts  across  the  field.  Next  year  these  same 
crops  will  be  planted  in  long  belts  across  the  field  at  right  angles 
to  the  direction  of  the  belts  last  year.  The  yield  was  determined 
on  each  plot  last  year,  and  the  yields  will  again  be  determined  on 
each  next  year.  This  provides  that  each  kind  of  crop  will  follow 
its  own  kind  and  each  of  the  five  other  kinds  of  crops.  Having 
the  yields  of  each  plot  each  year  wiil  give  us  facts  as  to  the  relative 
preparing  effects  each  crop  has  for  each  other  crop.  In  other 
words,  it  will  show  how  each  crop  does  when  following  each  other 
crop. 

The  rotations  outlined  in  Table  Cl  each  represent  some  particular 
feature  or  features  in  rotation  of  crops.  Number  1,  series  I and  other 
control  plots  are  planted  to  a very  practical  rotation.  Farmers  will 
find  numbers  3,  4,  5,  7,  8 and  9 in  series  I adapted  to  their  varied 
uses,  as  also  2,  3,  4 and  5,  series  II,  as  also  2,  3,  4,  5,  7,  8,  9 and  10, 
series  IY.  Some  other  of  the  rotations  will  suit  certain  peculiar  con- 
ditions, but  most  of  them  are  here  being  tried  to  show  what  are  not 
good  systems  of  rotation. 

To  further  get  data  for  use  in  determining  the  relative  profits 
from  different  crops  and  different  rotations,  the  experiment  station 
has  started  the  collection  of  statistics  as  to  prices  of  all  feed  stuffs 
and  of  meats  and  other  finished  products  as  sold  off  the  farm  and 
of  the  prices  of  farm  labor.  The  State  Bureau  of  Labor  and  Statis- 
tics is  gathering  many  facts  most  useful  in  this  connection.  While 
results  along  the  lines  of  experiments  in  field  management  will 
come  slow,  they  should  be  of  great  value  when  finished.  Clear 
knowledge  on  the  part  of  our  farmers  during  the  early  history  of  our 
state  will  result  in  a richer  soil  for  coming  generations  to  inherit. 


289 


SMUT  IN  WHEAT. 

Wheat  “bunt”  or  “stinking  smut  in  wheat”  has  done  great  dam- 
age to  the  yields  and  quality  of  the  wheat  crop  in  the  Northwest  dur- 
ing the  past  year.  Hon.  A.  C.  Clausen,  chief  grain  inspector  of  Min- 
nesota, estimates  that  one-fourth  of  the  wheat  crop  of  1894  sent  to  the 
general  markets  from  the  three  states  tributary  to  Minnesota’s  termi- 
nal markets  was  more  or  less  affected  by  stinking  smut.  The  trouble 
appeared  mainly  in  the  northern  parts  of  these  states. 

A year  ago  this  station  published  a bulletin  calling  attention  to 
smut  in  wheat,  and  prescribed  a remedy.  Farmers  had  not  awak- 
ened to  the  importance  of  remedial  measures,  but  the  indications 
now  are  that  all  are  anxious  to  know  the  best  means  by  which  they 
can  avoid  loss  from  smutted  grain.  Millers  and  grain  dealers  are 
thoroughly  aroused  to  the  importance  of  preventing  smut  from  injur- 
ing the  yields,  and  especially  the  quality  of  our  wheat  and  flour  and 
the  reputation  of  these  commodities  in  domestic  and  foreign  markets. 

Treating  wheat  with  blue  stone  or  with  hot  water  costs  only  a 
small  proportion  of  the  value  lost  in  growing  smutty  crops,  and  these 
remedies  are  very  effective.  All  seed  wheat  can  be  treated  at  a cost 
of  one  to  three  cents  per  acre.  Blue  stone  of  good  quality  may  be 
purchased  by  grocers  or  druggists  so  that  they  can  retail  it  to  farmers 
at  about  ten  to  fifteen  cents  per  pound.  In  Manitoba  stinking  smut 
was  very  prevalent  a few  years  since;  now  very  little  of  it  can  be 
found,  as  the  farmers  use  large  quantities  of  blue  stone.  At  Brandon, 
Manitoba,  alone,  a town  of  a few  thousand  inhabitants,  two  or  three 
carloads  have  been  purchased  for  the  year’s  demand. 

Bunt  or  stinking  smut  of  wheat  is  a disease  caused  by  small 
spores.  These  are  very  small,  seed-like,  spherical  bodies  which  are 
produced  in  the  diseased  kernels  of  wheat.  These  kernels  are  broken 
in  threshing  and  handling  the  grain  and  the  minute  spores  scattered 
about  cling  to  the  grains  of  wheat.  When  the  seeds  are  planted  the 
spores  germinate  much  like  small  seeds,  and  some  of  them  lying  on 


290 


the  kernel  against  the  sprouting  plantlet  send  their  thread-like  stems 
into  the  wheat  plant.  Here  the  disease  thrives,  branches,  grows  up- 
ward as  the  wheat  grows,  and  when  the  wheat  forms  its  seed  some  of 
the  branches  of  the  smut  will  have  found  their  way  into  the  kernels 
of  wheat.  Here  it  develops  its  seed  like  spores,  and  when  the  grain 
is  ripe  the  diseased  kernel  of  wheat  is  a mass  of  smut  spores  inclosed 
in  the  slightly  enlarged  wheat  bran.  These  spores  or  germs  live  until 
the  next  year.  If  chance  favors  them  they  germinate  on  another 
young  and  tender  wheat  plant.  These  smut  spores  are  very  small 
and  we  cannot  dislodge  all  of  them  from  the  seed  grains  by  thoroughly 
cleaning  the  wheat.  Some  method  of  destroying  them  by  heat  or  by 
the  use  of  fungicides  is  necessary.  During  the  past  year  we  made 
experiments  in  the  laboratory  and  in  the  field  with  fungicides  and 
with  heating  the  kernels  both  in  hot  water  and  in  hot  air.  A thor- 
ough review  has  been  made  of  the  reports  of  experiments  conducted 
at  experiment  stations  in  this  country  and  in  Canada  and  a number 
of  reports  have  been  received  from  farmers  who  have  tried  the  remedy 
we  advised  a year  ago  and  also  other  remedies.  The  blue  stoning 
remedies  and  the  hot- water  treatment  contain  the  essential  principles 
used  by  all  those  who  have  successfully  treated  wheat  for  smut.  So 

as  we  have  learned,  no  one  questions  the  effectiveness  of  the  reme- 
dies or  the  profit  of  treating  seed  wheat.  The  blue  stone  sprink- 
ling method  is  the  handiest  and  cheapest  of  all  and  is  nearly  as  good 
as  any.  The  blue  stone  dipping  method  is  an  old  and  tried  remedy, 
kills  the  smut  and  is  only  slightly  more  expensive  than  the  sprinkling 
method.  Blue  stone  has  a slightly  injurious  effect  in  retarding  the 
germination  of  the  grain,  and  the  dipping  method,  as  ordinarily  carried 
out  by  farmers,  has  a worse  effect  than  the  sprinkling  method.  The 
hot  water  treatment  is  the  best  in  effect  on  the  quality  of  the  seeds 
and  crop,  and  it  destroys  the  smut,  but  under  ordinary  farm  condi- 
tions it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  carry  out,  as  the  wheat  must  be  care- 
fully dried,  a rather  difficult  task  in  our  cold  spring  weather. 

Statements  of  all  three  methods  are  given  below  and  farmers  are 
urged  to  use  that  one  which  seems  to  them  best  suited  to  their  condi- 
tions. It  will  pay  every  farmer  to  treat  his  wheat  if  there  is  any  smut 
in  the  neighborhood.  If  everyone  would  treat  his  wheat,  smut  would 
probably  disappear.  But  as  long  as  there  is  any  in  the  neighborhood 
the  threshing  machine  will  carry  enough  to  each  farmer  to  make 
treating  the  seed  an  annual  necessity. 

THE  BLUE  STONE  SPRINKLING  METHOD. 

The  blue-stone  sprinkling  method  is  the  simplest  and  cheapest 
remedy  we  have  tried.  It  is  very  effective  and  only  slightly  harmful 
to  the  seeds  of  wheat.  Our  own  experience  the  past  season,  the  ex- 


291 


perience  of  numerous  farmers  who  have  reported  successful  trials  of 
this  plan,  and  especially  the  strong  words  of  commendation  from 
Messrs.  McKay  and  Bedford,  superintendents  of  the  Manitoba  and 
Assinaboia  Experiment  farms,  and  from  the  farmers  of  those  prov- 
inces where  this  plan  has  been  generally  adopted,  all  give  us  faith  to 
recommend  this  method. 

Remedy . — Dissolve  one  pound  of  blue  stone  (copper  sulphate)  in 
three  gallons  of  water.  Spread  out  ten  bushels  of  wheat  on  a tight 
floor  in  barn  or  house  or  in  a tight  wagon-box  and  sprinkle  on  the 
solution.  With  scoop  shovel  turn  the  grain  several  times  during  the 
sprinkling  till  every  kernel  is  thoroughly  wetted.  The  solution  needs 
to  penetrate  even  the  hairs  of  the  blossom  end  of  each  kernel  and  to 
penetrate  the  crease  in  the  grain.  In  case  of  badly  infested  seed 
wheat  it  should  be  first  thoroughly  cleaned,  using  a strong  blast  to 
remove  all  grains  of  bunt  and  the  three  gallons  of  the  solution  should 
be  applied  to  only  seven  bushels  of  wheat  instead  of  ten.  In  three 
hours  the  wheat  will  be  ready  for  the  seeder  and  as  the  blue  stone 
somewhat  injures  the  seed  it  should  not  be  prepared  long  before  it  is 
sown.  A good  plan  is  to  prepare  in  the  evening  the  seed  to  be  used 
the  next  day.  As  the  seed  is  somewhat  swollen  a few  quarts  more  per 
acre  should  be  sown  than  of  dry  wheat.  The  blue  stone  solution  can 
be  made  by  the  barrel,  using  care  to  get  the  right  proportions  of  blue 
stone  and  water,  and  then  it  can  be  measured  out  one  ten  quart 
pailful  to  seven  or  eight  bushels  of  wheat.  The  wheat  should  be 
turned  four  or  five  times  within  an  hour  after  sprinkling.  If  a 
water-tight  floor  is  not  available  the  solution  should  be  sprinkled  on 
so  slowly  that  none  runs  through. 

THE  BLUE  STONE  DIPPING  METHOD. 

We  have  many  reports  from  parties  who  have  successfully  treated 
smutty  wheat  by  immersing  it  in  solutions  of  blue  stone.  The  effect 
is  practically  the  same  as  with  the  sprinkling  method.  However,  the 
grain  is  wetter  and  must  be  dried  with  care  before  it  can  be  put  in  the 
seeder.  This  can  be  done  by  spreading  thinly  on  the  barn  floor  and 
shoveling  over  a few  or  several  times  daily  until  dry,  or  it  can  be  ac- 
complished by  sprinkling  land  plaster  or  lime  over  the  wet  grain. 
Some  have  thought  that  the  land  plaster  or  lime  has  a beneficial  effect, 
but  experiments  by  other  experiment  stations  fail  to  show  that  these 
substances  have  much  value  other  than  to  dry  the  grain.  By  earlier 
absorbing  the  solution  they  may  slightly  lessen  the  evil  effects  the  blue 
stone  has  on  the  germinating  qualities  of  the  grain.  The  following 
statement  of  this  remedy  contains  the  essential  directions: 

Remedy . — Fill  a barrel  two-thirds  full  of  a solution  of  one-half 
pound  of  blue  stone  (sulphate  of  copper)  to  one  gallon  of  water. 


292 


Partially  fill  gunny  sacks  with  wheat  and  immerse  in  the  solution  for 
five  or  ten  minutes,  moving  the  sack  up  and  down  and  shaking  or 
kneading  it  so  that  every  kernel  is  thoroughly  wetted.  Arrange  a drip 
shelf  on  which  to  set  the  sacks  of  wet  wheat  that  the  solution  drain- 
ing out  may  run  back  into  the  barrel  or  hang  them  on  hooks  and 
catch  the  drip  in  pails.  When  the  water  ceases  dripping  out  of  the 
bags  pour  the  wheat  on  the  barn  floor  and  shovel  a few  times  daily 
till  dry  enough  to  sow,  or  if  to  be  kept  some  days,  dry  thoroughly 
enough  to  store  without  danger  of  heating.  The  drying  may  be  facili- 
tated by  mixing  plaster  or  slacked  lime  with  the  wet  wheat.  It  is 
necessary  to  renew  the  quantity  of  the  solution,  and  for  this  purpose 
the  prepared  solution  may  be  kept  ready  in  other  barrels. 

THE  HOT- WATER  METHOD. 

Professor  Jensen  of  Denmark  discovered  that  smutty  wheat  im- 
mersed in  water  heated  to  130  to  135  degrees  F.  is  not  injured  for 
seed,  but  that  this  temperature  kills  the  germs  of  stinking  smut.  A 
higher  temperature  harms  the  wheat  and  a lower  temperature  will  not 
kill  all  the  smut  spores.  This  treatment  causes  the  wheat  to  germinate 
sooner  than  wheat  not  so  treated,  while  the  blue-stone  methods,  espe- 
cially the  dipping  method,  retard  germination.  In  fact  the  hot- water 
treatment  seems  to  have  a decided,  though  small,  advantage  in  increas- 
ing the  yield  of  the  crop.  This  is  doubtless  the  best  of  the  three 
methods  where  the  farmer  has  facilities  for  perfectly  carrying  it  out. 
But  on  most  Northwestern  farms  it  is  very  difficult  to  dry  the  treated 
wheat,  and  few  have  thermometers  which  are  accurate  enough  to  be 
relied  upon  at  the  temperatures  named.  By  this  method,  if  the  drying 
is  rapidly  and  thoroughly  done,  the  seed  may  be  prepared  some  days 
or  weeks  before  the  time  of  sowing. 

Remedy . — Fill  two  barrels  or  washtubs  two-thirds  full  of  water. 
Keep  the  water  in  No.  1 at  120  to  130  degrees  and  No.  2 at  130  to  135 
degrees.  Fill  gunny  sacks,  or  bags  of  other  open-meshed  material, 
partly  full  of  wheat;  immerse  in  No.  1 till  the  wheat  is  warmed  up  so 
as  to  not  cool  the  water  in  No  2;  drain  the  bag  a few  seconds  and  then 
immerse  in  No.  2 for  five  minutes,  raising  and  lowering  the  bag  or 
kneading  the  wheat,  so  that  the  water  thoroughly  penetrates  to  and 
heats  every  kernel.  Spread  out  at  once  and  shovel  over  until  dry. 
It  is  a good  plan  to  dip  the  bag  of  wheat  in  cool  water,  so  as  at  once 
to  cool  the  wheat.  Care  must  be  taken  to  add  hot  water  so  as  to  keep 
the  water  in  No.  2 at  130  to  135  degrees;  133  degrees  F.  is  the  tem- 
perature preferred. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 

630.7M66B  C001 

BULLETIN  ST.  PAUL 
19-40  1892-1894 


2 01964507 


